Grammar A way of thinking about language. Four Levels of Grammar • • • • Parts of Speech – 8 of them Parts of a Sentence – 5 of them Phrases – 3 of them Clauses – 2 of them Example of 4-Level Analysis These fragments I have shored against my ruins. Parts Of Speech: pron. n. pron. v. v. prep. pron. n. Parts of Sentence: Phrases: Clauses: direct object subj. Pred. Prep. Phrase ------one independent clause, simple declarative sent. ---- T.S. Eliot Eight Parts of Speech Noun Verb Pron. Adj. Adv. Prep. Conj. Interj. Noun: The Name of a Person, Place or Thing • • • • • Proper Nouns: capitalized; Salem Common Nouns: Not capitalized; city Concrete: names of objects; poppet Abstract: names of ideas; freedom Direct Address: person’s title when we address them directly; Mom • Collective: names a group; flock Example Sentence “O Captain! my captain! rise up and hear the bells” (Walt Whitman) • Noun of direct address? • Subject of the verbs “rise” & “hear”? • Common, concrete noun? • Singular noun? Plural noun? Your Challenge 1) Look through The Crucible. 2) Make a simple T-chart 3) Find an example of each type of noun. Put them on one side of the chart. 4) On the other side, think of your favorite example of that type of noun. 5) Be sure to label the types. Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun • We use a pronoun to REFER TO a noun. • We use pronouns to avoid repeating the antecedent (ante = before/ced=go). • Pronouns have gender and vary in person and in number. • There isn’t always an antecedent, i.e. ANYONE who is registered can vote. • Pronouns are general; they can apply to many different nouns. Subject Pronouns a.k.a. Nominative Case Subject Pronouns 1st Person Singular Plural I we 2nd Person you you 3rd Person he, she, it they Object Pronouns: Direct & Indirect Objects & Objects of the Preposition Object Pronouns 1st Person Singular Plural me us 2nd Person you you 3rd Person him, her, it them A Subject is a Subject; An Object is an Object! • Memorize them! • Subject Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they • Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them • Quiz tomorrow; you take it until you pass it! Just knock it out! Four Level Analysis From Robert Louis Stevenson’s I Parts Of Speech: subj. pron. Parts of Sentence: Phrases: Clauses: Treasure Island knew he would not expect to see me. v. subj. pron. v. adv. v. n. obj. pron. subj. pred. subj. direct obj. --------direct obj. -----------------------infinitive phrase indep. clause --------------dependent clause --------two clauses, a complex declarative sentence Pronouns to Memorize Subject: I he she we they & you/it Object: me him her us them & you/it Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, our, their Interrogative: who, whose, whom, which, what Demonstrative: this, that, these, those Relative: who, whose, whom, which, that Indefinite: anyone, anybody, each, all, etc. Reflexive: myself, yourself, himself, etc. Intensive: myself, yourself, himself, etc. Pronoun & Antecedent must agree in number! • Alex bought donuts; he ate them, too. • The bakers worked hard on them; they are artists of dough. • Bob and Alex ate some donuts; they won a donut eating contest. • If Bob or Alex asks for a donut, give it to him. • If Bob and Alex ask for a donut, give it to them. • Someone lost his or her donut. Common Error: Pronoun Reference Error • Everyone, someone, anyone & everybody, somebody, anybody are SINGULAR! • His, or her, or his or her? – Use the “macho solution” and use he, OR use the “compound gender escape” – his or her. Just choose one in a paper! Two Other Common Errors! • Missing Antecedent: “He was born in 1898.” He who? • Ambiguous Reference: “Dickens went to meet with his editor; he was late.” Who was late? Dickens or his editor? • HW – W.S. pg. 211-212 Pronoun Examples • • • • • • • Interrogative – Who let the dogs out? Relative – The boy who cried wolf annoys me. Demonstrative – That house is ugly. Relative – The house that is ugly annoys me. Indefinite – anyone – Anyone can buy ice cream. Reflexive – self – I am doing it myself. Intensive – self – I myself am doing it. • HW – Pronouns Practice Adjective = A word that modifies a noun or pronoun • Modify = Change • red car or rusted car or fast car • Subject Complement = adj. after verb – The car is rusted. Adj. Noun Pron. Adjectives NEED Nouns or Pronouns! If you see an adj., look for the Noun or Pronoun that goes with it! Three Degrees of Adjectives Positive good Comparative Superlative -er -est better best fast faster fastest happy happier happiest Other Adjective Rules • Proper Adj. – Spanish language • Articles – definite = the; indefinite = a, an – the, a, and an are adj.! • Good or well? good = adj./well = adv. Ex. “I don’t feel well.” means you have no talent for feeling, and “I don’t feel good.” = the I is not good. • Compound adj. = time-honored tradition – must have the hyphen! Verb = A word that shows action, being or links a subject to a subject complement Action – simple action: Bob composed. or linked to direct object: Bob composed an opera. Linking – Bob is good./subj. complement Four Parts of the Verb • • • • Infinitive: to go, to do, to think Present Participle: doing, going Past: did, went, thought, dreamed Past Participle: done, gone, thought Regular Verbs: Make the four parts the same way. Infinitive Present Past Participle -ing -ed to work working worked Past Participle -ed to spill spilled spilling spilled worked Irregular Verbs • • • • to to to to shrink: shrinking, shrank, shrunk ring: ringing, rang, rung break: breaking, broke, broken write: writing, wrote, written Different Kinds of Verbs • Simple tense: verb stands alone He ran the race. • Compound tense: helping verb He will have ran the race Tuesday. • Transitive: Acts on direct object The harpoon hit Moby Dick. More types of verbs • Intransitive: action not on direct obj. Harpoons flew. • Active voice: Bob read the book. • Passive voice: The book was read. Verb Tense gives sentences time! Six Verb Tenses 1. Present – happening now 2. Past – happened in the past 3. Future – will be happening 4. Present Perfect – finished in the present 5. Past Perfect – finished in the past 6. Future Perfect – will be finished in future Progressive Forms: -ing; action is still in progress Present progressive: I am protesting. Past progressive: I was protesting. Future progressive: I shall be protesting. Present Perfect progressive: I have been protesting. Past Perfect progressive: I had been protesting. Future Perfect progressive: I shall have been protesting. Verb Mood • Indicative = Ordinary Mood I am he. • Imperative = Command Mood Be he. • Subjunctive = If Mood If I were he, . . . Parallel Verb Tense • Stick to one verb tense! Bad Example: When Dickens went to America, he gives many speeches and feels that his trip was successful. • Keep parts of speech parallel, too Ex. John was tall and handsome. Not: John was tall and a doctor. Adverb: A word that modifies a verb, an adj., or another adverb • Examples: Queequeq swam slowly. Ahab is too fast; I swim very quickly. • Mark Twain said, “If you see an adjective, kill it.” • Stephen King said, “The adverb is not your friend.” Preposition: A word that shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence. Preposition Adj. Noun over the rainbow Prepositions show relationships of time (before, during, after), space (in, on, beside), and direction (to, from, toward). Conjunction: A word that joins two words or two groups of words • Coordinating conjunctions: join equals and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet I am, and you are. • Subordinating: joins unequals if, as, since, when, because, . . . I am when you are. When you are, I am. Other conjunctions • Correlative conjunctions: multiple word conjunctions, such as either/or or neither/nor Either you or I will arrive. • Conjunctive adverbs: both adverbs and conjunctions however, furthermore, therefore. . . Interjection • Shows emotion but has no grammatical purpose in a sentence • Batman words -- ugh, oof, yes, no, oops, wow, oh . . . • Can stand alone – Splat! • Or part of a sent. – Oh, I forgot it. Parts of a Sentence The second level of analysis Sentence: A group of words that contains a subject and its predicate and makes a complete thought. • The word “sentence” is from Latin, meaning “way of thinking” or “opinion” • A sentence is a two part thought: a predicate about a subject; in other words, a sentence is an idea! Sentences do not occur in nature! Sentences are created to express an idea or thought in two parts. • One • Subject • What we are talking about • Two • Predicate • What we’re saying about it The sentence IS the mind, in language! X? X1 X2 Simplicity! 