This introductory lesson focuses on the basic definition of philosophy as the starting point of the whole course. It moves further
into enumerating explicating the main branches of philosophy which include Ethics, the main topic of this course. It ends by specifying
the standards of behavior.
Lesson Proper:
Basic Definition of Philosophy
The Greek scholar, Pythagoras (c. 580-497 B.C.), coined the term
philosophy and came up with the term into two Greek words “philein
meaning love or friendship and sophia meaning wisdom” (Babor, E.,
2001). The literal definition of philosophy is, therefore, “love of
wisdom” (Zulueta, 2010). According to Babor, love is an urge or a
drive of the will towards a particular object. As a drive, love always
seeks unity with its object, and it desires to possess its object. And
wisdom means the good exercise or application of knowledge
(Babor, E., 2001). Hence, loving and seeking wisdom requires the
individual to be intimately passionate, responsible for his/her
reflections or actions, and just enjoy what he/she does.
Philosophy is also understood in the context of the Cagayanos’ term siribayat. This Itawit indigenous
vernacular term signifies the love of wisdom. The term siribâyat is a fusion of two words “sirib,” which means
wisdom, and “ayat,” love. Etymologically, sirib means an active peering through reality. And “ayat” adds a
personal note to the passion to go beyond what one has already previously seen or understood
(Siribâyat, 2013). Hence, to be wise or siriban means to be keen towards reality, that is, allowing the “panono”
(the Itawit term for “reflection) to extend its capacity to unveil and rediscover the true meaning of reality. In the
struggle to rediscover the true meaning of an experience, the lover of wisdom should be responsible to
understand reality practically in a significant way, not just theoretically.
Philosophy is a search for meaning and truth.
The kind of search-related to philosophy is more intense than that of the ordinary kind of search. This seeking, looking, and finding
wisdom and truth is a passionate search where we surrender ourselves to it. That’s why searching for meaning is a personal act. But
what distinguishes a philosophical search from an ordinary search is through the emphasis of the three elements:
1. The object of the search is of real value to the subject. In philosophy, broadly speaking, “object” refers to a thing,
“subject” refers to the person philosophizing (Cruz, C.,2004). Meaning, the object of our experience or investigation must be
within our interest and concern like a student taking a course that he is passionate about.
2. It “consumes” the whole person- his attention, concentration, interest, effort (Cruz, C.,2004). Meaning, a person becomes part
of the object of investigation, thus, leading oneself into submission towards the goal. To quote Cruz, he said that “A philosopher
can hardly afford distractions as he goes on his ‘search’.” He observes, reads, reflects, writes on what to him is the most
important aspect in his life (Cruz, C.,2004).
3. It is continued without let-up until (a) the answer is found or (b) the answer is not yet found, but the conviction is reached that
for the moment at least this is the best possible although still imperfect answer (Cruz, C., 2004). Meaning, a person must not
give up on something he seeks and must not surrender until the problem is solved. It is like the common notion of saying: Try
and try until you succeed. A human person is considered to be a homo viator (traveler). As a traveler, along the way, despair,
frustrations, and problems are always expected. But philosophy tells us that one must be challenged by it and must never
surrender himself in searching for meaning.
The attainment of truth cannot be the goal of philosophy and “the search for truth, not the possession of it, is the true aim of philosophy”
(John-Terry, C., 1994). What really matters for philosophical search is not to focus oneself towards the result or end, but rather on the
process of searching. The journey, not the destination, is what matters.
Philosophy is also defined as the science that by the natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles of
all things (Ramos, C.C., 2010).
Philosophy, as science, is an organized body of knowledge that involves a systematic investigation of reality through the natural
capacity of man to think (light of reason). The endeavor of understanding the prima causa of everything is not purely experimental nor
it has a divine intervention, but rather it is purely an experience of the self to the life-world.
Main Branches of Philosophy
1. What is Metaphysics?
Anything that we can think about that has active
participation in the ESSENCE of beings is the concern
According to Timbreza, metaphysics “is the study of of metaphysics. It has sub-topics like teleology,
being in its general aspect.” (Timbreza, F., 2005). The ontology, theodicy, psychology, and cosmology
term “being” refers to the realities that we see and
don’t see. To make it simple to understand, it is the
study of realities in life.
