Scarlett Carney (20044042)
BA Hons. Fashion Public Relations and Communication
Fashion Cultures and Histories – SMC by Jay McCauley Bowstead
Resistance Through Rituals
How Do Deviant Subcultures use Fashion as a
Subcultural Commentary?
INTRODUCTION
Fashion has worked as a constant, historical commentary for various societal and political events,
spanning academia. Comprehending the influence of fashion within deviant subcultures, however, is
often less explicit; more contested and elusive. Factors such as class, gender and ethnicity often
enthral themselves within research, resulting in little to no academic recollection of deviant
subcultural styling from intellectuals outside of these social settings and groups. Moreover,
identifying the components of what instigates a subculture to be considered deviant are further
misunderstood; often outdated and problematic, relying on the actions of those who fail to fit the
societal value consensus of what is considered acceptable forms of behaviour and style (Durkheim,
1897: 37).1
Fashion works as an important indication of status for individuals. It reflects their values, as well as
that of the wider subculture they identify to. Deviant subcultures henceforth, resist these societal
norms of dress through their styling rituals (Hall and Jefferson, 1976: 119)2. Clothing allows
individuals to be identified as belonging to a group, before they speak or act – a form of subconscious
acknowledgement. These deviant subcultures resist the wider consensus of what is deemed an
acceptable way for an individual to look; furthermore, placing the wider society into a state of
anomie, as these individuals aim to uphold a lifestyle of ‘normlessness’, and thus deviance
(Durkheim, 1897: 41)3. The brands, styling and clothing worn by these individuals result in mass
panic, although it could be realistically, a small minority [of the subculture] partaking in the aspect of
amplified deviance magnified by the media. A primary example of this would be the fear associated
with Stone Island; traditionally, a brand associated with wealth and affluence – praised for its use of
exuberant colours and materials in their products (Taylor, 2019)4. Moreover, the brands adoption by
football casuals has resulted in a mass moral panic associated with compass logo – due to a small
minority of violent hooligans wearing these garments whilst being loutish and aggressive. This has
1
Durkheim, E. (1897) Suicide: A Study in Sociology. London: Macmillan. (p. 17-205)
Hall, S. and Jefferson, T. (1976) Resistance Through Rituals. London: Routledge. (p. 92-130)
3
Durkheim, E. (1897) Suicide: A Study in Sociology. London: Macmillan.
4
Taylor, L. (2019) ‘Casual Culture History + Terrace Culture’ 80s Casual Classics. Available at:
<https://www.80scasualclassics.co.uk/blog/casual-culture-history-and-terrace-subculture/> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
2
resulted in the wider society deeming the brand as deviant, banning it from public spaces as a means
of ‘curb[ing] alcohol-fuelled violence’ (Butler, 2017)5 – tarnishing all wearers of the brand as deviant
troublemakers, as opposed to the sole individuals who perpetrate this violence.
The aim of this thesis is to provide a conceptual theoretical framework as to why individuals are
brandished as ‘deviant’ for resisting mainstream social norms when it comes to fashion; furthermore,
the influence that clothing and styling has on an individual’s behaviour and lifestyle, and how it helps
an individual to form their identity.
Butler, B. (2017) ‘Blackburn's new Bees Knees bar bans drinkers wearing Stone Island brand to try to curb alcohol-fuelled violence’
Lancashire Telegraph. Available at: https://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/15705611.blackburns-new-bees-knees-bar-bans-drinkerswearing-stone-island-brand-try-curb-alcohol-fuelled-violence/ [Accessed 15 May 2021]
5
‘SWAPPED IT FOR A WESTLIFE CD’: THE DEVIANCY OF WORKING-CLASS FASHION
Often considered to be ‘salt of the earth, hard workers’ (Gavroche, 2014)6, the working class operated
as the backbone of British industrialism and economy over the latter years of the 20th Century. A
YouGov Poll at the 2015 Edinburgh Film Festival in 2006 however, revealed that the majority of
those employed in television and film believed that Vicky Pollard (fig. 1) was an ‘accurate
representation of the white working class’ (Martin, 2006)7. The disillusion of the working class
transforming from ‘hard working’ to ‘deviant, feckless, stupid and promiscuous’ (LSE, 2008)8within
the space of 10 years, has been largely associated with globalisation - by the physical disappearance
of the labour market, and newfound accessibility to high-end fashion. This ‘loss of territory’ (Hall and
Jefferson, 1976: 97)9 - undoubtedly leads to a crisis of status for the individual – unable to express
their identity as economically active through employment. Theorists such as Cohen have suggested
that this leads to a ‘frustration’ (Cohen, 2002: 18)10 - the individual must now exaggerate their status
of wealth and culture through physical garments, as they have lost their main label of ‘employed’.