1) We must know what a sentences is about. 2) We must know what a paragraph is about (a topic sentence). X3 3) We must know what an essay is about (a thesis statement). X! If any part fails, then the communication fails! Four Level Analysis from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar Parts Of Speech: Parts of Sentence: Phrases: Clauses: Cassius from bondage will deliver Cassius. Subject: The noun or subject pronoun that the sentence is about. • Simple Subject = the noun or pronoun that the sentence is about • Complete Subject = simple subject and all of its modifiers • Only subject pronouns = I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they Compound Subjects = a double subject • Physics and astronomy are my favorite subjects. • Subjects with “and” are plural • Jim or John is here. • Subjects with “or” are singular Predicate: The verb and other words that are about the subject. • Simple predicate = the verb • Hamlet went to the crater and gathered three bags of comet dust. • Complete predicate is everything said about the subject. Subject/Predicate Set • Simple subject & simple predicate is in EVERY SENTENCE. • There may be more than one set per sentence. • Ideas have number – when the number of the subject does not equal the number of the predicate, the sentence is NOT TRUE. • The top of the mountains is covered in snow. Direct Object: A noun or object pronoun that receives the action of the action verb. Subject N Alexander V N defeated Darius. predicate Direct Object If direct object, verb = transitive. If no direct object, verb = intransitive. • Only action verbs can be transitive or intransitive. Ex. Bob dances. = intransitive verb Bob dances the jig. = transitive • Linking verbs are neither. Bob is nice. Homework = Analyze two sentences. • Then, Brutus, I have much mistook your passion. -- Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar • My tongue will tell the anger of my heart. -- Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew Indirect Object: A noun or object pronoun that is indirectly affected by the action verb, and that is located between the action verb and the direct object. • The structure is S – AV – IO – DO. Ex. Bob gives her a gift. Subject Complement: A noun, subject pronoun, or adjective that is linked to the subject by a linking verb and tells more about the subject. • A subject complement, in a sense, renames the subject. Ex. Gauguin was Van Gogh’s friend. Predicate nominative = a noun subject complement Ex. She is a doctor. • Predicate adjective = a subject complement made from an adjective. Ex. She is brilliant. • Object complement = completes the direct object. Ex. They painted the house blue. or They elected him president. Logic of Sentence Analysis • If it’s an action verb, then there might be a direct object. • If there is a direct object, look for an indirect object. • If it’s a linking verb, then there might be a subject complement. *Everything hinges on whether the verb is action or not! Two different subject/predicate sets AV IO DO subj LV Subject Pronouns SC Object Pronouns Phrases There are no subjects & predicates! Phrase: A group of words without a subject and its predicate, that acts like a single part of speech. • 1) Prepositional phrases, 2) appositives, 3) verbals: a) gerunds, b) participles, c)infinitive • Prepositional phrases function like an adjective. i.e. A government (of the people), (by the people), & (for the people) Prepositional Phrases • Begins with a preposition and concludes with the object of the preposition. The dog in the boat • Must use OBJECT pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them) i.e. This letter is for him and me. NOT It is for he and I. • Beware the misplaced modifier! While chewing her gum, a bird flew by. Appositive: An interrupting definition • Usually defines a noun, so they function as an adjective. • Botticelli, the