It deals with human reality and the system of human
thought that seeks to explain the fundamental
concepts of man (Cruz, C.,2004)
2. What is Epistemology?
This branch of philosophy deals with all the aspects
Epistemology (from the Greek word episteme
concerning the nature of knowledge. Epistemology
“knowledge”) is a philosophical theory that deals with
has sub-divisions like agnosticism, skepticism, a
the truth-value of human knowledge. It asks the
posteriori, and a priori.
question: “is it possible to know? Can man ever know
anything?
Is it possible to attain certain
knowledge?
Where does knowledge come
from? (Timbreza, F., 2005).
The branch of philosophy investigates the nature,
sources, limitations, and validity of knowledge
(Ramos, C.C., 2010).
It concerns the nature and scope of knowledge. It
asks the question “what does it mean to know (the
truth), and what is the nature of truth? What sort of
things can be known? Is there knowledge beyond the
reach of science and what are the limits of selfknowledge?
(Articulo, A., 2008)
3. What is Logic?
This branch of philosophy focuses on developing the
mind to be critical and logical. Logic is divided into
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used
sub-topics namely: Induction, Deduction, Syllogism,
to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect
and Dialectic.
reasoning (Copi and Cohen, I. & C., 1998).
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used
to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning. Logic
does not only help us adequately to interpret facts and
other people’s perceptions or views, it also develops
in us the habit of clear and critical thinking
(Timbreza, F., 2005).
Metaethics investigates where our ethical principles
come from, and what they mean. It focuses on the
issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of
Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of
reason, which studies human acts and provides norms ethical terms themselves.
for their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005)..
Normative ethics is concerned with the criteria of
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the what is morally right and wrong. It includes the
nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions formulation of moral rules that have direct
(Ramos, C.C., 2010).
implications for what human actions, institutions, and
It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of ways of life should be like.
human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004).
Applied ethics refers to the practical application of
Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts- moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to
such as right action, obligation, and justice- and real-world actions and their moral considerations in
formulates principles to guide moral decisions, the areas of private and public life, the professions,
whether in private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).
health, technology, law, and leadership.
4. What is Ethics?
Ethics is also called moral philosophy which tries to
understand the goodness and badness of a human
act. Ethics is divided into three general subject areas
namely: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied
ethics.
Definition of Ethics
Etymological meaning
The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethikos which itself is
derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning custom or
character. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is
“good.” The field of ethics or moral philosophy involves developing,
defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong
behavior. These concepts do not change as one’s desires and
motivations change. They are not relative to the situation. They are
immutable. (Mintz, S., 2010)
Functional Definition
Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts and provides norms for their goodness or
badness (Timbreza, F., 2005). Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions
(Ramos, C.C., 2010). It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004). Ethics takes up
the meanings of our moral concepts- such as right action, obligation and justice- and formulates principles to guide moral decisions,
whether in private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).
Ethics as the ‘general inquiry into what is good’ poses some questions concerning what sort of actions can bind humans. What
constitutes ‘good’ or what is an unacceptable action in a given situation is tantamount in saying that the subject matter of Ethics is
essential. Teaching Ethics in College Education as a New General Education Core Course under the New Curriculum explores some
of the important theories on the constitution of what is an ethical action, acceptable and binding in all societies which call for impartiality
in decision making (CMO 20 S 2013).
In a general sense, ethics (or moral philosophy) addresses fundamental questions such as: How should I live my life? That question
leads to others such as: What sort of person should I strive to be? What values are important? What standards or principles should I
live by? There are various ways to define “ethics.” The simplest may be is to say that ethics deals with “right” and “wrong.” However,
it is difficult to judge what may be right or wrong in a particular situation without some frame of reference (Mintz, S., 2010).
The Material Object of Ethics (What does Ethics study?)
- The Human Act/Action
What are other things that we can moralize or we can judge if they are good or bad?
- Custom, cultures, traditions, and other practices of a certain community or society.
The Formal Object of Ethics (What does Ethics want to see in Human Acts?)
- The goodness or badness of the human act.
The material object or the subject matter of Ethics poses some questions in relation to answering moral judgment, like ‘What is
our criteria or standard of morality?, 'What can account actions as ‘good’ and ‘right’ or ‘good’ as ‘pleasurable’ or ‘pleasurable’ as ‘good
actions’?, 'Who has the right to determine what is moral or ethical? 'With regard to the applicability of action, when can we consider it
as good or moral? and the like.