Lack of physical assets leave working class individuals to choose an exaggerated, loud garment to
gain subcultural superiority – as seen with the popularity of Burberry’s ‘House Check’ (fig. 2) in the
beginning of the 21st Century. Traditionally associated with education and ‘A-Listers’ (Bothwell,
2005)11, accessible, sub-lines of the brand – such as Burberry Brit and Golf, allowed working class
individuals to buy into this ‘high-culture’, and hence, a label of status and wealth. Combining these
6
Gavroche, J. (2014) Tales of Working-Class Heroes: Salt of the Earth. Available at: <
https://autonomies.org/2014/04/tales-of-working-class-heros-salt-of-the-earth/> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
7
Martin, L. (2006) ‘Cracker creator blasts “chav” on TV’ The Guardian. Available at: <
https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/aug/27/broadcasting.uknews> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
8
London School of Economics (2008) ‘Little Britain filled with “figures of hatred, not figures of fun’ LSE.
Available at: <https://www.lse.ac.uk/media-and-communications/assets/documents/research/working-paperseries/EWP13.pdf> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
99
Hall, S. and Jefferson, T. (1976) Resistance Through Rituals. London: Routledge.
10
Cohen, S. (2002) Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers (3) London:
Routledge. (p. 5-30)
11
Bothwell, C. (2005) ‘Burberry Versus the Chavs’ BBC. Available at: <
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4381140.stm> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
golfing and hunting items with low, entry level items such as Nike windbreakers and Adidas shell
pants (fig. 3) – scarce within the upper classes – ‘authentic’ followers of the brand were quick to
disassociate the beige check (Thornton, 1995: 118)12. Figure 3 shows a working-class individual
posing casually on a carpet, with little to no furniture, a small radiator and pink walls. The pose this
individual is displaying is one of exuberance and loutishness – opposite to that offered in high-fashion
campaigns of the period by Burberry. Individuals cannot ascertain economic capital the same way that
the average Burberry consumer of the period could, and these caps worked as an operational signal for
the working class to say, ‘we’re employed and wealthy, just like you – look, we wear Burberry’.
However, the implication that this subcultural capital gained by the working class ‘chav’ was
universal, is untrue. The ‘authentic’ clients of the brand were quick to disband association with
Burberry, resulting in a fiscal crisis for the brand, scrabbling to ‘buy back shares’ that were sold to
low, entry level companies (Financial Times, 2018)13. Henceforth, the working class have consistently
low subcultural capital, regardless of the logos they wear, resulting in Burberry becoming a symbol of
deviance to mainstream society.
Thornton, S. (1995) ‘The social logical of subcultural capital’ in Gelder, K. and Thornton, S. (1997) The
Subcultures Reader. London: Routledge.
13
Financial Times. (2018) ‘Burberry announces share buyback as operating profit climbs’ FT Today. Available
at: <https://www.ft.com/content/1f677a98-5883-11e8-bdb7-f6677d2e1ce8> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
12
‘I’M A LONDON SCAMMER’: THE DEVIANCY OF ETHNIC MINORITY FASHION
The indescribable dire to ascertain success, wealth and status is in no way restricted to any race or
ethnic group. This desire is universal – indoctrinated into individuals through basic socialisation,
within our ever-present and demanding consumer culture. The colossal rise of social media has led to
a new form of status communication, with individuals adopting their identity through the likes of
Instagram and TikTok; henceforth, a bigger divide between the ‘haves and have-nots’. This newfound
sub-category of marginalisation and deprivation is only widening and amplifying a new level of status
frustration in the process (Lea and Young, 1993: 119)14. Like the working-class, ethnic minority
groups – specifically Black British individuals – desire to ascertain status through the garments that
they wear. Systematic failures, from schooling to healthcare, leaves these individuals statistically and
academically misunderstood, lacking status through their academic achievements - for instance,
46.0% of Black British individuals achieving some form of GCSE qualification, compared to 60.2%
of White British individuals (GOV.UK, 2021)15. The lack of academic credibility that these
individuals have, results in them being unable to progress higher up the social ladder, and henceforth,
falling into low-level deviant behaviours to retain some form of social status and earn their own
sociological currency – ‘street capital’ (Harding, 2014: 134)16.
