Psych ¾ revision
Unit 3: How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
AOS 1: How does the nervous system enable psychological functioning?
Chapter 02: Nervous system functioning
Central nervous system-brain + spinal cord *centre of body, central nervous system

Consists of the brain + spinal cord
 Spinal cord *not the same as the spine: passes sensory information from senses
to the brain, relays motor information from brain to skeletal muscles/body organs
*SAME: Sensory- Afferent, Motor- Efferent
 Is a cable of nerve tissue/fibres connecting the brain to the peripheral nervous
system.
 Encased by the vertebrae starting from base of the lower back all the way up
to the brain
 Brain: responsible for initiating and processing actions thoughts + behaviour
 Regulates + guides all parts of the nervous system
 Regulates bodily functions
 Receives information from outside world via senses
 Responsible for higher order thinking
 Is the origin of emotions
Peripheral nervous system- network of neurons

Comprised of muscles, organs, and glands

Carries information from sensory and internal organs to the central nervous system

Conveys information from brain to muscles organs and glands
*Two subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system include:
Somatic nervous system-voluntary movements

Responsible for sending motor messages from the CNS to the body’s skeletal
muscles and bringing sensory information from the muscles, organs and glands to
the CNS to formulate voluntary responses
*Remember this acronym- SAME: Sensory information- Afferent messages, Motor
information- Efferent messages

Sensory (afferent) neurons: transmit sensory neural messages about the body’s
sensations from PNS to CNS

Motor (efferent) neurons: transmit motor neural messages about voluntary movement
from CNS to PNS

Skeletal muscles: muscles involved in conscious, voluntary movement

Visceral muscles/organs/glands: body’s non skeletal muscles that self-regulate and
do not require conscious control *(such as the heart, digestive tract etc.)
Autonomic nervous system- involuntary movements

Responsible for connecting the CNS and body’s viscera muscles, organs and glands

Responsible for initiating the responses of the body’s visceral muscles (such as heart,
stomach and liver)

Sends feedback to the brain about the activity of visceral muscles, organs + glands
(most ANS muscles are self-regulating and require no conscious control, however we
can intentionally control them (such as our breathing, blinking etc.)
*Two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system include:
Sympathetic nervous system-flight/fright/freeze

Responsible for activating the body’s visceral organs, muscles + glands to prepare
for high levels of activity

Energizes the body to help escape from or survive a threat (sympathetic responses)
 Sympathetic responses include:
 Dilation of pupils so light can enter, enabling better sight
 Heart rate increases to energize the body for activity due to increased blood
flow
 Lung airways relax and expand to allow for increased oxygenation
 Digestion inhibited to allow for more essential bodily functions needed during
activity
 Adrenal glands secrete sweat to cool down the body and stress hormones to
energize the body
 Glucose is released for extra energy
Parasympathetic nervous system- rest/digest

Maintains optimal levels of functioning for visceral organs, glands and muscles

Returns body to ideal level of activity after the arousal of a sympathetic response
 Parasympathetic responses include:
 Constricts pupils according to light levels required to see optimally
 Heartbeat returns to normal bpm for inactivity
 Lung airways constrict for normal breathing rates
 Digestion resumes as no functions need to be inhibited
 Blood flow is directed evenly as skeletal muscles don’t need extra blood flow
for rapid movements
 Bladder constricts and is controlled
 Adrenal glands don’t secrete stress hormones and body is at rest
 Glucose is not released for energy
Responses to sensory stimuli- how the nervous system works together to coordinate a
response
1. Sensory stimulus is registered: the sensory receptors on a certain part of the body
register sensory signals, such as temperature (touching something hot), texture, light
etc.
2. Sensory information is integrated: the Peripheral nervous system sends a message
via the spinal cord up to the brain regarding the information registered by sensory
receptors
3. A motor response is coordinate: the brain integrates the information received by the
PNS, and relays back a motor response in return
4. A response occurs: the skeletal muscles of the part of the body with the relevant
sensory receptors respond accordingly according to the brains motor response
Example:
Sensory receptors on someone’s hands detect the pain of feeling hot water, the PNS sends
a sensory neural message to the brain via the spinal cord, the brain registers that the hand
needs to be moved away from the hot water and initiates a response for that to occur, the
skeletal muscles register the motor message, and the hand is moved away from hot water.
Spinal reflex- unconscious response to sensory stimuli

Unconscious responses to sensory stimuli occur involuntarily and automatically
without one’s awareness

Reflexes: unlearned and automatic

Spinal reflex is not initiated at the brain, rather the spinal cord for a quicker response
(the message does not have to travel so far up to the brain, but only the spinal cord,
meaning it occurs faster)

Enhances survival due to its quicker rate of occurrence (individual can respond faster
and save themselves from danger)

Occurs along the spinal sensory-motor circuit: instead of the message travelling from
PNS to CNS, it occurs along the spinal reflex arc
How the spinal reflex arc works
1. Sensation of sensory stimulus is detected on the sensory receptors of the body, and
a message is sent to the spinal cord via sensory neurons
2. The spinal cord, via interneurons immediately registers the message and relays a
motor message back to the skeletal muscles via motor neurons
3. The motor neurons signal the skeletal muscles of the body to respond immediately
and unconsciously
4. Sensory neurons then send neural impulses up to the brain to register any pain or
sensations felt (this is not for the initiation of a conscious response, rather just so the
body knows an unconscious response has occurred, and for memory and storage of
the information of the event that occurred)
Example:
Conscious motor responses vs. Unconscious motor responses to sensory stimuli
Conscious motor responses
Unconscious motor responses
Sensory receptors register the sensory
Sensory receptors register a sensory
stimulus, and sensory messages are sent
stimulus and send a message to the spinal
to the brain via the spinal cord
cord
Brain coordinates a conscious motor
Interneurons relay an
response by sending messages via the
automatic/unconscious response in the
PNS
skeletal muscles to the sensory stimulus
Skeletal muscles receive the motor
Sensory receptors send neural impulses to
response and act accordingly
the brain so the brain consciously registers
that a reflex response has occurred.
Role of the neuron

Neurons are nerve cells which transmit, receive and process information to
communicate messages across the nervous system in the brain and body

Neural communication occurs in one direction, where neurons carry a message
(smoothly) across the body one neuron at a time (extremely fast)

Neural transmission: when an electrochemical message is sent to another neuron,
muscle or gland *neural messages are referred to as electrochemical as chemicals
continuing the message are sent between neurons and this is powered by electrical
currents generated by the neuron itself

Neural reception: the message a neuron
receives from another neuron, muscle or
gland

Neurons are organised into networks across the body with distinct roles assigned to
each network for rapid neural transmission
Structure of the neuron
Dendrites: bushy branches at the end of a neuron which receive information from other
neurons
Soma: cell body which integrates information from dendrites to send to the axon
Axon: tubelike extensions which help carry the electrical impulse down from one end of the
neuron to the other (to send to the next neuron)
Myelin: fatty tissue and protein substance within the axons which insulates the axon,
enabling faster neural communication
Axon terminals: stores and secretes neurotransmitters
Role of neurotransmitters
How neural transmission occurs:
Neurotransmitter: chemical substance that carries information between neurons
Presynaptic neuron: the neuron that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse
Postsynaptic neuron: the neuron that receives neurotransmitters
Synaptic gap: the space in between two neurons where a message is sent
Synaptic buttons/terminal buttons: end of the presynaptic neurons axon terminals which
release neurotransmitters
Receptor sites: protein molecules located on the dendrites of a post synaptic neuron,
responsible for receiving neurotransmitters
Lock and key process