So if Ethics is a branch of Philosophy, how did it find out the norms which it uses to judge if the action of a certain person is
good or bad? It is based purely on thinking, reflecting, and reasoning on the different moral standards to be used.
Society’s morality calls for a standard that serves as a ‘guiding principle’ of all actions which answers the question of what is
‘good’ and ‘right’ or ‘bad’ and ‘unacceptable’. Actions are good or acceptable when they satisfy the standards or ethical codes of society
while they are unacceptable when they fail to follow its principles. We call these principles, codes, or standards as moral standards.
Standards of Behavior
Ethics must be based on accepted standards of behavior. For example, in virtually all societies and cultures it is wrong to kill someone
or steal property from someone else. These standards have developed over time and come from a variety of sources including:
(A)The influence of religious writing and interpretations.
(B) The influence of philosophical thought.
(C) The influence of community (societal) values. (Mintz, S., 2010)
Norms,
Values,
and
the
Law
Ethics deals with well-based standards of how people ought to act. Ethics does not describe the way people do act. It deals with the
way people should act. Ethical people always strive to make the right decision in all circumstances. They do not rationalize their actions
based on their own perceived self-interests. Ethical decision-making entails following certain well-established norms of behavior. The
best way to understand ethics may be to differentiate it from other concepts. (Mintz, S., 2010)
Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or actions. Values are concerned with how a person will
behave in certain situations whereas ethics is concerned with how a moral person should behave. A person who values prestige,
power, and wealth is likely to act out of self-interest whereas a person who values honesty, integrity, and trust will typically act in the
best interests of others. It does not follow that acting in the best interests of others precludes acting in one’s own self-interest. Indeed,
the Golden Rule prescribes that we should treat others the way we want to be treated. (Mintz, S., 2010)
END of LESSON 1
Ethics vs. Morality
Ethics
Etymological meaning
The term ethics is derived from the Greek
word ethikos which itself is derived from the
Greek word ethos, meaning custom or
character. In philosophy, ethical behavior is
that which is “good.” The field of ethics or
moral philosophy involves developing,
defending, and recommending concepts of
right and wrong behavior. (Mintz, S., 2010)
Functional Definition
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions
(Ramos, C.C., 2010).
It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004).
Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts and provides norms for their
goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005).
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions
(Ramos, C.C., 2010). It studies the morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004). Ethics
takes up the meanings of our moral concepts- such as right action, obligation, and justice- and formulates principles to guide
moral decisions, whether in private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).
Morality
Morality is an encompassing concept that serves as the underlying force for every action of an individual, even of society. Morality
takes the crucial role of formulating, establishing, and setting ethical norms of conduct that govern behaviors and actions of an individual
or group of individuals in order to achieve harmony, unity, and order within a society (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
Defining morality, as to its intent and purpose, clarifies the essential features that everyone, who is subject to moral judgment,
determines what kind of actions are normally acceptable. Morality establishes the fundamental framework on the true intent and motive
behind every action and decision. Human intelligence can be a powerful guide in working out moral problems. However, Christians
have more than a reason to guide them and this is the person and life of Jesus Christ our Lord, the perfect norm of morality. (Living a
Christian Moral Life, 2013).
To compare therefore Ethics and Morality, they both study human acts and their goodness or badness; they both lay moral norms or
principles as guidelines as to how one ought to act and ought to be; they both use reason in analyzing, interpreting, and deciding proper
conduct in situations concerning moral dilemma; they both aim to form a moral person with mature character and create a just and
humane society. But what differentiates them is the fact that aside from using reason as the source of evaluating the validity of choice
amidst a moral decision making, only morality also uses Divine Revelation or the use of the Bible and other Church doctrines to support
the validity of its moral claims. It draws its inspiration for such moral stand from the person and life of Jesus Christ our Lord. Thus,
aside from a temporal goal of creating a better society in the present life, morality also aims for the more lasting goal which is to build
the Kingdom of God and to attain Eternal life.
Ethics and the other disciplines
1. Ethics and Psychology
"Ethics has something to do with what
my feelings tell me is right or wrong."
