Journal of Food Engineering 117 (2013) 467–476
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Food Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng
Cocoa butter fats and possibilities of substitution in food products concerning
cocoa varieties, alternative sources, extraction methods, composition, and
characteristics
M.H.A. Jahurul a, I.S.M. Zaidul b,⇑, N.A.N. Norulaini c, F. Sahena a, S. Jinap d, J. Azmir b, K.M. Sharif b,
A.K. Mohd Omar a,⇑
a
School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
Faculty of Pharmacy, International Islamic University, Kuantan Campus, 25200 Kuantan, Pahang D/M, Malaysia
c
School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang 11800, Malaysia
d
Centre of Excellence for Food Safety Research (CEFSR), Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Available online 8 December 2012
Keywords:
Natural cocoa butter
Cocoa butter alternative
Fatty acid
Triglyceride
Cocoa butter properties
a b s t r a c t
The current concern for cocoa butter fat as major ingredients of chocolate intake in the World has raised
the question of the high price of cocoa butter among all other vegetable fats. Productions of natural cocoa
butter fats are decreasing day by day due to the decrease of cocoa cultivation worldwide; moreover,
cocoa fruit contains only a little amount of cocoa butter. Therefore, the food industries are keen to find
the alternatives to cocoa butter fat and this issue has been contemplated among food manufacturers. This
review offers an update of scientific research conducted in relation to the alternative fats of cocoa butter
from natural sources. The findings highlights how these cocoa butter alternatives are being produced
either by blending, modifying the natural oils or fats from palm oil, palm kernel oil, mango seed kernel
fats, kokum butter fat, sal fat, shea butter, and illipé fat.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Food industries are keen to find for alternative fats to cocoa butter (CB) from natural matrices that are denoted as cocoa butter
replacers (CBRs), cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs), and cocoa butter
substitutes (CBSs) fat. CB is a natural fat obtained from cocoa seeds
(Theobroma cacao). It is commonly used as an essential major
ingredient of chocolate and other confectionary products due to
its specific physical and chemical properties. CB is solid at room
temperature (below 25 °C) and at body temperature (37 °C) it is
liquid. CB mainly consists of palmitic acid (C16), stearic acid
(C18:0), Oleic acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2) but low amount
of lauric acid (C12) and myristic acid (C14). CB can crystallize into
several polymorphic forms, having a, c, b0 , and b crystals, with
melting points of 17, 23, 26, and 35–37 °C respectively. In the chocolate production, only b crystal is used because it has a high melting point. This crystal structure confers chocolate products an
excellent quality in terms of sheen, snap, and smooth texture. In
addition, CB exhibits resistance to fat bloom, arising from changes
⇑ Corresponding authors. Tel.: +60 9 571 6687; fax: +60 9 571 6775 (I.S.M.
Zaidul), tel./fax: +60 46 585 435 (A.K. Mohd Omar).
E-mail addresses: zaidul@iium.edu.my (I.S.M. Zaidul), akmomar@usm.my,
pultexsb@yahoo.com (A.K.M. Omar).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.09.024
in the fat in the chocolate during storage. This can be seen as undesirable white or streaky grey-white spots on the chocolate surface.
Cocoa butter (CB) is highly appreciated and is expensive compared with all other vegetable fats and oils because of its specific
characteristics. Another important reason is that cocoa beans contain low amount of CB fat (Zaidul et al., 2007c). Moreover, cocoa
has only been cultivated in a few countries (Hassan et al., 1995;
Moreton, 1988). However, many researchers have produced cocoa
butter alternative fats either by fractionation and blending or enzymatic interesterification of palm kernel oil (PKO) and palm oil (PO)
(Bloomer et al., 1990; Calliauw et al., 2005; Hashimoto et al., 2001;
Undurraga et al., 2001; Zaidul et al., 2007c), mango seed fat (Ali
et al., 1985; Jiménez-Bermúdez et al., 1995; Kaphueakngam
et al., 2009; Lakshminarayana et al., 1983; Solís-Fuentes, 1998), kokum butter (Maheshwari and Reddy, 2005; Reddy and Prabhakar,
1994), Sal fat (Gunstone, 2011; Reddy and Prabhakar, 1989), Shea
butter (Olajide et al., 2000), and illipé fat (Gunstone, 2011). The cocoa butter alternatives or cocoa butter replacers (CBRs) are defined
as non-lauric fats that could replace cocoa butter either partially or
completely in the chocolate or other food products (Kheiri, 1982).
The fatty acid compositions of CBRs are similar to that of CB with
more or less similar triglycerides structure. It should be cheaper
than that of CB. CBRs can be divided into two groups, namely cocoa
butter equivalents (CBEs) and cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs). CBEs
468
M.H.A. Jahurul et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 117 (2013) 467–476
are vegetable fats which have similar physical and chemical characteristics like CB. Therefore, CBEs can be mixed with CB in any
amount without changing the behaviour of the final product. The
major fatty acids contained in CBEs are palmitic acid, stearic acid
and oleic acid, which are similar to that of CB. CBEs are divided into
two subgroups, namely cocoa butter extenders (CBEXs) and cocoa
butter improvers (CBIs) (Lipp and Anklam, 1998). CBEXs cannot be
mixed with CB in every proportion, while CBIs are similar to CBEs,
contain higher level of solid triglycerides, and because of this characteristic it is commonly used for improving soft cocoa butters. In
this paper the CBEXs and CBIs all are referred to as CBEs. Cocoa
butter substitutes (CBSs) are lauric and myristic plant fats (containing lauric and myristic acid) with some physical similarities
to CB, but chemically they are completely different. Therefore, they
are suitable for wholly replacement of CB. The aim of this review
paper is to discuss the various vegetable fats used as proposed or
alternatives to cocoa butter in chocolate and other confectionary
products. The compatibility of some important properties of the
resulting alternative cocoa butter fats such as triglycerides in terms
of fatty acid constituents, slip or sharp melting points, solid fat
contents, iodine value, acid value and saponification values will
also be discussed.
