CHAPTER
13
METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN FOR
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the learners will be able to:
1. display the fundamental knowledge of various qualitative research designs and
2. differentiate the commonly used qualitative research designs from each other.
DISCUSSION
GATHERING AND GENERATING DATA
Having established what previous researchers have discovered, documented, and
published on the topic of interest, the next step in conducting a study is gathering and
generating new data.
This step requires the researchers to answer the following questions:
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What are the gaps in existing knowledge that the study seeks to fill?
What kind of information is needed to fill those gaps?
How will the study collect that information?
How does one ensure that the information collected in the research is the kind
needed to fill the gaps and answer the initial inquiry?
Before proceeding, it is necessary to define the terms that will be used in this
chapter, and to differentiate them from one another:
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A method is a technique which the researcher uses to gather and generate data
about the subjects of their study.
A methodology is the section of the research paper which explains why the
researcher chose to use particular methods. The methodology also includes
descriptions of any and all theoretical and/or ideological concepts informing and
influencing the course of the study, and the researcher’s rationale behind adhering
to these concepts.
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
A research design is a plan which structures a study to ensure that the data
collected and generated will contain the information needed to answer the initial
inquiry as fully and clearly as possible.
MAIN METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
As the qualitative approach to research focuses less on “hard,” numerical data and
more on abstract information, the methods used to collect and generate data for qualitative
research should be designed to be descriptive, observational, conceptual, and analytical.
Some of the most commonly used data collection methods in qualitative research are
individual interviews, group interviews, observations, and surveys.
Individual interviews are like conversations which are designed to elicit the
information that the researcher needs. However, unlike casual, everyday conversations,
interviews must be conducted as rigorously, systematically, and transparently as possible
to ensure the reliability and validity of the information obtained.
Group interviews are conducted with several participants simultaneously, and may
be more appropriate in some cases, such as when the study concerns a community issue or
shared experience.
Observations are conducted to document and analyze behavior and social
phenomena as they occur in their natural context, and may be useful in identifying, for
example, discrepancies between what people say (such as in interviews) and what they do.
Although surveys and questionnaires are more often used in quantitative research,
they may also be designed to be applicable to qualitative studies. Doing so requires that the
questions be structured to be open-ended, with few to no restrictions on the respondent’s
answers— resembling an interview but in written form.
COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS
As stated, the objective of a research design is to ensure that the data collection and
generation methods are geared towards gathering the specific information which will help
answer the initial inquiry as clearly and fully as possible. If the researcher does not design
their study carefully and appropriately, the data they gather may be extraneous or irrelevant
to the problem at hand, and they might not be able to adequately answer the research
problem. As a result, the study may prove weak or inconclusive.
It must be asserted, then, that there is no single best way to conduct research, nor is there a
universally applicable research design—only general approaches which the researcher will,
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to varying extents, have to modify and adjust to best suit their study. The following are
some of the more common designs used in qualitative research.
Phenomenological Design
This design focuses on obtaining descriptions of the subjects’ or respondents’ lived
experiences either in writing or through interviews. The goal of this study is to analyze the
meaning behind these experiences for each subject, rather than generalizing to a greater
population. (Donalek, 2004)
To wholly understand the subjects’ experiences, the researcher must set aside their
own feelings and expectations towards the study. Those feelings and expectations may
hinder the researcher from seeing the experience through the subjects’ perspectives. This
process is called bracketing.
Example: What are the experiences of a student who failed in his or her subject?
The researcher may have their own notions regarding this problem due to first-hand
or second-hand experience. During the data collection, the researcher must put aside all the
assumptions in order to identify the real essence of the answers of the participants.
The following are characteristics of a phenomenological design:
1. The researcher applies bracketing by focusing on the meaning of the
perceived experience or on the interpretation of the said data.
2. It uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection. When conducting an
interview, the researcher starts with an open-ended question followed by
general probes.
3. It uses appropriate and systematic data analysis methods or adapts
established and credible processes to suit the study’s purposes.
4. The research process is transparent.
5. It uses the first person perspective. For example, the participant may say, “I
am experiencing sleepless nights….”
6. The researcher identifies the phenomenon not just in themes or categories.
7. It collects data in groups, such as in a focus-group interview.
Historical Design
This design focuses on the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data
or evidence from the past to confirm or reject a hypothesis. Data for historical research
may be found in printed documents, such as official records, reports, archives, and even
diaries; or in non-textual artifacts, such as relics, maps, pictures, and audiovisual material.
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A historical study must be unobtrusive, meaning that the process of research must
not involve any interventions which will affect the results of the study. This also means
that there is no way to manipulate the factors of the study for different variables or contexts.
On the other hand, this noninvasive approach is well-suited for archival purposes, such that
sources of historical data may be stored accurately and consistently, and be accessed and
used over and over to study various research problems.