Renaissance painter, painted angels. NOTE: 2 commas • Always enclose appositive states & years. Athens, Greece, is the site of the Parthenon. June 20, 1997, is the date of departure. Verbal: A verb form used as a different part of speech 1) Gerund = a noun made of an –ing verb 2) Participle = An adjective made out of a verb 3) Infinitive = A noun or modifier made from the to- form of the verb. Gerunds are NOT verbs in the sentence! They are subjects or objects! • He was thinking. = verb • Thinking is my favorite hobby. = gerund (a noun used as the subject) • Clear thinking is good. = a gerund phrase • I quit thinking yesterday. Gerund (a noun used as the direct object.) Subject Complement adj thinking Clear subject is verb good. Participles are NOT verbs in the sentence! They are adjectives! • • • • Can be an –ing, -ed, or –en type verb. I am running a marathon. = a verb The running shoes are blue. = adj. The river was so swollen. = adj. subject complement. • The learned scholar came to visit. = adj. Infinitives are NOT verbs in the sentence! They are nouns, adjectives or adverbs! • To think is a pleasure. = infinitive noun used as a subject • I love to think. = infinitive noun used as a direct object. • The writer to read is Shakespeare. = adj. • He lives to fish. = adverb • “To think” is ONE WORD! Don’t split infinitives! Objects of Verbals??? • Kicking the football is fun. = gerund phrase used as a subject • I love to catch fish. = infinitive phrase used as a direct object • Hiding his loot, the pirate slept. = participle phrase used as an adjective • Must use OBJECT pronouns: Gerund: Seeing her is my goal. Infinitive: To see him is my goal. Participle: Seeing them, I achieved my goal. An appositive or something else? • Smee, the pirate, needs his mom. = appositive • Smee (a rascally guy!) needs his mom = parenthetical remark • Smee, who probably needs his mom, is a big baby. = nonessential clause • Smee – Stop crying! – needs his mom. = sharp break in thought Clauses A group of words that contains a subject and its predicate. Clause = same root as claustrophobia & close ! • A sentence might be one clause, or it might contain several clauses. • Two kinds of clauses: Independent: makes sense by itself ex. Ibsen was a gadfly. Dependent: needs to “hang on” to the independent clause to make sense ex. If Ibsen was a gadfly, . . . Dependent Clauses • Adj. Dep. Clause: (relative clause) “I am he that walks with the tender and growing night.” – Walt Whitman Essential Adj. Clause = The man who followed you turned left. (“Who” is a relative pronoun.) Nonessential Adj. Clause = Tom, who knows Bob, coughed. “That” = always essential = The book that has a gun in it needs to be returned to the library. “Which” = always nonessential = The book, which I enjoyed, has been returned to the library. Other Dependent Clauses • Adv. Dep. Clause = I jumped when the fish flopped. • Noun Dep. Clause = I wish that I liked Bob. • Dep. Clauses put before Ind. Clauses, in the middle, or at the end. If you find the whale, the trip is a success. The evil will be tamed if you find the whale. The whale who hid well was hard to find. I found what I was looking for. 4 Sentence Structures • I = simple = 1 independent clause ex. Bob likes cheese. • I;I or I, cc I = compound = 2 ind. Clauses ex. Bob likes cheese; I like goats. OR Bob likes cheese, and I like goats. • ID or D, I = complex = dependent clause with independent clause ex. Bob likes cheese because I like goats. Because I like goats, Bob likes cheese. • IID or DII = compound complex = 2 or more ind. Clauses with a dep. Clause ex. Bob likes cheese; I like goats when they make cheese. OR When goats make cheese, I like them, and Bob likes cheese. Clause Punctuation • I, cc I = Bob smiles, and I frown. • I; I = Bob smiles; I frown. • ID = Bob smiles when I frown. • D, I = When I frown, Bob smiles. IccI or II= RUN ON! Bob smiles and I frown. or Bob smiles I frown. I,I = COMMA SPLICE! Bob smiles, I frown. Four Purposes of Sentences • Declarative = it declares (states) Bob is lucky. • Interrogative = it interrogates (asks) Is Bob lucky? • Imperative = Commands (like a parent) Be lucky, Bob! • Exclamatory = Exclaims I will!