2. Background of cocoa cultivation
The generic name of cocoa is Theobroma belonging to the family
of Sterculiaceae, also called ‘‘Food of God’’. It contains about 30–50
beans, covered with pulp. About 500 years ago, cocoa beans were
originated from Latin America, and within a few years it spread
to Europe. From there it was then distributed throughout the
World (International Cocoa and Commodities Organisation, ICCO,
2000). In Central America, cocoa was widely cultivated by the
Mayas. Mayas and Aztecs were the first to consume cocoa. In the
16th century, the Spanish were the first Europeans to drink cocoa.
Spanish people, namely Capuchin friars, successfully grew cocoa in
Ecuador in about 1635. In the 17th century, the Europeans began
cocoa cultivation widely. France introduced cocoa to St Lucia
(1660), the Dominican Republic (1665), Brazil (1677), Guianas
(1684), and Grenada (1714); England was growing cocoa in Jamaica by 1670. Later, cocoa was introduced in Africa. The cocoa from
Brazil was cultivated in Principe in 1822, Sao Tomé in 1830, Fernando Po in 1854, then in Nigeria in 1874, and Ghana in 1879.
From 1925 to 1939, cocoa was introduced in Cameroon. In 1560,
the Dutch people first introduced Venezuelan Criollo type cocoa
in Southeast Asia and Oceania, in particular, in Celebes and Java.
The Criollo type of cocoa from Mexico was introduced into the
Philippines by the Spanish in 1614. Cocoa was introduced into
Sri Lanka from Trinidad in 1798, from where it spread to Singapore
and Fiji in 1880, Samoa in 1883, Queensland in 1886, and Bombay
and Zanzibar in 1887. In Malaysia, cocoa was introduced in 1778;
In Hawaii in 1831, and in India in the 20th century (Nair, 2010).
3. Cocoa varieties
The main varieties of cocoa are Forastero, Criollo, and Trinitario.
The unripe pods of Forastero variety are green and yellow during
ripening. It gives high yield and takes 5–6 days for fermentation.
Forastero variety is the most commonly used, compromising 95%
of the world production of cocoa, but the quality is poor. Recently,
Brazil and West Africa planted Forastero in large areas. Amelonados is another well-known predominant type of Forastero, traditionally cultivated in West African countries since 19th century.
It is self-compatible, shows wide genetic variability and used for
breeding in the major cocoa producing countries (FAO, 1977; Nair,
2010). The ripe Criollo pods are red or yellow and seeds are large,
get fermented quickly. It is considered as high quality and delicious
cocoa beans compared with Forastero, but the yield is found to be
poor. It dominated the world cocoa market in the 18th century. The
major demerit of Criollo variety is low content of cocoa fat compared with Forastero variety. Moreover, it tends to be less resistant
to varieties of diseases that attack the cocoa plants. Only few countries are still producing Criollo beans, among them Venezuela is the
largest producer. Trinitario is a hybrid (mix of Criollo with Forastero) high quality variety, has higher yield and is more resistant to
diseases than the others (Yanamoto et al., 1995). It was planted
in Trinidad and then spread to Venezuela, Ecuador, Cameroon, Samoa, Sri Lanka, Java, and Papua New Guinea. To improve the quality and yield, new cocoa hybrids called Series II hybrids have been
developed from crosses between Amazon, Trinitario, and Amelonado genotypes (Adu-Ampomah and Sersah, 1987/1988). These hybrids have already been grown by farmers (Adu-Ampomah,
1996). Currently, these new hybrids are not commercially used,
but they will be introduced in the near future. Moreover, the major
nutrients such as antioxidants and phenolics level in these hybrids
have been well acknowledged by Jonfia-Essien et al. (2008). Furthermore, the authors also reported that the new hybrid beans
show significant antioxidant capacities than the traditional beans.
The new cocoa hybrids have also been reported to have exhibited
resistance to pest damage during storage.
4. Cocoa production
The major cocoa beans growing countries in the world are Ivory
Coast, Ghana, Indonesia, Cameroon, Nigeria, Brazil, Ecuador, Dominician Republic, and Malaysia, contributing almost 90% of world
production (ICCO, 2009/2010; FAO, 2012). The world total cocoa
beans productions in season 2007/2008 to 2009/2010 are shown
in Table 1. The Global cocoa beans production declined at
3.613 million tonnes in 2009/2010 season, while in 2007/2008 it
was 3.752 million tonnes (Table 1). In season 2007/2008 to 2009/
2010, the cocoa beans production declined by 3% in Africa, while
it increased by 1.9% and 1.8% in the Americas and in Asia and Oceania to 14.4% and 17.5% respectively. However, Africa is still the
largest cocoa producing region, contributing 68.0% of the total
world production followed by Asia and Oceania and the Americas
in 2009/2010. In Malaysia, cocoa beans production has also declined gradually. According to the Malaysian Cocoa Board, cocoa
beans production in 2011 was 15,000 tonnes, while in 2007
it was 35,180 tonnes (MCB, 2011). The International Cocoa
Table 1
Production of cocoa beans in the World (thousands of tonnes).
2007/2008
2008/2009
2009/2010
2693
1382
729
230
185
166
71.8%
2518
1222
662
250
227
158
69.9%
2458
1242
632
240
190
154
68.0%
America
Brazil
Ecuador
Others
469
171
118
180
12.5%
488
157
134
197
13.5%
522
161
160
201
14.4%
Asia and Oceania
Indonesia
Papua New Guinea
Others
591
485
52
55
15.8%
599
490
59
50
16.6%
633
535
50
48
17.5%
3752
100.0%
3605
100.0%
3613
100.0%
Africa
Ivory Coast
Ghana
Nigeria
Cameroon
Others
World total
Source: ICCO Quarterly Bulletin of Cocoa Statistics, vol. xxxvi, no. 4, Cocoa year
2009/2010.
M.H.A. Jahurul et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 117 (2013) 467–476
Organization (2009/2010) reported that weather has a great impact on the cocoa beans production. de Magalhães et al. (2011) reported that about 71% of the cocoa consumed around the world
comes from the Africas, especially from Ivory Coast, Ghana and
Nigeria. In the last decade, the consumption of cocoa has increased
while its production has been declining day by day (Jonfia-Essien
et al., 2008).