When material provides first-hand information, then it is considered as a primary
source. Examples are oral histories, written records, diaries, eyewitnesses’ accounts,
pictures, videos, and other physical evidence. The minutes of meetings can also be
considered primary sources. Secondary sources are materials containing second-hand
information, such as when a person reinterprets information from the original source, or
commentary on and analyses of an original document. When the minutes of historical
meetings are summarized and transferred to a different medium, they are now considered
secondary sources.
The most valuable criterion for historical data sources is authenticity, and any
source to be used for historical research must undergo internal and external criticism.
External criticism is based on the analysis of the printed material; the ink and the type of
paper used; the layout and physical appearance; as well as its age and texture. Carbon
dating is useful in determining the age of substances in objects such as paper. Internal
criticism involves establishing the authenticity and originality of the materials by looking
at the consistency of information. Motives and possible biases of the author must be
considered in trying to determine the accuracy of the materials.
Case Study Design
A case study is a comprehensive, in-depth examination of a specific individual,
group of people, or institution. It may be used to gain insights into an obscure or specific
problem; provide background data for broader studies; or explain socio-psychological and
socio-cultural processes. Some of the disadvantages of case studies are the problems of
general application, since the study focuses only on specific subjects; the difficulty of
determining the adequacy of data; the possibility of biases; and the expense entailed by the
design.
A case study may be considered quantitative or qualitative research, depending on
the purpose of the study and the approach chosen by the researcher. This is also true to
other types of qualitative studies, for a case study to be considered qualitative, the
researcher must be interested in abstract ideas and concepts, such as the meaning of an
experience to a subject, rather than in generalizing results to other groups of people. Case
studies are not used to test hypotheses, but hypotheses may be generated from case studies
(Younger, 1985).
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The data from case studies is evaluated through content analysis. It involves the
examination of communication messages. Care must be exercised in selecting subjects for
case studies. The researcher should avoid choosing only those participants who are
expected to respond favorably or unfavorably to the instrument.
The following are characteristics of a case study:
1. Case studies are time-consuming and may be quite costly.
2. It needs in-depth analysis of single or multiple case/s.
3. It uses multiple sources of data such as documentation, interviews,
observation, and environmental detail.
4. It may result in descriptions of themes and assertions.
5. It clarifies cases and contexts.
6. It can select and develop issues.
Grounded Theory Design
Grounded theory is a systematic research approach developed by two sociologists, Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss, in which rigorous procedures (such as open coding—
identifying, naming, categorizing, and describing phenomena encountered in the study, as
well as their characteristics) are used to collect data, analyze that data, and formulate a
theory on the matter at hand. This theory can then be used to explain, provide a perspective
on, or even predict behavior in and of the particular context of the study’s subject.
The grounded theory method uses both an inductive and a deductive approach to
theory development. According to Field and Morse (1985), “constructs and concepts that
are grounded in the data and hypotheses are tested as they arise from the research.” In a
deductive grounded theory, a theory is formulated, then the collection of data follows. In
an inductive approach, collection of data is conducted first, and then through the analysis
of these data, the synthesized form is the theory itself. Leininger (1985) asserts that a prestudy of the literature search could lead to “premature closure.” This means that the
researcher would go into the research setting expecting to find what is reported in the
literature.
The following are characteristics of a grounded theory design:
1. Purposeful sampling is used. The researcher looks for certain subjects who will
be able to shed new light on the phenomenon being studied. Diversity rather
than similarity is sought in the people that are sampled.
2. Data is gathered in naturalistic settings (field settings). Data collection
primarily consists of participant observation and interviews, and data are
recorded through handwritten notes and tape recordings.
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3. Data collection and data analysis occur simultaneously. A process called
constant comparison is used, in which data gathered in the course of the study
is constantly compared to other data that had been gathered in previous studies.
4. It presumes that it is possible to discover fundamental patterns in all social life.
These patterns are called basic social processes.
5. It is more concerned with the generation rather than the testing of hypotheses.
6. Theoretical sampling used is a part of analysis.
7. A core category grounded in the data is identified (a study may not be able to
fully develop an explanatory theory but may usefully inform by description and
exploration).
Action Research Design
Action research is a design which involves a cycle of identifying a problem
regarding a situation or process, developing a strategy for intervention (the ‘action’) with
the purpose of improving said situation or process, implementing said intervention, and
observing and analyzing the results until a sufficient level of understanding of (or valid
solution to) the problem is achieved. Generalizing the findings is not a goal of this study,
as in the case of quantitative research studies. In action research, the implementation of
solutions occurs as an actual part of the research process.
Participatory action research is a special kind of community-based action
research in which there is a collaboration between the respondents or participants and the
researcher in all the steps of the study, including the determination of the problem,
identification of the research methods to use, analysis of data, and deciding how the study
results will be used. One can say that the participants and the researcher are co-researchers
throughout the entire research study.
Meta-Analysis Design
This design is a systematic evaluation of multiple individual studies on a topic in
order to not only summarize the results, but also develop a new understanding of the
research problem. This design may also be used to analyze discrepancies in the results of
individual studies, and its own results have a bigger potential for generalization to a greater
population. However, due to its complexity, studies following such a design may prove
difficult, expensive, and time-consuming.