Neurotransmitter is released from a presynaptic neuron into the synaptic
gap/synapse

It then crosses the synapse to bind to the receptor sites of postsynaptic neurons,
which have their own distinct shape and size, similar to a lock

Similar to a key, the neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind to the post
synaptic receptor, causing it to “unlock” its potential and release a specific key,
causing it to either produce an excitatory or inhibitory response
Effects of neurotransmitters
Action potential: the electrical impulse sent down the axon (potential is the neural message
in electrical form)
Excitatory effects of neurotransmitters: Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitters bind to the receptor sites of the postsynaptic neuron

Increases the chances of the postsynaptic neuron firing action potential

Glutamate: excitatory neurotransmitter *(has specific receptor sites that it binds to in
the lock-and-key process)
 Essential for movement, thought, learning and memory *remember it as
glutamate, glutes, glute exercises (movement), action, excitatory, exercises
for the brain (thoughts, learning and memory)
 Insufficient glutamate levels will result in difficulty learning and memory
 Too much glutamate can cause over-excitation and cause nervous system
dysfunction or seizures
Inhibitory effects of neurotransmitters: GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitters bind to the receptor sites of the postsynaptic neuron

Decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing action potential

GABA: inhibitory neurotransmitter *(has specific receptor sites that it binds to in the
lock-and-key process)
 Responsible for counteracting the effects of an excitatory neurotransmitter
such as glutamate *remember it as GABA from the show Yo Gabba Gabba
where they would sometimes yell “STOP!” (inhibitory neurotransmitter, stops)
 Insufficiency in GABA levels can cause over excitation and lead to things
such as seizures and anxiety
 Regulates brain balance and function
Chronic nervous system changes due to neurotransmitter dysfunction

Neurotransmitters are essential in the right levels for optimal body functioning
 Lack of Glutamate would result in difficulties learning new information,
movement and memory
 Lack of GABA would result in over excitation of neurons and lead to anxiety
or seizure
Causes of neurotransmitter malfunction/interference:
 Neural loss/degeneration: not enough neurons to produce adequate neurotransmitter
levels
 Substance build-up in the synapses or between neurons which inhibit or slow down
transmission
 Substance competition with neurotransmitters at a neuron’s receptor site
 Bacteria using up neurotransmitters before they can be released into the synapse
Parkinson’s Disease

A progressive disease of the nervous system characterised by a decline in both
motor and non-motor functions

Occurs as a result of neural loss and reduction of dopamine
levels in the substantia nigra of the brain, due to the
degeneration of neurons within the basal ganglia
 Dopamine: the primary neurotransmitter responsible for
the coordination of voluntary movement and
experiences of pleasure/pain *remember Dopamine as
dope/doping (taking drugs to improve performance in
sports) doping in sport relates to movement and
rewards (pleasure) as does Dopamine in the body

Basal ganglia is the part of the brain responsible for coordinating movement and
regulates pain/pleasure feelings, and damage in this area results in a decrease in
dopamine production
 Due to this, the brain receives slowed or insufficient neural messages to
coordinate voluntary movements, resulting in specific motor symptoms to
characterise Parkinson’s disease
Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease
Motor symptoms
Non-motor symptoms
Muscle rigidity
Fatigue, constipation, decreased sense of
smell
Tremors (uncontrollable
Mental health problems such as depression
shaking)
due to the lack of feeling pleasure responses
Stooped posture
Increased temperature sensitivity
Slowed voluntary
Problems with cognition, memory and
movements + control
decision making
and precision of
movement + difficulty
balancing
Chapter 03: Stress as a psychobiological process
Types of Stress

Stress: psychological and biological experience that occurs when an individual
encounters something significant that demands attention or efforts to cope with

Stressor: a situation, event or object which may evoke feelings of stress and prompt
a stress response

Types of stress include: (these are very subjective)
 Eustress: a form of stress characterised by a positive psychological state,
such as excitement or motivation *eu sounds like “you”, and this form of
stress makes you happy (positive psychological state)
 Distress: a form of stress characterised by negative psychological states such
as worry or frustration
*Both types of stress produce a similar biological response
Sources of stress

Daily pressures: stressful occurrences of everyday life (small inconveniences that
occur naturally as a part of life)
 Example: losing belongings, being late somewhere, worries about
appearance, conflicts with friends/family, boredom etc.

Life events: stressors which change lifestyle in order to cope with the new
circumstances
 Example: marriage, having a baby, dating someone new, moving house,
career changes, etc.

Acculturative stress (culture shock): sources of stress which arise from being moving
into a foreign culture, especially when it is significantly different from the culture they
came from
 Examples: adapting to cultural and linguistic differences, feeling isolated or
culturally excluded, missing elements of ones own culture, etc.

Major stress: A form of stress that causes trauma and distress, generally when
situations are life threatening or present a biological and psychological threats to an
individual
 Example: experiencing or witnessing abuse or violence, being part of or
witnessing serious accidents (car accidents or major injuries), life threatening
or terminal illnesses

Catastrophes: large scale events which disrupt entire communities or populations
 Natural disasters, war, pandemics/epidemics, genocides etc.
Stress as a biological process

Flight fright freeze response: involuntary and automatic response to a threat that
takes
 Fight: organism confronts the threat, activation of the sympathetic nervous
system which energises it, ready to fight away the threat
 Flight: fleeing from threat as it is deemed as the safest option, activation of
the nervous system energizes organism to easily flee from the threat
 Freeze: body’s immobility and shock response to threat, stressor seems
threatening and acting immobile/dead is the safest option, parasympathetic
nervous system is activated as some bodily functions such as blood flow drop
below normal levels
Role of cortisol

Cortisol is a hormone released by the adrenal glands in times of stress

Helps the body in initiating and maintaining heightened arousal (increases the body’s
ability to fight the stressor): increases blood sugar levels, energizes the body,
reduces inflammation and improves metabolism

Decreases immunity

If activated for too long it can bring the body into exhaustion stage where the stressor
cannot be coped with anymore

Has a different pathway compared to neurotransmitters, taking longer to be secreted
into the body but lasting for prolonged periods of time, allowing the body to continue
dealing with the stressor
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
*Can be remembered using acronym SCARE: Shock, Countershock, Alarm reaction,
Resistance, Exhaustion (also because being SCAREd is a stressor)
Stage
Description
Role of Cortisol
Alarm reaction
Immediate reaction
Student made aware
that occurs when is
of how close their
made aware of a
exam date is
stressor
AR stage 1- Shock
Biological reactions
fall a little below
optimal functioning,
body acts injured
No cortisol release
Example
and ability to cope
with stressor is
decreased
AR stage 2-
Sympathetic
Cortisol release
countershock
nervous system
occurs
responses occur,
adrenaline,
noradrenaline are
released
Resistance
High levels of
Cortisol levels are
After a few months
physiological
sustained at a
of constant revising
arousal is
heightened level to
a student may fall
maintained, body
help the body fight
sick a few times but
adjusts to increased
with the stressor
continue studying for
hormone levels,
exams
sympathetic nervous
system responses
decrease in
intensity, immune
system is
suppressed and
individuals are more
susceptible to
getting sick
Exhaustion
Body’s ability to
Cortisol levels
Student falling sick
cope with stressor is
deplete and the
right after their
depleted, unable to
body’s ability to
exams and being
maintain heightened
respond to the
bedridden due to
arousal, experiences
stressor is reduced
exhaustion
of fatigue, sickness
etc. occur
Strengths and weaknesses of the GAS model
Strengths
Weaknesses
Explores relationship between stress and
Does not mention that the stress response
falling sick
is subjective
Identifies the biological processes
Findings are based on research with
associated with different stages of stress
animals and may not apply to humans
Stress as a psychological process
Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping
Primary appraisal