5. Cocoa butter extraction method
Presently, several methods are employed for the extraction of
cocoa butter from mass or liquor, or from other sources including
hydraulic press, mechanical press, screw presses, supercritical fluid
extraction (SFE), and solvent extraction method (Asep et al., 2008;
Nair, 2010). Recently, Nair (2010) reported that the hydraulic press
and screw presses are not successful methods for the extraction of
cocoa butter. Moreover, the major demerits of hydraulic press,
mechanical press, screw presses, and solvent extraction methods
are (a) they require high temperature that affects nutritional quality of the cocoa butter, (b) they are heat sensitive labile natural
compounds, and (c) they contain toxic solvent left in the final products which have diverse adverse human health effects (Hultin,
1994; Staby and Mollerup, 1993). Solvent extraction with hexane
has been widely used to extract the cocoa butter as well as fats
and oils from the oil-contained sources. However, there is an
increasing concern of the health and safety hazards associated with
the use of organic solvents, while expression by hydraulic method
often introduces contaminants into the cocoa butter that must be
removed later. Greater concern over the disposal of such toxic organic solvents and their effect on the environment has led to a
move towards cleaner extraction method such as supercritical fluid
extraction (SFE). In comparison with conventional extraction
methods, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is feasible in terms
of quality product and has the potential to produce higher yields
and a good quality cocoa butter replacers blends (Zaidul et al.
2006; Zaidul et al. 2007a, c).
The most recent advances and commercial applications of SFE
in food science, natural products, by-product recovery, pharmaceutical and environmental sciences have been published in extensive
reviews (Herrero et al., 2010; Sahena et al., 2009). The SFE is a
method of choice for the extraction and fractionation of edible natural fats and oils from various sources. Over the last 20 years, SFE
has been well acknowledged as a promising alternative to organic
solvent extraction method in the field of natural fats and oils. The
major merits of SFE method are lack of solvent residue left in the
final products and better retention of valuable components (Asep
et al., 2008; Herrero et al., 2006; Norulaini et al., 2009; Zaidul
et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). Carbon dioxide is used as a solvent
due to its nontoxic, non-flammable, inexpensive, and clean solvent
which offers great opportunities for complex separation problem.
Meanwhile, several studies have been carried out for the extraction of cocoa butter from cocoa liquor and shell by SFE using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) at different temperatures and
pressures (Asep et al., 2008; Li and Hartland, 1992, 1996; McHugh
and Krukonis, 1994; Rossi, 1996). The studied pressure and temperature range from 15 to 40 MPa and 40 to 80 °C. The yield of cocoa butter extracted with SC-CO2 at 30–40 MPa and 50–80 °C
depend on the degree of disruption of lipid bearing cells reported
by Rossi (1996), McHugh and Krukonis (1994). At higher pressure,
the yield of cocoa butter was reported to be higher and temperature range being studied. Moreover, in their study, the triglycerides
in terms of fatty acid compositions of extracted cocoa butter were
within the required range and retained the aroma of the residue.
Recently, Asep et al. (2008), Rossi (1996), Li and Hartland (1996)
studied the effect of cosolvent such as ethanol on SC-CO2
extraction of cocoa butter. Their results showed that addition of
469
cosolvent improve the efficiency of the cocoa butter extraction.
By adding cosolvent such as ethanol (20–25%, w/w), the solubility
of cocoa butter increased and maximum yield was also reported by
Asep et al. (2008) and Li and Hartland (1992).
6. Health benefits of natural cocoa consumption
Cocoa is the most important and popular drink crop around the
world, after coffee and tea. It is widely used as a main ingredient in
chocolate. It has been well acknowledged that the alkaloid known
as theobromine responsible for the stimulating effect is present in
cocoa (Nair, 2010). Cocoa beans are a rich source of phenolic phytochemicals and also contain much higher levels of total phenolics
(611 mg of gallic acid equivalents, GAE) and flavonoids (564 mg of
epicatechin equivalents, ECE) per serving (Lee et al., 2003). Cocoa
and its products are also the natural sources of antioxidants. A cocoa product such as chocolate is the source of dietary antioxidants
and may be effective for cardiovascular disease (Keen et al., 2005;
Kris-Etherton and Keen, 2002; Steinberg et al., 2003). Polyphenols
have been extensively studied due to their beneficial health effects
such as anti-carcinogenic, anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory,
anti-microbial, anti-ulcer, anti-thrombotic, immune modulating,
vasodilatory and analgesic. Several researchers have identified
and measured the polyphenolic compounds present in cocoa,
among which catechins-catechin: epicatechin; gallocatechin and
epigallocatechin; procyanins; anthocyanins; and flavone and flavonol glycosides such as luteolin-7-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-Oarabinoside, theaflavin and resveratrol, are most important due
to their possible beneficial role as chemopreventive agents based
on their antioxidant activities (Jonfia-Essien et al., 2008; Lee
et al., 2003; Sanchez-Rabaneda et al., 2003; Wollgast and Anklam
2000; Zumbe, 1998).
7. Composition of natural cocoa butter
Cocoa butter obtained from cocoa beans and on dry weight basis accounts for 50–57% and is responsible for the melting properties of chocolate (Steinberg et al., 2003). Staphylakis and Gegiou
(1985) determined the level of sterols in particular, methylsterols,
desmethylsterols and triterpenes in the cocoa butter. In another
study, Erickson and Weissberger (1983) found vitamin E such as
b-tocopherol, a-tocopherol and c-tocopherol in cocoa butter. In
their study, the b-tocopherol was found in higher amount followed
by tocopherol and c-tocopherol. Glycerol-1,3-dipalmitate-2-oleate
(POP), glycerol-1-palmitate-2-oleate-3-stearate (POS) and glycerol-1,3-distearate-2-oleate (SOS) are the three main triglycerides
account for 92–96% of total lipid composition of cocoa butter (Asep
et al., 2008; D’Alonzo et al., 1982; Davis and Dimick, 1989; Lehrian
and Keeney, 1980; Lipp and Anklam, 1998; Lipp et al., 2001).
Among these three triglycerides, POS is the major leading triglyceride component present in cocoa butter with range 42.5–46.4% yield
followed by SOS (27.8–33.0%) and POP (18.9–22.6%) (Asep et al.,
2008). The major fatty acids of cocoa butter are palmitic acid
(C16) 25–33.7%, Stearic acid (C18:0) 33.7–40.2%, oleic acid (C18:1)
26.3–35% and linoleic acid (C18:2) 1.7–3% which contribute about
98% of the total fatty acid (Asep et al., 2008; Bracco, 1994). The
fatty acid compositions of cocoa butter differ depending on the
country of origin. The key fatty acid compositions of cocoa butter
from different countries are shown in Table 2.