A good meta-analysis study is characterized by:
1. precisely defined objectives, variables, and outcomes;
2. well-developed reasoning for its selection of studies, including an assessment
and acknowledgement of any bias that may have influenced said selection;
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3. a detailed description and analysis of the degree of heterogeneity in the sample;
and 4. justification for the techniques used in the analysis of the sample.
PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
Steps in Planning the Design
1. Establishing the purpose. Why do you want to address this research? What are its
expected benefits? Who will benefit from the research?
2. Methodological location. What methods and strategies do you intend to use?
3. Scoping. Revisit the scope and delimitation of your research. What will the study
cover? What will it not cover? What major and sub-variables will you focus on?
These details will significantly affect what kind of research design will best suit
your study.
4. Nature of the data. Take a look at the research problem. What kind of data is
needed to answer the inquiry? What sorts of data are relevant and available? How
should the data be handled? What research methods will most likely generate the
data needed? Does the study intend to focus on specific, isolated subjects, or
generalize to a greater population? Will the study implement or avoid direct
intervention in generating and collecting data?
5. Thinking ahead. How big will the data be? What is the intended result of the
study? At this stage, the researcher must be analytical and skeptical. Asking other
researchers can help in planning the design best suited to the study.
Stages of the Project
Planning your research design will also entail delineating the stages of the study
and setting a pace for completion. A good rule of thumb is to schedule the different tasks
well ahead of time, in order to avoid unnecessary time constraints.
1. Conceptualizing stage. This includes the literature review and the critiquing
of other studies. A poorly or hastily conceptualized project may lead to hazy,
inconclusive results.
2. Setting up a data management system. This should be planned meticulously.
Failing to systematize data collection can prove disastrous for a project.
3. Sampling and theoretical sampling. Unless you intend to implement
convenience sampling, you should not assume that your intended subjects are
readily and immediately available. Take the necessary time to locate your
sample.
4. Collecting and generating data. All the preparations made thus far were done
for this stage of the study. This is where you will put your chosen methods to
work. Depending on the nature of the study, this may require fieldwork—
entering a physical location or a social space from which you will gather
information. Take time to acclimatize to the field in question, whether your
study is observational or interventional in nature.
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5. Analysis. In addition to the actual analysis of the data, you should also allow
time for the coding of data, recoding of exploratory categories, management
and exploration of category systems, and coding validation and reliability
exploration.
Time should be allotted for asking questions and incorporating the answers into the
analysis, and, above all, for writing, rewriting, revisiting the data, and verifying the
conclusions.
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CHECK-UP EXERCISE NO. 13:
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research
Name
Date
Section
Score
A. Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer:
1. Which of the following is NOT a qualitative research method?
a. interviews
c. focus group discussions
b. observations
d. surveys with numerical questions
2. Which of the following is included in the methodology of a study?
a. the chosen research methods
b. theoretical concepts used in the study
c. explanations for the methods and concepts
d. all of the above
3. Which of the following statements is true concerning historical research?
a. Internal criticism should be considered before external criticism.
b. External criticism should be considered before internal criticism.
c. Both internal and external criticism should be considered simultaneously.
d. Either internal criticism or external criticism is enough; there is no need to
conduct both.
4. Case studies may concern an in-depth examination of ____________.
a. individuals
c. groups of peoples
b. institutions
d. all of the above
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5. Consider this title: “The Lived Experience of Surviving a Tornado.” Which of the
following designs did the researcher most likely use?
a. ethnographic
c. historical
b. phenomenological
d. grounded theory
6. The review of related literature is _______________.
a. never conducted prior to the beginning of the study
b. sometimes conducted prior to the beginning of the study
c. always conducted prior to the beginning of the study
d. always dependent upon the researcher to decide
7. Which type of qualitative research approach would be most appropriate to study the
practice of actively changing or modifying teaching techniques in order to improve
students’ learning experience?
a. action research
c. phenomenological study
b. grounded theory
d. historical study
8. Gabriel, a senior high school student wanted to find out the performance of the previous
two officers of the student body council. He was involved in what type of qualitative
research?
a. action research
c. historical study
b. meta-analysis
d. grounded theory
9. The Metro Manila Development Authority is set to review the traffic management
scheme being implemented in the metropolis. Several studies have been conducted in the
past, but these produced inconsistent results. Which design should the MMDA use for its
new study?
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a. action research design
c. historical design
b. meta-analysis design
d. case study design
10. The qualitative research entitled, “The Experiences of Students Engaged in Bullying:
Basis for the Program of Prevention,” is a type of ___________.
a. case study
c. grounded-theory study
b. action research
d. historical study
REFERENCES
Research Fundamentals from Concept to Output. A Guide for Researchers & Thesis
Writers by Adelaida B. Almeida, et al.
Practical Research 1 for Senior High School by Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal, Jr., Ed.D.
and Maura Consolacion De La Cruz-Cristobal, Ed.D, 2017
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