Many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a matter of following one's feelings. A person
following his or her feelings may recoil (withdraw) from doing what is right. In fact, feelings frequently deviate (departs) from what is
ethical. But it does not mean that the feeling of empathy, joy, anger, disgust and other feelings are totally not related to making moral
decisions. According to Aristotle, the very goal of human life is happiness. To reach this is moderation or the avoidance of extremes
which includes the use of his reason and his passion (extreme emotions). For example: Using inordinate passion (concupiscence) in
acting may result in bad actions. But without the feeling of empathy, I may not also be moved to do a good act like helping people who
are in need. Without the feeling of anger, I may not also be pushed to fight in defense of what is right.
2.
Ethics
and
Law
“Being ethical has something to
do with following the law.”
The law often incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like feelings, can deviate from
what is ethical. Simply abiding or following with what the Constitution says does not necessarily constitute an ethical act. For
example, there are laws that might have been adopted but are not necessarily ethical, but that they promote the interest of
some people like the lawmakers themselves (Example: Rice Tarrification Law in the Philippines and Divorce Law in
America).
Being ethical is not the same as following the law. While ethical people always try to be law-abiding, there may be instances where
your sense of ethics tells you it is best not to follow the law. These situations are rare and should be based on sound ethical reasons.
Here’s one example:
Assume you are coming home from the store one day and see a fast-moving fire approach your neighbor’s
house. You notice that the neighbor’s car is in the garage. The garage door entrance to the house is locked
as is the main entrance. You bang on the door and no one answers. You call the neighbor on your cell
phone and no one answers. You don’t think there is enough time to call the fire department ten miles away
before serious damage is done to the house. If you break into the house to save your neighbor, you break
the law. But if you opt not to break into the house, you will not break the law but you will not be able to save
your neighbor. What would you do next and why?
If you choose to break into the house to save your neighbor, then you break the law. However, you have acted out of concern
for the safety of your neighbor in a life-threatening situation thereby acting ethically (Mintz, S.,2010). However, if you choose
not to break into the house, then you will not break the law but you failed to be ethical towards your neighbor.
3. Ethics and Sociology
"Ethics has something to
do with the standards of
behavior our society
accepts."
Ethical standards are sometimes based on social norms but social norms are not the sole basis of ethical standards. Being
ethical is not the same as doing "whatever society accepts." In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact,
ethical. But standards of behavior in society can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can become ethically
corrupt. Moreover, if being ethical were doing "whatever society accepts," then to find out what is ethical, one would have
to find out what society accepts. To decide what I should think about abortion, for example, I would have to take a survey
of Filipino society and then conform my beliefs to whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries to decide on an ethical
issue by doing a survey. Further, the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate ethics with
whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do not. Yet even if everybody does, the issue of
abortion may still remain to be unethical.
4. Ethics and Religion
"Ethics has something to do with
my religious beliefs.“
No one should identify ethics with religion. Most religions, of course, advocate high ethical standards. Religion can set high ethical
standards and can provide intense motivations for ethical behavior. Yet if ethics were confined to religion, then ethics would apply only
to religious people and that particular ethical standard only apply to the members of a particular religion. But ethics applies as much
to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the devout religious person. Thus, ethics cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as
religion.
"I like your Christ, but not your Christianity." In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. J.H. ... Holmes said,
"I believe in the teachings of Christ, but you on the other side of the world do not, I read the Bible faithfully
and see little in Christendom that those who profess faith pretend to see.
"The Christians above all others are seeking after wealth. Their aim is to be rich at the expense of their
neighbors. They come among aliens to exploit them for their own good and cheat them to do so. Their
prosperity is far more essential to them than the life, liberty, and happiness of others.
"The Christians are the most warlike people. CHRISTIAN NATIONS SEEK WEALTH AND FIGHT MOST WARS.”
This article shows that membership to and beliefs in a particular religion does not necessarily imply that one is ethical. I
may believe in Christ and maybe baptized into Christianity but I may remain to be living in an unethical way of life. On the
other hand, I may not have known Christ and his teachings or may not have been baptized as a Christian (Or I may even
be a total Atheist) but I can still be ethical by the kind of life I live in relation to myself, others and my environment.
The
Ethics is very significant in the following aspects namely: Individual, Company, and Profession. Ethics deals with the principles
importance of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the society (community and environment), individual (personal relationship
of Ethics with
others),
and
profession
(company).