8. Natural cocoa butter and its physicochemical properties
The cocoa seeds are referred to as cocoa beans consist about
85% cotyledon (nib) and 15% shell. The nibs contain about 55%
fat. The nibs ground to a paste are called cocoa liquor or mass,
some are directly used in chocolate. Cocoa beans are natural oil
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Table 2
The major fatty acid composition (%) of natural cocoa butter produced from various countries.
Country
Ivory Coast
Ghana
Indonesia
Brazil
Ecuador
Malaysia
Fatty acids
References
Stearic acid
Oleic acid
Palmitic acid
Linoleic acid
36.9
36.69–37.6
36.88–37.3
33.3–33.8
34.62–36
36–37.4
32.9–33
32.7–32.99
33.06–34.3
34.5–36.5
34.6–34.91
33.5–34
25.8–26.6
25.3–25.46
24.1–25.13
25.1–27.9
25.2–25.6
24.9–26
2.6–2.8
2.51–2.8
2.5–2.7
3.5–3.6
2.6–3.04
2.6–3.0
seeds like palm kernel, groundnut, sesame seed, or any other oilseeds. Processing of cocoa beans for getting the fats or oils is not
same like other oilseed due to the unique physico-chemical properties of cocoa beans, especially the fats (Adeyeye et al., 2010). The
physico-chemical compositions of cocoa beans and the characterization of cocoa matrix are greatly influenced by processing method reported by many researchers in the literature (Amin et al.,
1997, 1998, 2002; Hoskin and Dimick, 1984, 1994; Jinap, 1994;
Puziah et al., 1998).
The properties of cocoa butter fat are the properties of the mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter fat which is commercially available fat contains significantly higher amount of saturated acids,
leading to triglycerides of POS, SOS, and POP. Due to such types
of triglycerides in cocoa butter, it confers the short melting behaviour which is appreciated by consumers. CB has relatively low and
sharp melting point which range from 27 to 35 °C. At room temperature, cocoa butter is hard and brittle and its hardness depends
on the solid fat content (SFC) and it might be 0% just above 37 °C
temperature. Furthermore, the nature of crystalline lattice also
renders the hardness/consistency of the cocoa butter fat (Kheiri,
1982). The other physiochemical properties of cocoa butter such
as iodine value (IV) and saponification value (SV) are shown in Table 3. Iodine values have great impact on oil quality; it indicates
the degree of unsaturation in the fat or oil. Typically, at room temperature fats are liquid because of the higher unsaturated fatty acid
components, while it is solid at lower unsaturated fatty acid components. Chaiseri and Dimick (1989) reported that the higher iodine value contribute to the softness of cocoa butter. They also
stated that higher iodine value content CB is softer than the lower
iodine value content CB. The commercial CB from different countries show different iodine value that range from 34.40 to 38.65.
The saponification value indicates that the average chain length
of fatty acid present in fat. If the saponification value of the fat is
high, then the chain length of fatty acid will be shorter, and vice
versa. The acid value (AV) is defined as the weight in milligrams
of potassium hydroxide necessary to neutralize the free fatty acid
present in 1 g of fat and it is used to quantify the free fatty acids
Table 3
Chemical characteristics of commercial cocoa butters from different countries
(Chaiseri and Dimick, 1989).
Country
Iodine value
Saponification value
Bolivia
Brazil
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
Costa Rica
Dominican Republic
Mexico
Panama
Ivory Coast
Nigeria
Malaysia
36.02
37.46
36.56
36.68
37.94
36.64
36.72
35.79
36.86
35.54
37.33
34.74
195.43
195.07
195.75
195.85
195.92
195.27
194.92
193.72
196.71
193.58
193.62
194.36
Davis and Dimick (1989) and Lipp and Anklam (1998)
Spangenberg and Dionisi (2001) and Lipp and Anklam (1998)
Spangenberg and Dionisi (2001) and Lipp and Anklam (1998)
Lehrian and Keeney (1980) and Lipp and Anklam (1998)
Spangenberg and Dionisi (2001) and Lipp and Anklam (1998)
Kheiri (1982) and Lipp and Anklam (1998)
present in fats or oils. The cloud point (Cp) is related to the unsaturation of oil, that is, the unsaturation of oil is higher, when its Cp
is low.
9. Alternative sources of cocoa butter
Many researches has been carried out for the production of
CBRs, CBEs and CBSs from various natural sources. All of these
are obtained from fats of natural plant, such as PKO, PO, mango
seed fat, kokum butter, sal fat, shea butter, illipé butter, soya oil,
rape seed oil, cotton oil, ground nut oil, and coconut oil. Replacing
the cocoa butter either partially or wholly with other natural fats
has been investigated due to the technological and economical
advantages. These methods include chemical or enzymatic fractionation or supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction of fats
and their blends from various sources.
9.1. Cocoa butter from palm kernel oil (PKO) and palm oil
Palm fruits (Elaeis guineensis) contains about 45% palm kernel
which is a by-product of the palm oil industries. On a wet basis,
palm kernels contain about 45–50% oil which is called palm kernel
oil (PKO). Although palm oil and PKO are obtained from the mesocarp layer and from the kernel of the same palm fruits, they vary
greatly in their characteristics and properties (Zaidul et al.,
2007a). Palm oil, PKO and their products are the main export commodities of Malaysia, which contribute significantly to its national
income. Conventionally, palm oil and PKO are extracted by solvent
extraction method. These methods are time consuming, costly, and
used organic solvents, which are not permitted in food. To overcome the solvent extraction method and to get good quality Palm
oil and PKO, a group of researchers have extracted these oils using
supercritical carbon dioxide extraction method (Hassan et al.,
2000; Norulaini et al., 2004; Omar et al., 1998; Zaidul et al.,
2007a, 2007b). PKO is a rich source of lauric acid, C12 (48.3%) and
other major fatty acids such myristic acid, C14 (15.6%), and oleic
acid, C18:1 (15.1%).