Denoting the term ‘I’m a London Scammer / I see it, I want it, I click it’ (Tankz, 2021)17, lyrical
imagery of wealth within grime and U.K. Drill music is a staple. ‘G4 Boyz’, a Black British grime
duo from Brixton, insisted that this music was purely ‘self-esteem music for foreigners’ – as they
often found themselves being teased in school by their white peers for living in poverty, and having
no high-end clothing assets (Fiinin, 2020)18. Henceforth, the duo began to commit credit card fraud as
14
Lea, J. and Young, J. (1993) What is to Be Done about Law and Order? London: Pluto Press.
GOV.UK. (2021) GCSE English and Maths results. Available at: <https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/education-skillsand-training/11-to-16-years-old/a-to-c-in-english-and-maths-gcse-attainment-for-children-aged-14-to-16-key-stage-4/latest#by-ethnicity>
[Accessed: 15 May 2021]
16
Harding, S. (2014) The Street Casino: Survival in Violent Street Gangs. London: Policy Press.
17
Tankz – London Scammer (Music Video). Tankz. Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-n2KrXS5Lmc> [Accessed 16 May
2021]
18
Fiinin, A. (2020) Scam Rappers G4 Boyz are Building the Bridge Between UK and NY Drill. Vice. Available at:
<https://www.vice.com/en/article/4ayang/g4-boyz-local-scammer-interview-2020> [Accessed 16 May 2021]
15
a means of ascertaining these items, and like Tankz, would brag about this in their lyrics. This level of
deviance associated with grime and U.K. Drill music offers the desirable ‘street capital’ amongst
peers, as well as deviant capital through their criminal escapades. The visual value of a Rolex or
Cartier watch amongst peers within these environments can often lead to severe acts of deviance – as
seen with the death of rapper Pop Smoke over his ‘iced out Rolex’(WENN, 2021)19 (fig. 3). Gaudy
visual assets aim to draw attention to the individual – like Burberry’s House Check (fig. 2) – as
someone with wealth and status – although, a lack of education on these ‘high-culture’ items means
that when individuals choose to ‘ice out’ their watches, they devalue the timepiece. Hence, these
social statuses of wealthy and established are only relevant amongst their peers, and not the traditional
middle and upper classes. This culture of ‘icing out’ watches, and lyricism of crime is purely to
exaggerate the individual’s role as kingpin of this deviant subculture, increase in deviant wealth, as
opposed to the ‘traditional’ routes of gaining visual subcultural cultural status.
WENN – World Entertainment News Network (2021) Pop Smoke was allegedly killed by teen during home invasion over Rolex. Toronto
Sun. Available at: <https://torontosun.com/entertainment/celebrity/pop-smoke-was-killed-by-teen-during-home-invasion-over-rolex>
[Accessed: 16 May 2021]
19
CONCLUSION
Returning to the hypothesis posed at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to state that deviant
subcultures use fashion as a subcultural commentary due to a lack of traditional social, economic, and
cultural wealth. These deviant individuals are systemically failed by the wider society – and find
themselves being labelled as ‘deviant’ and ‘problematic’ when they exaggerate their values through
clothing, as they are unable to access the aforementioned ‘traditional’ and wider value consensus of
capital to establish themselves.
One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is the degree of importance that
education has. Prior to undertaking this research, I understood that only wealth was important to an
individual’s status – moreover, identifying the extents that these deviant subcultures will go to
ascertain these status symbols – creating their own subcultural capital in the process – leaves me
feeling concerned as globalisation brings us closer together, and hence, new status symbols will
emerge, as will demand. Although the current study sample was based on a small range of deviant
subcultures, these findings suggest that this subcultural hierarchy is just as influential for deviant
groups, as it is for high-class individuals. We are constantly battling in a rat-race of status, and as
demand for it increases, the deviant means of ascertaining it follows in due course.