Evaluates the nature of the incoming stressor and what kind of stress it will cause, as
well as if it is perceived as:
 Benign positive: neutral/positive (not causing stress)
 Irrelevant: not presenting an issue or source of worry (not causing stress)
 Stressful: cause worry or force individual to respond in a certain way
If a stimulus is deemed as stressful, the next substage determines what kind of stress it is
perceived as:
 Harm/Loss: the stimulus has already caused damage for the individual, putting them
in distress
 Threat: perceived as potentially causing them damage in the future, causing distress
 Challenge: perceived as potentially providing a good opportunity for change/growth,
causing eustress
Secondary appraisal

Coping mechanisms needed to deal with stressor are evaluated

Beliefs that coping mechanisms may not work causes more stress

Believing that the individual has the mechanisms needed to cope with the stressor
reduces stress

Types of coping mechanisms:
Emotion focused coping- targets the
Problem focused coping- directly
emotional components of stressor
targeting the source of the stressor,
(targets how the stressor may make you
aiming to practically reduce it
feel)
Wishful thinking, denial, reframing
Seeking help or information, taking
situation, positive thinking, venting
action/planning, time
emotions, optimism
management/creating a plan on how to
cope

If insufficient resources are available, stress occurs

If coping resources are used, stress is reduced or eliminated

Lastly, reappraisal occurs (back to the start) with another stressor
Strengths and weaknesses of the Lazarus and Folkman’s model
Strengths
Weaknesses
Allows one to track a subjective stress
Chronological order may not be a true
response of an individual
reflection of the true stress response
Human subjects used, meaning more
Individuals may not realise why they feel
accurate
certain types of stress in primary appraisal
Provides suggestions on how to deal with a
Cannot be easily tested by research
stressor
Coping with stress

Context-specific effectiveness: when the coping strategy used is effective and
appropriate for the demands of the stressor

Coping flexibility: individual’s ability to adjust or change their coping strategy
depending on the unique and changing demands of the stressor
Coping strategies

Mechanisms and in the way an individual deals with stress such as exercise,
avoidant style coping strategies and approach style coping strategies
Benefits of exercise:
Psychological benefits
Physiological benefits
Provides an opportunity for social
Reduces intensity of sympathetic nervous
engagement (sport)
system
Provides a distraction from persistent
Releases endorphins which can elevate
stressors
mood and “use up” stress hormones such
as cortisol which can weaken the immune
system, causing further stress
Can cause relaxation due to the release of
Improves functioning of the cardiovascular
stressful energy
system, improving the body’s reaction to
stressors
Approach style coping strategies-
Avoidance style coping strategies- avoiding
practically solving the problem
the stressor
Seeking advice or counselling
Denial, wishful thinking
Targeting the stressor
Sleeping/exercise s
Making a plan to execute
Substance use
AOS 2: How do people learn and remember?
Chapter 04: Neural basis of learning and memory
Neural plasticity in learning and memory





The ability of the brain to physically change in response to an experience
Neurons can change as connections with other neurons form
Synaptic plasticity: ability of synapses between
neurons to form, strengthen or weaken
Long term potentiation: experience-based
increase in synaptic strength through high
frequency stimulation of synaptic pathway
 Dendrites become bushier, more
dendrites are formed,
neurotransmitters pass more often
 Hebb’s rule: Neurons that fire together,
wire together
Long term depression: experienced-based weakening in synaptic strength through
lack of stimulation of synaptic pathway
 Dendrites become less bushy, less receptor sites present, less
neurotransmitter passage occurs
Neurotransmitters vs Neurohormones
Neurotransmitters
Neurohormones
Sent to adjacent neurons
Released directly into the bloodstream
More immediate effect as they bind directly
Prolonged effect because their target cells
to a post-synaptic neuron
are more widespread in the body
Excitatory or inhibitory
Don’t have excitatory or inhibitory
distinction
Short lived immediate effects
Act for longer periods of time
Oxytocin – a neurohormone released during child birth (subdues the memory of physical
pain) – evolutionarily – women will have more children .
Glutamate and synaptic plasticity

Glutamate is a primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system

Helps create the necessary structural foundations of new memories that are
consolidated during learning *glutes are the foundation of our body (when we sitting
at least) so you can remember it as glutamate being important in making the
structural foundations of new memories
 By exciting postsynaptic neurons, it encourages long term potentiation during
learning, helping us remember and learn things better
Adrenaline and emotionally arousing experiences

Adrenaline: neurohormone released during times of emotional arousal *that
adrenaline rush can be associated with all sorts of emotions
 Prompts heightened physiological reactions such as increased blood
circulation, activates flight fight freeze response and consolidates emotionally
arousing memories
 The consolidation of emotionally arousing memories due to adrenaline
release is beneficial as remembering such experiences can help people avoid
harmful stimuli in the future

During an emotionally arousing experience:
 Adrenaline is released
 Adrenaline release stimulates the release of another hormone called
noradrenaline
 Amygdala is activated (the region of brain responsible for the consolidation of
emotionally arousing memories)
 The hippocampus works with the amygdala to help store these memories in
long term memory
Chapter 05: Models to explain learning
Classical conditioning


A model of learning in which organisms learn through involuntary association of two
or more stimuli
Occurs in 3 stages:
Before conditioning
 Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that originally produces no response
 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that produces a naturally occurring reflex
response
 Unconditioned response (UCR): the response to the UCS, a response that is naturally
occurring in response to particular stimuli (involuntary behaviour)
During conditioning
 NS is repeatedly paired with
UCS to produce an UCR
 Timing and order of pairing is
crucial for the conditioning to
occur: NS is presented almost
immediately before the UCS is
produced to ensure the
organism associates the neutral
stimulus with the
unconditioned response
originally produced by UCS
After conditioning
 Neutral stimulus now becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)
 Organism has learnt to respond to the conditioned stimulus in the same way it
would respond if presented with the UCS
 Newly learnt response is called the conditioned response (CR) which occurs in
response to the CS
Key terms:
 Acquisition: initial period of learning which occurs in classical conditioning
 Extinction: decrease in strength and eventual disappearance of the
conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented
with the conditioned stimulus
 Spontaneous recovery: sudden reappearance of the previously extinguished
conditioned response following a rest period
 Stimulus generalisation: organism only demonstrates the conditioned
response to the conditioned stimulus and no stimulus similar
 Stimulus discrimination: organism demonstrates the conditioned response to
a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus
Little Albert experiment
Ethical considerations:

Participant rights:
albert could not advocate for
himself, and records do not show
his mother exercising participant
rights either

Withdrawal rights:
experimenters did not view Little
Albert’s distress as an indication
that they should withdraw and
persisted instead

Confidentiality:
widely available public records of
the experiment were available, not
fulfilling confidentiality

Informed consent: mother did not know full details of the experiment and was not
able to make informed decisions about Albert’s participation in the experiment

Debriefing: Little Albert’s conditioned response was not extinguished as his mother
moved away before the conclusion of the experiment

No harm principle: Little Albert was put under a lot of psychological distress

Beneficence: experiment provided insight on many concepts which helped modern
psychology, but it did not outweigh the harm little albert was caused
Operant conditioning

Learning through the association of a behaviour and the consequence it receives

Three phase model: ABCs

Antecedent: anything in the learner’s environment that triggers a response (voluntary
behaviour)

Behaviour: voluntary action in response to the stimulus

Consequence: event that follows the behaviour either making the person more or
less likely to repeat the behaviour.
Types of consequences:

Reinforcement: increases the likelihood of learner repeating the behaviour
 Positive reinforcement: when a reward is ADDED to encourage a behaviour
e.g., receiving a prize, allowance etc.
 Negative reinforcement: when a negative factor is TAKEN AWAY to encourage
a behaviour e.g., a break from chores, no longer needing to study etc.

Punishment: decreases the likelihood of learner repeating the behaviour
 Positive punishment: when a stimulus is ADDED in order to discourage a
behaviour from occurring again e.g., allocation of extra chores, receiving a
poor grade on reports etc.
 Response cost (negative punishment): when a stimulus is REMOVED in order
to discourage behaviour e.g., less screentime, confiscation of devices etc.
Terminology in terms of operant conditioning

Stimulus discrimination: when the behaviour occurs in response to only one specific
antecedent

Stimulus generalisation: when the behaviour occurs in response to a similar
antecedent

Spontaneous recovery: behaviour occurs even when learner is not exposed to the
consequence after some time

Extinction: extinction of learned behaviour occurs due to not being exposed to the
consequence for a period of time
Observational learning

a type of learning that occurs through watching the actions of a model and the
consequences of their actions (aka social learning, vicarious conditioning, modelling)

behavioural aspects of an individual
Stages of observational learning *Remember as ARRMR
Attention: learners actively focus and pay attention on the actions of the model in order to
learn
Retention: learner must create a mental representation and remember the behaviour the
model has demonstrated
Reproduction: learner must have physical and mental capabilities to reproduce the
behaviour
Motivation: learner must want to reproduce the behaviour in order for learning to occur
Reinforcement: if the learner receives a desirable consequence for their behaviour they are
more likely to repeat it in the future
Reproducing a behaviour is influenced by multiple factors (e.g. perceived importance of that
model)
Social Learning Theory --> importance of social context/environment, of behaviours and
consequences, of modelling, of cognitive factors
Seeing someone else being punished has a lower influence on our behaviour than when we
are reinforced for that same behaviour (rewards have a stronger impact on the learner than
punishments)
Chapter 06: Process of Memory
Aktinson-Shiffrin model of memory

Encoding: converting raw information from a stimulus into a useable form which can
be stored in the brain

Storage: retaining converted information from a stimulus to access in future

Retrieval: accessing information which has previously been stored in the brain
Types of memory
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
18-30 seconds
Relatively
(iconic/echoic)
Duration
0.2-4 seconds
Iconic: 3-4 secs
Echoic: 0.2-0.4 secs
permanent
Capacity
Unlimited
5-9 items
Unlimited
Function
Retain information
Pay conscious
Store information
detected by senses
attention to
which can be
in a raw sensory
information
accessed in the
form
future
Iconic- visual info
Echoic- auditory info
Memory and the brain
Types of long-term memory

Explicit memories *explicit = explicitly needing to be remembered (declarative
memories): memories which require conscious awareness to remember
 Semantic memory: information of general knowledge or facts
 Episodic memory: biographical events *an episode of your life


Implicit *Implicit= does not need to be remembered (im=no)
memories: memories which can be retrieved unconsciously
 Procedural memory: memory involving how to carry out tasks facilitated by
motor skills
 Classically conditioned memory: memory involving an involuntary response
such as a fear response or emotionally arousing memory
Areas of the brain
involved in the
storage of longterm memories
Cerebral cortex

Outermost layer of the brain (2mm thick)
 Covers majority of the brains surface and stores memories in particular
locations depending on the type of memory and where it is processed

Stores long term explicit memories (semantic and episodic)

Neural connection is possible between memories as they are all stored in the
cerebral cortex
 Enhances understanding of how various concepts and memories are
interrelated
Hippocampus

Explicit memories are encoded in the hippocampus then stored in the cerebral cortex

Involved in the consolidation of explicit memories

Works with the amygdala to store emotionally arousing memories in the cerebral
cortex
Amygdala

Encoding and consolidating emotionally arousing charged memories (classically
conditioned memories)

Amygdala signals to the Hippocampus that a certain emotionally arousing memory is
meaningful, and the Hippocampus assists in consolidating that memory more clearly
and enhances the strength of that memory
Cerebellum

Encodes and stores implicit procedural memories
 Involved in the process of motor control, balance, and coordination
Chapter 07: Reliability of memory
Brain trauma and neurodegenerative disease


Brain trauma: damage from an external force (physical brain changes outside the
individual’s control)
Brain surgery: treatment of brain injury with the use of medical instruments (may
involve taking parts of the brain out permanently and can cause long term damage)
 Can disrupt interactions between various parts of the brain and impair the
storage of long-term memories:
Brain structure
Cerebral cortex
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Cerebellum
Impact on storage of long-term memories
Impacts the storage of explicit memories (semantic and episodic)
Issues encoding classically conditioned memories (emotional
memories)
Issues encoding and consolidation of explicit memories
Issues encoding some implicit memories and storage of procedural
memories
Anterograde amnesia

Condition where new explicit memories cannot be effectively consolidated after
trauma to the hippocampus *anterograde = after trauma
 Someone with damage to the hippocampus during a sporting match who was
driven to the hospital may not remember being driven there or the way to
the hospital, but they would remember past life events etc. unless their
cerebral cortex is also damaged
Neurodegenerative disease- Alzheimer’s disease




Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterised by the progressive
loss (degeneration) of neurons in the hippocampus in the brain (a person with
Alzheimer’s experiences anterograde amnesia and are unable to consolidate new
long-term memories)
Neuron death begins in the hippocampus and advances towards the cerebral cortex
(disrupts the storage of past explicit memories, causing an individual to forget
various pieces of information about their past, and have difficulty remembering new
events which have just occurred)
Other symptoms include:
 the inability to recognise faces of family, personality changes and a gradual
loss of identity
 Brain matter eventually decreases represented by the progressive loss of
neurons
 Decrease in cognitive functions
 Mood and emotion changes
 Confusion and disorientation
 Linguistic difficulties
Causes of Alzheimer’s:
 Amyloid plaques: fragments of protein (betaamyloid) gather around neurons in insoluble
plaques inhibiting neural communication
 Neurofibrillary tangles: a protein (tau) forms
insoluble tangles within neurons, inhibiting
transport of essential substances throughout the
neuron and eventually killing it altogether
Factors affecting memory