The level of fatty acids such as lauric (C12) and myristic (C14) are
present in cocoa butter as trace or very low amount while the
amount of palmitic (C16), stearic (C18:0), and oleic (C18:1) acids are
high. On the other hand, palm kernel oil contains a high level of
C12 constituent but low in C18:0 and C18:1 constituents compared
with cocoa butter. Although PKO contains high level of lauric and
myristic acid, it is widely used as a suitable raw material in confectionery (Pantzaris and Ahmad, 2001). To produce cocoa butter replacer’s blend components, Zaidul et al. (2006) successfully
fractionated the palm kernel oil to reduce its C12 content and increase C18:0 and C18:1 constituents using the supercritical carbon
dioxide extraction (SC-CO2) method. About 28% of C12 yield was reduced in fraction 4, while 31% of C18:1 constituent increased in
yield which is closer to the fatty acid composition of cocoa butter.
The authors extracted PKO into four fractions and observed that at
higher temperature (80 °C) the total PKO yield increased with
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increasing pressure. At higher pressure 48.3 MPa and temperature
80 °C, the highest yield reported was 99.6%. They reported that the
highest level of short chain fatty acid such as C8, C10 and C12 constituents was found in fraction 1, while longer chain fatty acid such
as C16, C18:0 and C18:1 constituents were seen in fraction 4. The lower melting point was reported in fraction 4 than in other fractions
studied. The authors fractionated PKO to produce triglycerides in
terms of fatty acid constituents that could be used in cocoa butter
replacer’s blend.
In another study, Zaidul et al. (2007c) produced cocoa butter replacer’s by blending supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extracted PKO fractions with conventionally extracted palm oil and
commercial C18:0 and C18:1 constituents at various ratios. They also
fractionated PKO into four fractions using supercritical carbon
dioxide (SC-CO2) and are thus called f-PKO-1, f-PKO-2, f-PKO-3
and f-PKO-4. To obtain cocoa butter replacer’s, the authors blended
the f-PKO-3 and f-PKO-4 fraction as a blending components (denoted as low lauric and high oleic acid constituents) with palm
oil and commercial fatty acids such as C18:0 and C18:1 constituents
at different ratios and labeled as blends 1–10.
The fatty acid constituents of different blends of f-PKO-3, f-PKO4, PO, commercial C18:0 and C18:1 are shown in Table 4. In both
blends (f-PKO-3 and f-PKO-4) 1–10 low levels of C8 and C10 were
found while large amounts of the longer chain fatty acid such as
C16, C18:0, C18:1 and C18:2 were reported which are closer to that
of commercial CB. The authors reported that increasing the amount
of f-PKO (f-PKO-3 and f-PKO-4), more than 50% increased shorter
chain fatty acid and decreased longer chain fatty acid constituents.
Moreover, their results showed that the physiochemical properties
like slip melting point, solid fat content, iodine value, saponification value and acid value of blends 2–10 were closer to that of
commercial CB.
Many other researchers have produced cocoa butter substitutes
from the fractionation of palm kernel oil in the literature (Calliauw
et al., 2005; Hashimoto et al., 2001). Calliauw et al. (2005) developed a two-stage dry static fractionation method for the fractionation of PKO. They also studied single-stage static fractionation
method. When both methods were compared, the major advantage
of the two-stage method was that it produces a higher yield of
good quality palm kernel stearin and reduces the additional hydrogenation that would be advantageous for the production of cocoa
butter like fat. By using this method, they produced cocoa butter
substitute from PKO without hydrogenation. They also reported
that about 30% of palm kernel stearin produced by the two-stage
process needs to be hydrogenated for use as cocoa butter substitute. Ali (1996) produced CBEs by blending sal fat with co-fractionated palm oil. Their results showed that the triglyceride
composition and solidification characteristics were similar to that
of the Malaysian cocoa butter. They also reported that the co-fractionation method increases the compatibility between CBE triglyceride components.
Due to the absence of any waxy taste, trans fatty acids and low
level of linoleic acid in palm oil mid-fraction (PMF), Samsudin and
Rahim (1996) used it in white chocolate formulation. Two types of
palm oil mid-fraction (PMF I, a commercial sample and PMF II,
from a laboratory-scale acetone fractionation of PMF I) and Malaysian cocoa butter were used in white chocolate formulation. They
investigated the effect of the tempering process and bloom resistance of the produced white chocolate products. They found that
the tempering time to produce a well-tempered chocolate using
PMF I was longer than that using PMF II, while the time to produce
a well-tempered cocoa butter chocolate increased with increasing
tempering temperature.
The modification of fats through interesterification reactions
catalyzed by enzyme has been widely studied since 1980s. It is a
method which has several advantages (lower energy consumption,
absence of isomerization by products, and better control of products) over the conventional methods of the chemical interesterification (Undurraga et al., 2001). Many researchers produced CBEs
through enzymic interesterification of palm oil mid-fraction in
the literature (Bloomer et al., 1990; Undurraga et al., 2001). To produce CBEs, Bloomer et al. (1990) studied the interesterification
reaction of palm oil mid-fraction using lipase enzyme as catalysts.
They studied the purity of the product and the influence of the solvent concentration on the reaction rate at different temperatures.
Their results showed that the solvent concentration and temperature have great effect on the reaction rate. The optimum temperature was 40 °C and the solvent concentration was between 1 and
1.15 g of solvent/gram of substrate reported in that study. They
also showed that above this temperature the rate of interesterification reduced and the product purity decreased with increase of
solvent.
In another study, Undurraga et al. (2001) produced CBEs
through enzymatic interesterification of PMF with stearic acid in
a solvent free system using Novo lipase Lipozyme™ as a catalyst.