APPENDIX
Figure 1: ‘Little Britain’ character Vicky Pollard (centre) pictured
on a housing estate in traditional ‘Chav’ attire.
Figure 2: Burberry’s classic house check, also known as ‘nova
check’ – a staple in ‘Chav’ wardrobes.
Figure 3: A working-class male wearing a
Burberry check cap alongside a shell suit of
low-level sportswear brands, Nike and
Adidas.
Figure 4: Drill rapper ‘Pop Smoke’ (left) and the watch
that caused his death (right). The watch was devalued
by up to £30,000 after his death, due to the extensive
customisation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bothwell, C. (2005) ‘Burberry Versus the Chavs’ BBC. Available at: <
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4381140.stm> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
Butler, B. (2017) ‘Blackburn's new Bees Knees bar bans drinkers wearing Stone Island brand to try to
curb alcohol-fuelled violence’ Lancashire Telegraph. Available at:
https://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/15705611.blackburns-new-bees-knees-bar-bansdrinkers-wearing-stone-island-brand-try-curb-alcohol-fuelled-violence/ [Accessed 15 May 2021]
Cohen, S. (2002) Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers (3) London:
Routledge. (p. 5-30)
Durkheim, E. (1897) Suicide: A Study in Sociology. London: Macmillan. (p. 17-205)
Financial Times. (2018) ‘Burberry announces share buyback as operating profit climbs’ FT Today.
Available at: <https://www.ft.com/content/1f677a98-5883-11e8-bdb7-f6677d2e1ce8> [Accessed 15
May 2021]
Fiinin, A. (2020) Scam Rappers G4 Boyz are Building the Bridge Between UK and NY Drill. Vice.
Available at: <https://www.vice.com/en/article/4ayang/g4-boyz-local-scammer-interview-2020>
[Accessed 16 May 2021]
Gavroche, J. (2014) Tales of Working-Class Heroes: Salt of the Earth. Available at: <
https://autonomies.org/2014/04/tales-of-working-class-heros-salt-of-the-earth/> [Accessed 15 May
2021]
GOV.UK. (2021) GCSE English and Maths results. Available at: <https://www.ethnicity-factsfigures.service.gov.uk/education-skills-and-training/11-to-16-years-old/a-to-c-in-english-and-mathsgcse-attainment-for-children-aged-14-to-16-key-stage-4/latest#by-ethnicity> [Accessed: 15 May
2021]
Hall, S. and Jefferson, T. (1976) Resistance Through Rituals. London: Routledge. (p. 92-130)
Harding, S. (2014) The Street Casino: Survival in Violent Street Gangs. London: Policy Press.
Lea, J. and Young, J. (1993) What is to Be Done about Law and Order? London: Pluto Press.
London School of Economics (2008) ‘Little Britain filled with “figures of hatred, not figures of fun’
LSE. Available at: <https://www.lse.ac.uk/media-andcommunications/assets/documents/research/working-paper-series/EWP13.pdf> [Accessed 15 May
2021]
Martin, L. (2006) ‘Cracker creator blasts “chav” on TV’ The Guardian. Available at: <
https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/aug/27/broadcasting.uknews> [Accessed 15 May 2021]
Tankz – London Scammer (Music Video). Tankz. Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2KrXS5Lmc> [Accessed 16 May 2021]
Taylor, L. (2019) ‘Casual Culture History + Terrace Culture’ 80s Casual Classics. Available at:
<https://www.80scasualclassics.co.uk/blog/casual-culture-history-and-terrace-subculture/> [Accessed
15 May 2021]
Thornton, S. (1995) ‘The social logical of subcultural capital’ in Gelder, K. and Thornton, S. (1997)
The Subcultures Reader. London: Routledge.
WENN – World Entertainment News Network (2021) Pop Smoke was allegedly killed by teen during
home invasion over Rolex. Toronto Sun. Available at:
<https://torontosun.com/entertainment/celebrity/pop-smoke-was-killed-by-teen-during-homeinvasion-over-rolex> [Accessed: 16 May 2021]