Forgetting: inability to retrieve previously stored information (info may still be in
memory, but there’s an issue with retrieval)

Retrieval cue: any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering info
(acts as a prompt or hint that guides the search and recovery process
o Retrieval failure theory: lack/fail to use correct cues to retrieve stored info
(cue-dependent forgetting)

Context dependent cues: stimuli in the physical environment where a memory is
learnt that act as a prompt to retrieve memories formed in that event
 Example: if a performer learnt their lines on a set, they are more likely to
remember their lines on that particular set
State dependent cues: aspects of an individuals psychological and physiological
(bodily) experiences at the time a memory is formed that later act as a prompt to
retrieve that memory
 Example: if you watched a horror movie which caused you distress, you are
more likely to recall events of that movie in times of distress
 Note: mood is also a state dependent cue

Types of rehearsal



Rehearsal: process of actively manipulating info so that it can be retained in memory
Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information over and over again to retain it in
short term memory (aims to extend the duration of short-term memory)
 Doesn’t involve any encoding of the information into long-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal: linking new info in a meaningful way to information that is
already learnt and stored in long term memory
 Info is more likely to be stored in long-term memory
 Self-reference effect: relating new info to personal experiences and our
personal situation – encoding is enhanced and therefore we are more likely
to remember it
Maintenance
Elaborative
More active (takes more energy)
More effective (ensures info is encoded
well)
More efficient (more likely that info will be
retrieval)
E.g. remembering episodic memory by
knowing that it refers to episodes in her life
Serial position effect

A tendency for free recall to be superior for items at the beginning and end of the list
compared to items in the middle of the list because of the:
 Primacy effect: items at the beginning of a list are remembered as the
information receives more information, is rehearsed longer, and
transferred into long term memory
 Recency effect: items at the end of a list are remembered as they are still
stored/remain in short term memory
Memory retrieval

Recall: retrieving information from memory
 Free recall: retrieving information in any order without any prompts
 Cued recall: retrieving information with the use of a prompt
 Serial recall: retrieving information in the particular order it was encoded


Recognition: identifying information from memory amongst a list of alternatives
Relearning: learning information another time after already initially learning it in the
past
Reconstruction: process of reproducing and piecing together information from
memory in an attempt to form a coherent representation of a past events or stimuli

Reconstruction in Loftus’s research


Elizabeth Loftus invested the effect of eyewitness testimony
Leading questions: questions that contain information that imply or prompt a certain
response (for example: “what colour shirt was the man with the gun holding?” 
the individual could have been male or female, they also may not have been wearing
a shirt, but the question makes you think otherwise)
Experiment:
1. Participants were shown videos of a car crash
2. They were then interviewed, where participants were asked the leading question
“about how fast were the cars going when they ____ into each other?”
3. Various verbs such as smashed, collided, bumped etc. (implying different speeds)
were used
4. IV: different verbs used to indicate different, DV: participants reported speed of the
cars in the crash video
Results:
Conclusion:



memory is fallible (prone to error/does not always remember all details correctly,
can be influenced)
due to the leading question, participants reconstructed their memories by adding
the new information presented to them in the leading question with what was
already stored in long term memory
this proves eyewitness testimony is susceptible to being reconstructed during
retrieval to include false information
 this is because our memories are not solid or rigid concepts, rather the brain
retains some pieces of information and attempts to make an “educated guess”
to fill in the missing pieces of information automatically, causing us to forget
details or have memories influenced by leading questions
Unit 4 : How is wellbeing developed and maintained?
AOS 1: How do levels of consciousness affect mental processes and behaviour?
Chapter 08: Nature of consciousness
States of consciousness




consciousness: awareness of internal and external stimuli
 internal stimuli: thoughts, feelings, etc.
 external stimuli: outer environment, surroundings etc.
it is a psychological construct that is understood as a continuum consisting of points
relating to normal waking consciousness from different altered states of
consciousness
 it is referred to as a psychological construct as it cannot be overtly measured
or observed
Normal waking consciousness: being awake and aware of internal/external stimuli
 Can voluntary direct attention and awareness towards something specific
Altered states of consciousness: different levels of awareness compared to normal
waking consciousness
 Perceptual/cognitive distortions, less awareness of external/internal stimuli
There are 2 types of altered states of consciousness:
 Naturally occurring states of consciousness: occur without intervention such
as daydreaming, drowsiness, sleep etc.
 Induced altered states of consciousness: occurs due to a purposeful action,
such as meditation, drugs, hypnosis, alcohol etc.
Features of states of consciousness
*ACCEPTS: Awareness, Content limitations, Controlled/autonomic processes, Emotional
awareness, Perceptual/cognitive distortions, Time orientation, Self-control
Feature
Awareness
NWC
Awareness of both internal
and external stimuli
Content limitations- ability
to control thoughts/content
Controlled/automatic
processes
Controlled processes- tasks
that require high levels of
mental processing
Automatic processes- tasks
that require low levels of
mental processing
Emotional awareness
Content is able to be limited
Perceptual/cognitive
distortions
Perception and cognition is
an accurate representation
of reality
Mostly an accurate
reflection of time passing in
reality
Control over thoughts,
feelings, and actions
Time orientation
Self-control
Both controlled and
automatic processes are
possible
Ability to understand and
control emotions, reactions
are appropriate to scenario
ASC
Decreased levels of
awareness of internal and
external stimuli
Content limitations are
reduced
More mistakes with
automatic processes and
difficulty with controlled
Reduced ability to
understand/control
emotions, heightened or
dulled emotional reactions
Perception and cognition
may be different from
reality
Time may feel as if its going
slower/faster than reality
Reduced levels of selfcontrol
Measuring consciousness
Physiological measures of consciousness
 EEG: detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the brain
 EMG: detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the body’s muscles
 EOG: detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the eye’s muscles
Cognitive tasks- speed/accuracy
 Cognitive task: a task designed as a form of assessment that measures some aspects
of a person’s state of consciousness
 Speed: rate at which a person responds to a stimulus in a task
 Accuracy: how much precision a person demonstrates when completing a task
Subjective reporting of consciousness

A method of data collection involving accounts directly from the individual about
aspects of their behaviour, biology, or psychology
 Sleep diaries: self-reported qualitative descriptions of an individual’s sleep
period, quality of sleep etc. this information is recorded over a period of time
 subjective measure can inform psychologists about affects of an altered
state of consciousness which can be found nowhere else, however it may not
be accurate
 Video monitoring: provides behavioural data about sleep, provides data
specific to the individual to track their sleeping and waking patterns,
movements, activities etc.
Alertness, brain wave patterns and drug-induced ACS
Types of brain wave patterns


Frequency: how many brain waves are there per second
Amplitude: intensity of the electrical current
Types of brain waves
*Order of highest to lowest frequency, highest to lowest amplitude: BAT-D (beta, alpha,
theta, delta)

Beta waves: Highest frequency, lowest amplitude waves indicating very high levels of
awareness

Alpha waves: second highest frequency, second lowest amplitude indicating reduced
levels of alertness and wakefulness

Theta waves: second lowest frequency, second highest amplitude indicating low
levels of alertness

