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ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
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LAB Organization ,Management & Safety Methods
(698)
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SUBMITTED TO ___SIR, ABDULLAH KHAN
SUBMITTED BY ___ AHSAN ALI
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STUDENT ID___0000123006
SEMESTER ____SPRING 2022
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14-Aug-22
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
Q.1 Keeping in view rules for storage of Chemicals write the conditions or chemicals where these
substances should not be stored:
Cetic acid
Acetic acid should not be sorted or stored with:
Nitric acid. Hydroxyl compounds. Ethylene glycol. Perchloric acid.
Ammonium nitrate
Where the presence of drains, etc is unavoidable, they should be protected so that molten ammonium
nitrate cannot run into them. Locate storage away from possible sources of heat, fire or explosion, such
as oil storage, gas pipelines, timber yards, flammable liquids, flammable solids and combustible
materials.
Arsenic compound
Arsenic cannot be destroyed within its surroundings. It undergoes modifications of its type or combines
or separates from particles. The most relevant case of As toxicity by food occurred within the western
areas of Japan (Kinki, Chugoku, Shikoku, and Kyushu) in 1955. These compounds were accidentally
mixed into Morinaga's dried milk, made by the Tokushima plant of the Morinaga Milk Company.
Azides
Store synthesized azides below room temperature and away from sources of heat, light, pressure,
and shock. Store SAZ (solid as well as solutions) away from bromine, carbon disulfide, dimethyl
sulfate, nitric acid, heavy metals and their salts.
Chlorates
Do not store perchloric acid near or in contact with combustible materials such as cotton, wood,
excelsior, paper, burlap, rags, grease, oil, or organic compounds. Perchloric acid must be stored
separately in a deep glass tray with sufficient capacity to hold the entire contents in case of breakage.
Chlorine should not be stored with ammonia, acetylene, benzene, butadiene, hydrogen, any petroleum
gases, sodium carbide or turpentine
Carbon
Carbon is sequestered in soil by plants through photosynthesis and can be stored as soil organic
carbon (SOC). Agroecosystems can degrade and deplete the SOC levels but this carbon deficit opens
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
up the opportunity to store carbon through new land management practices. Soil can also store carbon as
carbonates.
flammable liquids
Flammable liquids shall not be stored in areas used for exits, stairways, or normally used for the safe
passage of people. "Indoor storage of flammable liquids." No more than 25 gallons of flammable
liquids shall be stored in a room outside of an approved storage cabinet.
Hydrocarbons
There are two common options for above ground hydrocarbon storage, Tank and Bund and Double
Walled/Skinned Tanks. Both have certain benefits and shortcomings which are summarised below.
Hydrocarbons can be stored in below-ground tanks, this is the topic for another InSight.
Hydrofluoric acids
Do not store HF waste in glass or metal containers. Medical personnel should be warned about the HF,
and a copy of SDS must be provided to them. All exposure or contact with HF shall receive immediate
first aid and medical evaluation even if the injury appears minor, or there is no sense of pain
Dimethylesulphoxide (DMSO)
If there is no degradation while dissolving DMSO, you can store the solution in a refrigerator. Freezing
might cause crystallizing your compound
Q.2 Visit two laboratories. Find the system of locating items or chemicals from different locations
of stored materials.
before we start rounding up bottles of chemicals and reorganizing our labs, we need to make sure we
have the proper PPE. At a minimum, this should include appropriate chemical-resistant gloves and eye
protection, closed-toe shoes (essential for working in the laboratory), and lab coats and/or chemical
aprons (used when needed or when required by your laboratory safety policy).
Once we have collected our PPE, there are just a couple more things to gather before we begin moving
those chemical containers around. Survey your surroundings, and take notice of any potential trip
hazards and locations of work stations where others are busy. Make sure exits, passageways, and
emergency equipment areas (i.e., eyewash and safety showers) are clear and free of stored materials.
Locate and have close at hand a full spill kit with appropriate absorbent materials, neutralizing agents,
cleanup utensils, and waste containers.
Here are our pointers for moving chemicals safely:
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022

Never move visibly degrading chemicals and containers. Report these to your lab supervisor or
principle investigator.

Whenever transporting chemicals, place bottles in appropriate, leak-proof secondary containers
to protect against breakage and spillage. A good example is using a special plastic tote for
carrying four-liter glass bottles of corrosives or solvents.

When moving multiple, large, or heavy containers, use sturdy carts. Ensure cart wheels are large
enough to roll over uneven surfaces without tipping or stopping suddenly. If carts are used for
secondary containment make sure the trays are liquid-tight and have sufficient lips on all four
sides.

Do not transport chemicals during busy times such as break times or (for those academic
laboratories) lunch periods or class changes.

Use freight elevators for moving hazardous chemicals whenever possible to avoid potential
incidents on crowded passenger elevators. Remember to remove gloves when pushing elevator
buttons or opening doors.