Individual
- Personal
sense
of
right
and
wrong
in
- Helps employees gain the trust of the people with whom they work
order
to
make
good
decisions
Ethics affect this aspect personally because an individual has his/her own point of reference, view, and opinion in dealing with personal
situations and occurrences. It helps the individual develop a sense of obligation in decision-making. Ethics is very crucial in the person’s
inner development since it involves the improvement of oneself, developing a sense of proper disposition as he/she situates himself/herself
from society. It develops the person to become better by being prudent, just, courageous, and moderate. It aims to make the person have
good and proper decisions. Also, it develops a sense of trust among people in the working setting. As a result, there will be a good human
relationship. But this is only possible when actions become habitual and are developed as a good habit (virtue).
Company
-Businesses
develop
ethics
to
help
them
- These ethics reflect a company’s belief about what actions
- Helps businesses gain the trust of customers, suppliers, and others
determine
are appropriate
how
and fair
to
behave
among people
With respect to the company environment, ethics play a crucial role in the working setting. It “controls business malpractices among workers
(employee and employer), creates a better relationship between employees and employers, improves customer satisfaction, service and
issues by having fair and reasonable business activities, increases profitability, improves business goodwill, better decision making, and
protects business’ reputation.
Profession
- Outlines professional responsibilities, values, standards, and rules of behavior
This aspect focuses on the ethical conduct of a profession. Ethics reminds the person of his responsibility and obligation in
relation to his profession. As the professional disposes of his/her duties, he/she establishes a strong corporate ethical culture. It
helps the person conform to the standards and conduct of his profession. So, the person’s disposition of his professional duties
with others, in work and society shows what kind of profession he/she manifests.
Everyday Ethics
Principles of Ethical Behavior
It’s not so much that The Golden Rule establishes a moral code for society as it provides guidance on how we should lead our daily lives. The Golde
Way We Want to be Treated. It is a mantra we should say over again as we navigate through the choppy waters of life’s experiences. The Chopra C
thought of “as a seed for energizing intention. You might say just as you plant a flower seed, you plant mantras in the fertile soil of practice. You nurtu
the fruit of your intention.”
Our intentions dictate whether we will act ethically when faced with life’s choices. Why should we tell a girlfriend that her husband is cheating on h
girlfriend and want to cause harm to her, or are we motivated by a desire to tell her something she has a right to know? Our intentions come from
because we have empathy for her situation, then we care about her and are committed to serve her best interests as a friend. We are loyal to her a
in return.
Ethics is prescriptive, not descriptive. Ethics teaches us what we ought to do, not what we do. We ought to treat others with kindness, compassion, re
an ethical person practices applying virtues, our character traits, in making everyday decisions. Virtues are the positive traits of character that inform
bedrock of virtue.
Imagine you are the quality control expert and your boss tells you to certify the product is 100% free of defects. However, you didn’t inspect the last ba
Do you agree to go along or refuse to certify? You feel the pressure and are concerned that your job may be in jeopardy if you refuse to certify. Bu
exist in that last batch and your child uses the product? In other words, consider what to do by personalizing the dilemma.
Ethical Principles go back to the ancient philosophers including Plato and Aristotle. They believed in virtue as a guide for ethical action. Immanuel
reason.” This is a concept that evaluates one’s motives for actions in deciding whether an action is right or wrong. Taken together, these philosop
formed from wisdom gained over time and through practicing virtue in everyday decisions. In other words, practice makes perfect.
My ethical principles are simple to remember. I limit the principles to five so that you can best incorporate them into your daily lives.
1. Make Things Better. Ethics requires that we improve life’s circumstances, not from a wealth perspective or success, but by e
Making things better is to lead a life of virtue -- strive to achieve happiness in our lives and avoid harming others.
2. Treat Others Fairly. The Golden Rule comes into play here. Ask yourself: Is this the way I would choose to be treated if the s
Treating others fairly means to treat them with respect.
3. Consider the Consequences of Your Actions. Our actions affect others. Remember that the ends do not justify the means. How
important as getting there. If this wasn’t so, we could rationalize abusing others in the name of achieving an end.
4. Respect the Rights of Others. How our lives go depends as much on whether we respect ourselves as much as respecting othe
of behavior in dealing with others as we do to ourselves. Be consistent in your actions.
5. Act with Integrity. Presidential Medal of Freedom winner, James Q. Wilson, writes about “The Moral Sense” and says: We must b
are, because we may become that. Integrity requires that we develop our character based on what Stephen Covey calls “natu
effectiveness. These laws exist whether we believe in them, value them, or not.
*** END of LESSON 2***