Delta waves: lowest frequency, highest amplitude waves, indicating lowest levels of
alertness
Effects of stimulants on brain wave patterns

Stimulants: a class of drugs that increase the central nervous system and body
activity, increasing levels of alertness compared to NWC
 Energizing effect on the brain and body
 Increase in frequency, decrease of amplitude of brain wave patterns
 Examples of stimulants: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines,
methamphetamines
Effects of depressants on brain wave patterns

A class of drugs that reduce central nervous system and body activity, reducing levels
of alertness compared to NWC
 Decrease levels of alertness
 Induce relaxation and reduce inhibitions
 Increase amplitude, decrease frequency of brain wave patterns
 Examples of depressants: opiates, alcohol
Chapter 09: Importance of sleep
Sleep rhythms


Circadian rhythms: 24 hour cycles involving various physiological changes
 Sleep-wake cycle consisting of time spent sleeping + time spent awake
Ultradian rhythms: cycles which occur within 24 hour cycles (more than once)
 one sleep cycle consisting of NREM and REM sleep
REM Sleep vs NREM sleep
REM Sleep: rapid eye movement sleep










Rapid eye movement occurs under closed eyelids
sleeper is virtually paralysed (no muscle movement possible)
not subdivided in any stages
dreaming tends to occur (dreams are recalled if someone wakes from REM sleep)
Amount of time spent in REM increases over the duration of the sleep cycle (largest
amount
Makes up around 20-25% of a sleep cycle
Replenishes psychological functioning
Restores neurotransmitter levels in the body
Maintains neural pathways through stimulation
Enhances learning, growth + memory
NREM sleep: non-rapid eye movement









No eye movement occurs
Muscle movement is possible
Makes up around 75-80% of a sleep cycle
Dreams are not usually recalled if awoken in NREM sleep
Replenishes physiological functioning
Repairs damaged cells and tissues
Detoxifies muscles
Helps recover from fatigue
Has 4 substages:
 NREM 1 (hypnic jerks occur) + NREM 2 (delta wave activity occurs): light sleep,
person may not realise they were awake if woken up from NREM ½ sleep
 NREM 3 (delta brain activity increases) + NREM 4: deep sleep, person would
feel drowsy and disorientated if woken up from these stages
Purpose + Function of sleep
REM Sleep
Replenishes psychological functioning
Restores adequate neurotransmitter levels
Maintains neural pathways through
stimulation
Enhances learning and memory
consolidation
NREM Sleep
Replenishes psychological functioning
Repairs damaged cells and tissues
Detoxifies muscles
Enables physical growth
Evolutionary theory of sleep





Sleep wake cycle requires/revolves around the need for light
Humans have evolved to sleep during the night in order to survive nocturnal
predators
Daylight is needed to find food, water etc.
Predators don’t need to sleep much as they have less risks of being attacked
Grazing animals need less sleep as they are at more risk of being attacked and need
to be awake
Strengths
Furthers an understanding of the purpose
and function of sleep
Provides a link between the circadian
nature of sleep and the timing of sleep
Weaknesses
Doesn’t address our specific need to sleep,
does not mention benefits of sleep on
mental health
Does not account for how sleeping puts an
organism at risk from lack of awareness
Limited evidence to support theory
Restoration theory of sleep




Both REM and NREM sleep have restorative functions
When we’re sick, sleep duration is increased, and we feel better afterwards
NREM sleep repairs physiological functions such as damaged cells, muscles get
detoxified etc.
REM sleep repairs psychological functioning by restoring adequate neurotransmitter
levels, maintaining neural pathways by stimulation and promoting learning and
memory consolidation
Strengths
Weaknesses
Furthers understanding of the purpose and Doesn’t account for why disabled/mentally
function of sleep
ill people sleep the same amount as able
people do
Addresses our specific need to sleep
No relationship between REM and NREM
sleep and what exactly is restored
Does not account for why sleep is
beneficial for mental health
Limited evidence to support theory
Sleep across the lifespan
Age group
Hours of sleep per
night
Proportion of
NREM and REM
sleep
50% REM, 50%
NREM
Neonatal (1-15
days)
16
Infant (3-24
months)
13.5
35% REM, 65%
NREM
Childhood (2-14
years)
11
20% REM, 80%
NREM
Adolescence (14-18
years)
8.5 hrs
20% REM, 80%
NREM
Adulthood (18-75
years)
6-7.75
20% REM, 80%
NREM
Old age (75+ yrs)
5.75
20% REM, 80%
NREM
Purpose/reason
Babies are young
and still developing
physiological and
cognitive
functioning,
therefore need
equal amounts of
both
As a child grows
older their physical
activity level
increases, meaning
they require more
NREM sleep
Increased physical
activity requires
more NREM sleep
Increased physical
activity requires
more NREM sleep
Increased physical
activity requires
more NREM sleep
Increased physical
activity requires
more NREM sleep
Chapter 10: Sleep disturbances and possible treatments
Sleep deprivation

Inadequate duration or poor quality of sleep
 Total sleep deprivation: when an individual hasn’t slept within a 24 hr
period
 Partial sleep deprivation: when an individual has had some sleep within
24hrs, but has had inadequate hours of sleep, or poor quality of sleep
Impacts of sleep deprivation

Affective effects of sleep deprivation: emotional responses
 Amplified emotions
 Increased irritability
 Heightened anxiety levels
 Inappropriate emotional reactions
 Decreased motivation

Cognitive effects of sleep deprivation: mental processes an individual performs
to understand and process information
 Decreased ability to focus and retain information
 Poorer performance on cognitive tasks
 Reduced ability to cope with stress
 Negative effects on memory
 Illogical + irrational thoughts
 Difficulty performing repetitive tasks

Behavioural effects of sleep deprivation: physiological actions
 Reduced motor control and clumsiness
 Reduced special awareness
 Slower reaction times
 Lack of energy
 Hand tremors
 Muscle aches
Sleep deprivation and blood alcohol concentrations (BAC)





Blood alcohol concentration: measure of how much alcohol is in a person’s blood
One full night’s sleep deprivation has some comparable effects on consciousness
to having a blood alcohol concentration of 0.10
BAC level of 0.05 is roughly equivalent to 17 hours of sleep deprivation
Due to this, affective, cognitive and behavioural processes are impaired almost
identically to how sleep deprivation would, as listed above^
Due to this, driving on the road with inadequate sleep is the equivalent of drunk
driving, which can cause:
 Slower reaction times
 Impaired cognition
 Perceptual distortions on the road
 Poorer concentration
 Worse mood which can affect driving performance
 These can lead to road accidents and injuries while driving
Circadian phase disorders



Sleep disorder which interferes with the regulation of a normal circadian rhythm,
leading to a change in the sleep-wake cycle
Leads to excessive sleepiness during the day and difficulties falling asleep at night
Examples of circadian phase disorders include:
Circadian phase disorder
Sleep wake shifts in adolescence
Shift work
Jet lag
Impact on sleep-wake cycle
 Release of melatonin (sleep
inducing hormone) is delayed
 This leads to a delayed sleeponset (feeling sleepy later)
 This can cause a teen to fall asleep
later hours of the night, reducing
their
 Irregular sleep-wake cycles
(unable to maintain consistent
sleep wake cycle due to different
shift times)
 Inconsistent exposure to light can
cause an inability to sleep at
night/stay awake during the day
 This can lead to sleep onset
insomnia and even injuries or
fatigue during work
 Environment doesn’t match up
with an individual’s circadian
rhythm
 Experiences fatigue and irritability
during waking hours
 Difficulty aligning sleep schedule
with environment
Sleep disorders