Their study was performed in batch and in a continuous packed
bed reactor. They investigated the effect of different parameters
such as stearic acid-PMF ratio, enzyme-substrate ratio, and humidity of the enzyme preparation on productivity. Their results
showed that the highest specific productivity obtained in shake
flask was 0.0393 g/Batch Interesterification Unit (BIU) h at a stearic
acid–PMF ratio of 1.6 and enzyme–substrate ratio of 23 BIU/g. On
the other hand, the highest mass productivity observed was
1.54 g/g h, using an enzymic load of 73 BIU/g in the continuous
Table 4
Fatty acid constituents for blends 1–10 (referred to f-PKO-3 and f-PKO-4 as a blend component) and commercial CB (Zaidul et al., 2007c).
f-PKO-3
Blend number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CBa
a
f-PKO-4
Fatty acid constituents (%)
Blend number
C8
C10
C12
C14
C16
C18
C18:1
C18:2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.1
1.1
1.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.0
1.8
3.6
5.1
7.2
9.0
10.8
12.6
14.3
16.1
17.9
Trace
1.3
1.9
2.6
2.7
4.0
4.7
5.4
6.1
6.7
7.4
0.7
28.7
27.0
27.5
27.1
24.6
23.2
21.4
20.1
18.4
16.7
25.2
25.2
19.9
19.9
19.6
19.3
19.1
18.8
18.5
18.2
17.9
35.5
34.6
37.8
35.4
34.9
34.6
33.9
33.5
32.9
32.5
32.2
35.2
8.1
8.5
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.0
6.8
3.2
Kheiri (1982) and Pease (1985).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CBa
Fatty acid constituents (%)
C8
C10
C12
C14
C16
C18
C18:1
C18:2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
1.4
2.8
4.2
5.6
7.1
8.5
9.8
11.3
12.1
14.0
Trace
1.1
1.7
2.3
2.9
3.4
4.0
4.5
5.1
5.6
6.2
0.7
28.8
27.8
28.1
26.7
25.2
23.8
22.7
20.9
20.2
18.2
25.2
25.2
20.5
20.4
20.4
20.3
20.2
19.9
19.8
19.7
19.5
35.5
35.2
38.4
36.5
35.8
35.5
35.2
34.9
34.8
34.4
34.2
35.2
8.2
8.7
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.7
7.6
3.2
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M.H.A. Jahurul et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 117 (2013) 467–476
packed bed reactor. They reported that the thermograms of their
products obtained by scanning differential calorimetry were similar to that of CB, but exhibited several distinct peaks due to the
presence of diglycerides and trisaturated triglycerides. They also
reported that PMF could be used as a suitable raw material for
interesterification with stearic acid using Lipozyme™, leading to
the production of CBEs whose composition resembles closely to
that of CB. Table 5 shows the composition of PMF, pure CB, and
CBEs which were produced in their study. In comparison with all
extraction methods, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is feasible
in terms of quality product and has the potential to produce a higher yield and a good quality cocoa butter replacers blends.
9.2. Cocoa butter from vegetable oils
Chang et al. (1990) produced cocoa butter-like fat from vegetable oils such as cottonseed and olive oils by enzymatic interesterification reaction. They produced cocoa butter fat from the reaction
mixture by two filtration steps. They investigated the reaction time
for the best yield of the major components such as POS of cocoa
butter-like fat. The highest yield of POS was reported in reaction
time at 4 h and the yield of POS reached equilibrium after 20 h.
About 23 and 28% of POS and SOS were found in their studied cocoa butter-like fat. They isolated the yield of cocoa butter-like fat
around 19%. Due to the higher SOS level content, the melting point
of their produced cocoa butter was higher. The melting point of
their products was between 29 and 49 °C.
9.3. Mango seed kernel fat
Mango (Mangifera indica) is the most popular tropical fruits in
the world. Mango juice and its product such as nectar drinks are
the predominant fruit juice, especially in tropical and subtropical
areas. In the industry, only large edible portion of mangoes are
used or consumed. As a result considerable amounts of peels and
seeds are discarded as industrial waste or raised as by-products.
A significant large amount of these by-products particularly comes
from the tropical or subtropical fruit processing industries. Due to
increasing popularity and production of mangoes worldwide, disposal amounting 35 to 60% of the fruit weight represents a growing
problem as the plant material is prone to microbial spoilage (Larrauri et al., 1996). Moreover, drying cost, storage, and shipment of
these by- products are economically limiting factors (Schieber
et al., 2001). The mango seed represents about 10–25% of the total
fruit and the kernel about 45–75% of the seed and 20% of the total
fruit, depending on the varieties (Arogba, 1997; Hemavathy et al.,
1988).
Many researchers have extracted and fractionated mango seed
kernel fats using solvent extraction method (hexane, chloroform,
acetone, and methanol) as mentioned in the literature (Abdalla
et al., 2007; Ali et al., 1985; Lakshminarayana et al., 1983; Nzikou
et al., 2010; Solís-Fuentes and Durán-de-Bazúa, 2004). According
to mango varieties, the kernels contain about 5.28–15% of fats on
dry a basis (Abdalla et al., 2007; Gunstone, 2011; Solís-Fuentes
and Durán-de-Bazúa, 2004). The iodine value of mango seed kernel
fat is 39–48 and the melting point is 34–43 °C (Gunstone, 2011).
Table 5
Triglyceride (TG) composition of PMF, CB and CBEs produced by interesterification
reaction (Undurraga et al., 2001).
Sample
POP
POS
SOS
Other TGs
DGs
PMF
CB
CBE
74.3
23.4
23.4
14.3
42.8
38.5
2.0
27.5
20.2
9.4
3.6
8.2
–
2.7
9.7
DG: diglycerides.
The major fatty acid contained in mango seed kernel fats are oleic,
stearic and palmitic acids. Apart from these fatty acids, it also contains smaller amount of linoleic, arachidic, behenic, lignoceric and
linolenic acids (Solís-Fuentes and Durán-de-Bazúa, 2004). The fatty
acid compositions in different varieties of mango seed kernel fats
are shown in Table 6. The POS (11%), SOS (40%), SOO (23%), POO
(5%), SOA (4%) and OOO (5%) are the major triglycerides contained
in mango seed kernel fat (Gunstone, 2011). Table 7 shows the stearin fraction of mango seed kernel fat, sal fat, shea fat, kokum butter,
Illipé butter and their triglyceride compositions used in CBEs formulation. Up till now, lots of research have been conducted for
the extraction and fractionation of various mango seed kernel fat
as their lipid compositions as well as unique physical and chemical
properties are similar to that of CB (Ali et al., 1985; Ali and Dimick,
1994; Dhinigra and Kapoor, 1985; Jiménez-Bermúdez et al., 1995;
Lakshminarayana et al., 1983; Narashima-Char et al., 1977; SolísFuentes, 1998).