Sleep disorder: consistent presence of a particular sleep disturbance which impacts a
person’s ability to initiate or maintain sleep
Dyssomnia: type of sleep disorder where an individual finds it difficult to initiate or
maintain sleep, leading to fatigue during the day and excessive levels of sleepiness
 Sleep-onset insomnia: type of dyssomnia where a person has difficulty
initiating sleep, but can sleep soundly throughout the night once asleep
 It reduces the quality of sleep, causes frustration about the inability to sleep,
which makes initiating sleep even harder
Parasomnia: a type of sleep disorder characterised by abnormal events occurring
during sleep (such as walking, talking etc.)
 Sleep walking: a parasomnia where an individual gets up and performs
activity while asleep, without realising it (unless told by others)
 Inappropriate behaviours or daily tasks are randomly completed by the
person as they are asleep
 Causes poor quality of sleep and make someone unable to fall asleep if
woken during an episode
 Occurs during ¾ NREM
Sleep disorder interventions
Cognitive behavioural therapy




Used to treat insomnia
Works by replacing unhealthy thoughts regarding sleep with healthier thoughts
Identifying a person’s thoughts and behaviours that inhibit sleep and substituting
them with thoughts and behaviours which promote sleep
Unhelpful thoughts may include: sleep is hard to initiate, racing thoughts when its
time to sleep, fear of dreams/events which occur during sleep, anxiety about life
events (these are replaced with positive and healthy thoughts such as falling asleep
is possible etc.)

Unhealthy behaviours may include: taking naps throughout the day, being on
screens before bedtime, taking stimulants before bed etc. which are replaced with
healthy behaviours such as no phones for a certain period before bedtime etc.
Bright light therapy




Used to treat circadian phase disorders
Adjusts the sleep-wake cycle by exposing individual to artificial light which resembles
the sun, and hormonally induce wakefulness in the body
Exposure sessions can go from 15mins-2hrs and are conducted a few times a day,
whenever the person feels drowsy throughout the day, helping their sleep-wake
cycle gradually shift to match their required sleep-wake times
For bright light therapy to work:
 Appropriate timing of exposure sessions: exposure sessions should occur
whenever a person feels sleepy
 Right amount of light: intensity of light and length of exposure sessions must
be appropriate to the person’s disorder and desired changes to circadian
rhythm
 Safe exposure: face should be adequate distance away from light source
(individual does not have to directly look at the light)
AOS 2: What influences wellbeing?
Chapter 11- Defining mental health
Defining mental health


Mental health: the current state of a person’s psychological wellbeing and
functioning
Mental health continuum: a tool used to track progression of mental health which is
constantly changing- progressing from mentally healthy to mental health problems
to mental health disorders

Mentally healthy: individuals who can independently and effectively function
within their daily life (coping with demands of life without showing an excessive
level of distress), characterised by:
 High levels of functioning
 Able to cope with stress/demonstrate resilience
 Be productive and cope with the demands of everyday life
 Maintain positive relationships
 Able to regulate emotions and express them appropriately

Mental health problems: a degree or disturbance or dysfunction within the
individual which is recognisable but not severe which reduces their ability to
function at an optimal level (can have a negative impact on an individual’s daily
functioning), characterised by:
 Not functioning at optimal level
 Temporary impact on mental health
 Amplified emotions or levels of stress
 Difficulty concentrating
 Irrational thought patterns

Mental health disorders: a psychological state characterised by the presence of a
severe disturbance and sense of distress which significantly impacts an
individual’s ability to function independently function, characterised by:
 Severe and profound impact on an individual’s daily life and ability to
function
 Not likely to be described as healthy due to the high levels of mental
distress exhibited
 Unable to independently complete tasks and meet the demands of their
environment
 Behaviours don’t match society’s norms
 Diagnosable and treatable through therapy or medication
 Example of a mental health disorder is an anxiety disorder, characterised
by extreme levels of worry which impacts daily life and functioning,
irrational thoughts may also be experienced which indicates the lack of
mental healthiness
Internal factors influencing mental health




Stress response
Thought patterns
Genetic predisposition (vulnerability due to genes)
Amount of sleep
External factors



Loss of a significant relationship
Level of education
Experiencing difficulty in certain environments such as school or work
Characteristics of a mentally healthy person




High levels of functioning: carrying out everyday tasks effectively, maintaining
personal relationships and being communicative, being productive, setting goals and
achieving them, being independent, adapting to changes etc.
Social and emotional wellbeing: having a strong support network, feeling valued by
others, ability to form new relationships, having empathy, ability to effectively
communicate
Emotional wellbeing: being sensitive to others’ emotions, having a wide range of
emotions, expressing emotions appropriately at the right time, responding and
coping with stressors effectively
Resilience to stressors: ability to adapt to their environment and bounce back from
any shortcomings and difficulties in life, having high self-esteem, more confidence
carrying out tasks, increased coping flexibility
Ethics in mental health
Ethical consideration
Description
Informed consent
Ensuring participants
understand the procedure
and risks involved in the
research they are taking
part in, and giving consent
accordingly
Use of a placebo treatment
Procedure or substance
with no active treatment
Implications in mental
health research
some participants may be to
mentally unwell or have
reduced cognitive
functioning which inhibits
them from giving consent,
making caregivers give
consent for them instead
Putting people with a
mental health condition on
placebo treatments when
they genuinely need their
medicines can prolong
mental health disorders and
prevent recovery, as well as
increase levels of stress
Chapter 12- Mental health disorders and risk factors
4P Model of stress
Risk factors
What they do
Examples
Predisposing
factors
Increase the
likelihood of
developing a
mental health
disorder
Personality
traits
Disorganised
attachment
Genetic
vulnerability
Precipitating
factors
Increase the
chance of
developing a
mental health
disorder or lead
to the
occurrence of a
mental health
disorder
Poor sleep
Substance use
Stress
Perpetuating
factors
Limit the chance
of recovering
from a mental
health disorder
(continue the
mental health
disorder from
happening)
Protective
factors
Enable the
maintenance of
mental health
and prevent
people from
developing a
mental health
disorder
Rumination
Impaired
memory and
reasoning
Stigma as a
barrier to
accessing
treatment
Adequate diet
Cognitive
behaviour
strategies
Support from
friends and
family
Biological risk factors of mental health disorders
4p model
predisposing
Precipitating
Biological risk factor
Genetic vulnerability- a person’s physically
inherited makeup which makes them
vulnerable to a specific disorder due to
family history (outside their control)
Poor sleep- inability to restore
neurotransmitter levels, maintain neural
pathways, focus/learn/remember, inability
to recover from general fatigue
Substance use- use of drugs which can
harm the body when in use, which directly
lead to mental health disorders as it
Perpetuating
compromises levels of functioning without
the drug
Poor response to medication due to genetic
factors- genetic factors that limit the
effectiveness of a medication, limiting a
person’s ability to recover from a disorder
Psychological risk factors of mental health disorders
4P model
Predisposing- increase susceptibility
Precipitating- contribute to the occurrence
of
Perpetuating- inhibits recovery
Protective factors
Psychological risk factors
Poor self-efficacy- reduced confidence an
individual has about their ability to
complete tasks and meet their goals, which
inhibits an individual from completing tasks
Impaired reasoning and memory- not being
able to remember a situation correctly or
make rational decisions (limits ability to
think rationally, causing disorders)
Stress- individuals appraisal with a stressor
and whether or not they feel they will meet
the demands of it (if one thinks the stressor
cannot be coped with, it can cause
disorders)
Rumination- negative thought patterns
where an individual keeps thinking about a
negative experience or thoughts until it
becomes overwhelming/distressful
Reduces / prevents the occurrence or
recurrence of a mental disorder. May or
may not related to a specific disorder (e.g.
social support is relevant to many
disorders)
Social risk factors of mental health disorders
4p model
Predisposing
Precipitating
Social risk factor
Disorganised attachment- infant displaying
inconsistent behaviour towards their main
caregiver when they are not provided with
consistent and adequate support, this
causes an inability to trust important
people
Loss of a significant relationship- stressful
Perpetuating
situations are created which have not been
dealt with before, making it difficult to cope
Stigma as a barrier from accessing
treatment- stigma is a mark of shame or
disgrace experienced by an individual for a
characteristic which distinguishes them
from others, stigma related to mental
health can prevent people from seeking the
right help they need
Cumulative risk