Recently, Kaphueakngam et al. (2009) produced cocoa butter
equivalent by blending mango seed almond fat (MAF) with palm
oil mid-fraction (PMF). Seven blends of MAF-PMF with different ratios (100/0, 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40, 50/50, 40/60, 30/70, 20/80,
10/90 and 0/100) have been studied using various techniques.
Their results showed that palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid
were predominant fatty acid in all blends, which were similar to
cocoa butter components. They reported that the major fatty acid,
the melting behaviour and slip melting point of the 80/40 (wt%)
blend resemble to that of cocoa butter. In another study, SolísFuentes and Durán-de-Bazúa (2004) studied the thermal behaviour
of mango seed almond fat and its mixtures with cocoa butter. They
reported that the fatty acid contents and the physiochemical properties of mango almond fat are similar to those of cocoa butter.
They also showed that the MAF curves for solid–liquid phase
change and the solid fat content MAF profiles are great similar to
those of cocoa butter. The properties of MAF, thermal conduct
and the presence of a and b crystalline forms in MAF made it a suitable fat like cocoa butter. The isosolid diagrams showed the compatibility between the mixture of MAF and CB fats, even better
than that of mixtures of CB with milk fat, lauric fats, or hydrogenated cottonseed oil (Solís-Fuentes and Durán-de-Bazúa, 2004).
9.4. Kokum butter
Kokum butter (Garcinia indica Choisy Syn Brindonia indica) belongs to the family of Guttiferae, and is found in the western peninsular coastal regions and the states of Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka and Kerala India and parts of Eastern India in the states
of West Bengal, Assam, and North Eastern Hill regions and other
parts of peninsular India. It is a small evergreen tree and is also
known as mangosteen, goa butter tree, kokum butter tree (Baliga
et al., 2011). The mature tree yield fruits annually and takes
5 months to complete its fruiting process and by March to May
the ripe fruits are ready for harvesting. The fruits are spherical
and red to dark purple in colour and the edible pulp is sour. Each
fruit contains 3 to 8 large seeds covered with pulp and the kernel
contain around 40–44% hard and brittle fat with melting point of
38–42 °C (Gunstone, 2011). The seed accounts for nearly a quarter
of the total fruit weight and it contains 23–26% oil. The oil is solid
at room temperature and is known as kokum butter.
Kokum butter is extracted from the seeds, has highly demanded
in confectionary industries, especially in chocolate industries, due
to its light grey colour, greasy texture, and is bland to taste (Nayak
et al., 2010). To extract the oil is a laborious process and is carried
out in the extractor. Normally, the kernels are separated carefully
and then pressed in expeller to extract the oil. Traditionally, the
oil is extracted by boiling the kernel in water but solvent extraction
is also used. Two types of major fatty acid such as stearic (50–60%)
473
M.H.A. Jahurul et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 117 (2013) 467–476
Table 6
Fatty acid compositions of mango seed kernel fat (%) from different studies.
Variety
Origin
Fatty acids (%)
References
16:0
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
20:0
22:0
24:0
43 varieties
Manila
India
Mexico
3–18
9.29
24–57
39.07
34–56
40.81
1–13
6.06
–
0.64
1–4
2.48
–
0.64
–
0.49
10 varieties
Bangladesh
41.1–
43.8
41.09
46.22
46.1
6.0–
7.6
6.97
7.33
8.2
0.6–
1.0
–
2.30
1.2
1.7–
2.6
–
–
–
–
Thailand
Congo
Egypt
38.2–
40.2
46.55
37.73
38.3
–
Keaw
Kibangou
Zebda, Balady and Succary
(mixed)
7.9–
10.0
5.39
6.43
5.8
Lakshminarayana et al. (1983)
Solís-Fuentes and Durán-de-Bazúa
(2004)
Ali et al. (1985)
–
–
–
–
–
–
Kaphueakngam et al. (2009)
Nzikou et al. (2010)
Abdalla et al. (2007)
Table 7
The monounsaturated triglycerides (%) of selected fats and its fraction suitable for use
in CBE (Gunstone, 2011).
a
Fat type
POP
POS
SOS
Mango kernel fractiona
Kokum butter
Sal fractiona
Shea fractiona
Illipé butter
Cocoa butter
1
Trace
Trace
1
7
16
16
6
10
7
24
37
59
72
60
74
45
26
Stearin (hard/higher-melting) fraction.
Table 8
Fatty acid and triacylglyceride compositions of hard butter from kokum fat and
phulwara butter (Reddy and Prabhakar 1994).
Phulwara butter middle
fraction
Fatty acid (%)
Palmitic acid
Stearic acid
Oleic acid
Linoleic acid
Triacylglycerols (%)
Trisaturated (GS3)
Monounsaturated disaturated
(GS2U)
Diunsaturated monosaturated
(GSU2)
a
Blend
1a
was added up to 5% by the weight of the product. They also reported that the hardness of both chocolates increased with increased addition of kokum fat. Recently, extensive reviews of the
chemistry and medicinal values as well as industrial uses of kokum
fat are published by Baliga et al. (2011).
Reddy and Prabhakar (1994) produced cocoa butter extenders
with different melting profiles by blending of both middle fraction
of kokum fat with phulwara butter in selected proportions (60/40,
65/35, 70/30, 75/25). In that study, the fatty acid and triacylglyceride compositions of blend 60/40 were similar to those of CB (Table 8). Their results showed that the blends with higher level of
kokum fat are harder than cocoa butter and have short melting
ranges. They reported that the solidification properties, fatty acid
and triacylglyceride compositions and tolerance towards milk fat
properties are similar to those of cocoa butter. They also reported
that the melting range of their products are the same as those of CB
and compatible with CB and also have tolerance towards milk fat.