Increased risk of developing a mental health disorder that occurs when an individual
experiences multiple bio/psycho/social risk factors at the same time
Impact is greater when there are multiple factors than just one, increasing
susceptibility to developing a mental health disorder
Chapter 13- Biopsychosocial approach and specific phobia
Stress vs. phobia vs. anxiety
Stress
Sympathetic nervous
system is activated
Can be eustress or distress
Response is to a known
stimulus
Phobia
Sympathetic nervous
system is activated
Only distress
Response is to a known
stimulus
Feelings can be either
positive or negative
Can be adaptive
Can lead to a certain mental
health disorder
Predominant feeling is of
fear
Is maladaptive
Is a diagnosed mental
health disorder
Anxiety
Sympathetic nervous
system is activated
Only distress
Response can be
generalised or to an
unknown stimulus
Feelings of apprehension,
unease or worry
Can be adaptive
Can lead to a certain mental
health disorder
Contributing factors of phobia
Type of factor
Factor
Description
Biological
GABA
dysfunction
Biological
Role of the
stress response
Insufficient neural
transmission of GABA can
lead to someone’s FFF
response activating more
easily at a certain stimulus
as there is nothing to
inhibit the response from
occurring
Activation of the
autonomic nervous
system responses occur,
and eventually the
psychological experience
of fear comes to be
associated with a certain
stimulus
Biological
Long term
potentiation
Psychological
Precipitation by
classical
conditioning
strengthening of the
neural connections
involved in perceiving a
stimulus and neural
signals associated in
activating the fear
response
Phobic stimulus starts out
as a neutral stimulus,
through repeated
association with an
Interventions for biological
factors
Benzodiazepines- type of
short acting anxiety
medication that reduces
anxiety which act on the
over excitation of neurons
by amplifying the inhibitory
role of GABA at the synapse
Relaxation techniquesbreathing retraining:
teaching someone to
control their breathing
when in the presence of a
phobic stimulus
Exercise: works off
hormones such as cortisol’s
effects on the body,
releases endorphins which
improve mood and help
avoid stressful situations
Cognitive behavioural
therapy- method used to
help replace unhealthy
thoughts about and
unconditioned stimulus
that causes fear, the NS
becomes the CS and the
response becomes CR.
Perpetuation by A person with a phobia
operant
will avoid their phobic
conditioning
stimulus at all costs as it is
negative reinforcement of
not having to deal with
their fear response, or
positive punishment of
feeling negative feelings of
fear
behaviours with healthier
ones
Psychological
Cognitive bias
Memory biasexaggerated
memory or
catastrophic
thinkingpredicting a
situation is
worse than it is
Causes errors in peoples
judgements and thoughts
Social
Specific
environmental
triggers
Stimuli or experiences
which cause a stress
response
Psychoeducation- teaching
families and patients about
the ways to deal with the
person’s phobia, as well as
more general education
about the nature of phobias
to increase understanding
of the mental health
disorder. This helps
challenge unrealistic
thoughts and discourages
avoidant behaviours
Support from friends and
family
Social
Stigma around
seeking
treatment
People may not seek help
due to embarrassment or
shame regarding their
phobia (feeling unusual or
strange)
Psychological
Systematic desensitisationstechnique used to
overcome phobia by
exposing a patient to
anxiety-increasing stimuli,
combined with the use of
relaxation techniques
Chapter 14- Maintenance of mental health
Resilience




Ability to adapt and eventually overcome life’s stressors and significant traumas
Positive adaptation (requires healthy change)
Levels of resilience are not static or predetermined and can change overtime
Protective factors
Biological protective factors of resilience


Adequate diet: improves a person’s physical and mental health, equipping people
with energy to function day to day and prevent sickness, provides the baseline level
of physical and mental health that allows a person to adapt and change when faced
with stressors
Adequate sleep: equips the body with the ability to function effectively, maintain a
steady mood and reduces the likelihood of sickness, acting as a tool which helps a
person adapt effectively to stressors
Social protective factors of resilience



Friends: fun and energizing experiences, closeness and intimacy with a friend which
is different from family, support in difficult times, reduction in stress and increase in
happiness, sense of belonging, sense of purpose
Community: opportunities for interaction and bonding, sense of belonging and
connection with the wider community, a sense of moral accomplishment,
opportunities for personal growth, facilities, and support services
Family: unconditional love upon making a mistake, regular catchups to discuss
emotions, familiar perspectives to go back to in times of uncertainty, sense of
belonging to a particular close group, encouragement to change unhealthy
behaviours
Behaviour change-transtheoretical model
Stage
Pre-contemplation
Contemplation
Preparation
Action
Maintenance
Relapse
Characteristics
 Individual is not yet ready for
change
 Belief that behaviour is not
problematic
 Lack of motivation for change
 Dismissals regarding concern for
unhealthy behaviour
 Belief that behaviour is
unchangeable
 Awareness that behaviour is
problematic
 Actively thinking about taking steps
towards behaviour change
 Not currently taking steps
 Taking steps towards behaviour
change in the next 30 days
 Individual has high motivation for
change but may have low
confidence regarding success
 Active steps have been taken
towards behaviour change
 High motivation
 Behaviour change has lasted less
than 6 months
 Social support occurs at this stage
 Behaviour change has been
consistent for 6 months
 Individual is taking measures to
avoid relapse
 Temporary setback involving a
return to the problem behaviour
that is trying to be changed (can be
contrasted with a lapse, these can
occur anytime
Strengths of model
Helps account for fluctuations and relapses
in behaviour change and acknowledges
these can still lead to long term change
Accounts that change occurs naturally
Provides an account of how behaviour
change occurs and the process involved
Weaknesses of model
Time periods may not always be as
consistent
Limited research on the psychological
processes involved in transitions between
the stages
Order of stages in the model may not cover
all necessary actions of behaviour change