CB
9.5. Sal fat
66.3
3.9
27.7
0.6
34.4
35.3
30.0
0.2
31.0
34.0
35.0
–
2.5
85.0
2.0
89.0
–
90.0
12.0
7.8
10.0
Blend 1: blend of 60% phulwara butter middle fraction with 40% kokum fat.
and oleic (36–40%) acids, and triacylglycerides that is SOS about
72% were obtained in the kokum fat (Table 7). A group of researchers reported that the addition of a small amount of SOS or SOS-rich
fats in CB or chocolate increases the hardness, inhibits fat bloom
and decreases the tempering time (Jewell and Bradford, 1981;
Jeyarani and Reddy, 1999; Maheshwari and Reddy, 2005; Padley
et al., 1972; Reddy and Prabhakar, 1994; Tonnesmann, 1977). Because of the well composition of fatty acids (stearic and oleic acid)
and triglycerides, in particular SOS in the kokum fats, it is used as a
suitable raw material for the production of high temperature resistant hard butter in countries with hot climate. Therefore, kokum
butter could solve the tempering difficulties for chocolate manufacturers in tropical countries or in countries with a moderate climate during summer season. In dark and milk chocolate
formulations, kokum fat is added in different proportions to replace CB and its effects on rheology, hardness, triglyceride compositions and heat resistance studied by Maheshwari and Reddy
(2005). No significant influence have been seen in the plastic viscosity or yield stress of milk or dark chocolate when kokum fat
Sal fat (Shorea robusta) is obtained from the seed kernel of sal
trees, widely grown in India, Malaysia, Borneo, Java, and Philippines. About 5% of the total forest area in India is occupied by Sal
trees. The kernels constitute 72% of the weight of the sal seeds.
The sal seed kernels contain 19–20% of oil which is known as Sal
butter. The fatty acid compositions of Sal fat is shown in Table 9.
The fatty acid profiles of Sal fat have some similarity to that of cocoa butter since oleic and stearic acids dominate. The iodine value
of sal fat is 31–45 and the melting point is 30–36 °C. The POS (11%),
SOS (42%), SOO (16%), SOA (13%), OOO (3%) and AOO (4%) are the
major triglycerides contained in sal fat (Gunstone, 2011). Gunstone
(2011) reported that fractionation of sal fat is necessary for making
cocoa butter resembles triglycerides which is a valuable ingredient
for CBEs.
Reddy and Prabhakar (1989) produced cocoa butter extenders
by blending of stearins of sal fat with phulwara butter in selected
proportions. Their results showed that the solidification properties
and solid fat indices of blends containing 75–85% of sal fat stearin
and 15–25% of phulwara butter stearin closer to CB. Cocoa butter
extenders were made by decreasing the sal fat stearin to 50–67%
in the blend. They also reported that a series of cocoa butter
extenders can be made by changing the sal fat and phulwara butter
stearin ratios in the blends which show similar chemical and physical properties like CB.
9.6. Shea butter
Shea butter belongs to the family of Sapotaceae, a common
West African and sub-saharan African edible vegetable fat obtained
from the shea kernel Vitellaria paradoxa (C.F. Gaertn) and also
called Butyrospermum parkii L. (Bail et al., 2009; Teklehaimanot,
474
M.H.A. Jahurul et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 117 (2013) 467–476
Table 9
Fatty acids of Sal fat from different studies.
Fatty acids
References
16:0
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
20
4.8
6.3
5.6
8.3
4.6
44.2
44.6
44.3
34.7
43.2
42.4
41.6
40.4
41.9
42.0
2.5
1.7
1.5
2.8
2.2
–
–
–
6.1
5.7
7.7
12.3
6.7
Table 10
Major fatty acid compositions of shea butter from different studies.
Fatty acids
References
16:0
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
20
3.4
5.7
4.0
8.0
4.0
3.8
41.8
41.0
58.0
37.0
43.2
44.1
45.9
49.0
33.0
50.0
43.9
43.8
6.6
4.3
3.0
5.0
6.6
6.65
1.3
–
–
–
0.3
1.55
0.2
–
2.0
–
1.6
-
Jatto et al. (2010)
Banerji et al. (1984)
Hogenbrink (1984)
Meara (1979)
Kanematsu et al. (1978)
Jacobsberg (1977)
1.3
Vedaramana et al. (2012)
Bhattacharyya and Bhattacharyya (1991)
Sridhar et al. (1991)
Banerji et al. (1984)
Chaudhuri et al. (1983)
far that could meet the exact demand of cocoa butters. To overcome the problem, further and prudential research on this topic
need to be conducted finding out the precise alternatives of cocoa
butter fats that could be able to fulfill the demands of cocoa butter
fats.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM fellowship) for the financial support.
References
2004). Shea kernel contains 40–55% oil, called shea butter (Casten
and Synder, 1985; Gunstone, 2011; Olajide et al., 2000). Traditionally, shea butter is extracted using organic solvent. The iodine value of shea fat is 52–56 and the melting point is 32–45 °C
(Gunstone, 2011). The major fatty acid contents of shea butter
from different studies are summarized in Table 10. The POP (3%),
POS (6%), SOS (42%), SOO (26%), SOL (5%), SLS (5%) and OOO (6%)
are the main triglycerides contained in shea fat (Gunstone, 2011).
Based on the triglyceride compositions, shea butter is used as cocoa butter substitutes in the chocolate and confectionary industry
in Europe (Olajide et al., 2000). Recently, a group of researchers reported that the variety, climate and regional differences influence
the quality of fatty acid compositions as well as fat properties of
shea butter (Bail et al., 2009; Cardi et al., 2005; Di Vincenzo
et al., 2005; Sanou et al., 2006).
9.7. Illipé butter
Illipé butter (Shorea stenoptera) is also called Borneo tallow and
produced from the seed kernel of the trees widely grown in Sarawak Malaysia, Java Indonesia, the Philippines and the other parts
of Borneo. The ripe Illipé nuts contain about 40 to 60% valuable edible fats. The melting point of Illipé butter is 37–39 °C and iodine
value is 29–38 (Firestone, 1999). The major fatty acid contained
in Illipé butter are palmitic (18–21%), stearic (39–46%) and oleic
(34–37%) acids. The fatty acid compositions of Illipé butter resemble that of cocoa butter. The main triglycerides of Illipé butter are
POP (7%), POS (34%) and SOS (45%) which is closer to that of cocoa
butter. Recently, Gunstone (2011) reported that Illipé butter can be
used directly as cocoa butter equivalent without further
processing.
10. Conclusions
CB is a unique fat. Due to shortage of supply, high price, and
technological reasons efforts have been made to find an alternative
to CB. A number of natural fats have been investigated for CB alternatives that could have closer physical properties. Thus, CB alternatives are produced either by blending or modifying fats in
some proportions. The individual analysis of plant triglycerides in
terms of fatty acid compositions are well discussed in this review.
However, no alternatives of cocoa butter fats have been found so
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