Never leave chemicals unattended.
Safely storing chemicals in a laboratory or stockroom requires diligence and careful consideration.
Correct use of containers and common lab equipment is critical. To store chemicals safely, DO the
following;

Label all chemical containers fully. We recommend including the owner’s or user’s name along
with the date received.

Provide a specific storage space for each chemical, and ensure return after each use.

Store volatile toxics and odoriferous chemicals in ventilated cabinets. Please check with your
environmental health and safety personnel for specific guidance.

Store flammable liquids in approved flammable liquid storage cabinets. Small amounts of
flammable liquids may be stored in the open room. Check with your local authority (e.g., fire
marshal, EH&S personnel) for allowable limits.

Separate all chemicals, especially liquids, according to compatible groups. Follow all precautions
regarding storage of incompatible materials. Post a chemical compatibility chart for reference,
both in the lab and next to chemical storage rooms.

Use appropriate resistant secondary containers for corrosive materials. This protects the cabinets
and will catch any leaks or spills due to breakage.
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022

Seal containers tightly to prevent the escape of vapors.

Use designated refrigerators for storing chemicals. Label these refrigerators CHEMICAL
STORAGE ONLY—NO FOOD. Never store flammable liquids in a refrigerator unless it is
specifically designed and approved for such storage. Use only explosion-proof (spark-free)
refrigerators for storing flammables.
Q.3 Write the uses of following in science laboratory:
Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring instrument for electric current. Early galvanometers
were uncalibrated, but improved versions, called ammeters, were calibrated and could measure the flow
of current more precisely.
A galvanometer works by deflecting a pointer in response to an electric current flowing through a coil in
a constant magnetic field. Galvanometers can be thought of as a kind of actuator.
Galvanometers came from the observation, first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, that a magnetic
compass's needle deflects when near a wire having electric current. They were the first instruments used
to detect and measure small amounts of current. André-Marie Ampère, who gave mathematical
expression to Ørsted's discovery, named the instrument after[1] the Italian electricity researcher Luigi
Galvani, who in 1791 discovered the principle of the frog galvanoscope – that electric current would
make the legs of a dead frog jerk.
Galvanometers have been essential for the development of science and technology in many fields. For
example, in the 1800s they enabled long-range communication through submarine cables, such as the
earliest transatlantic telegraph cables, and were essential to discovering the electrical activity of
the heart and brain, by their fine measurements of current.
Galvanometers have also been used as the display components of other kinds of analog meters
(e.g., light meters and VU meters), capturing the outputs of these meters' sensors. Today, the main type
of galvanometer still in use is the D'Arsonval/Weston type.
Modern galvanometers, of the D'Arsonval/Weston type, are constructed with a small pivoting coil of
wire, called a spindle, in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a thin pointer that
traverses a calibrated scale. A tiny torsion spring pulls the coil and pointer to the zero position.
When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a magnetic field. This field acts
against the permanent magnet. The coil twists, pushing against the spring, and moves the pointer. The
hand points at a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole pieces ensures that the
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
magnetic field is uniform so that the angular deflection of the pointer is proportional to the current. A
useful meter generally contains a provision for damping the mechanical resonance of the moving coil
and pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its position without oscillation.
The basic sensitivity of a meter might be, for instance, 100 microamperes full scale (with a voltage drop
of, say, 50 millivolts at full current). Such meters are often calibrated to read some other quantity that
can be converted to a current of that magnitude. The use of current dividers, often called shunts, allows a
meter to be calibrated to measure larger currents. A meter can be calibrated as a DC voltmeter if the
resistance of the coil is known by calculating the voltage required to generate a full-scale current. A
meter can be configured to read other voltages by putting it in a voltage divider circuit. This is generally
done by placing a resistor in series with the meter coil. A meter can be used to read resistance by placing
it in series with a known voltage (a battery) and an adjustable resistor. In a preparatory step, the circuit is
completed and the resistor adjusted to produce full-scale deflection. When an unknown resistor is placed
in series in the circuit the current will be less than full scale and an appropriately calibrated scale can
display the value of the previously unknown resistor.
These capabilities to translate different kinds of electric quantities into pointer movements make the
galvanometer ideal for turning the output of other sensors that output electricity (in some form or
another), into something that can be read by a human.
Because the pointer of the meter is usually a small distance above the scale of the meter, parallax error
can occur when the operator attempts to read the scale line that "lines up" with the pointer. To counter
this, some meters include a mirror along with the markings of the principal scale. The accuracy of the
reading from a mirrored scale is improved by positioning one's head while reading the scale so that the
pointer and the reflection of the pointer are aligned; at this point, the operator's eye must be directly
above the pointer and any parallax error has been minimized.
Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. The primary
benefit of the circuit is its ability to provide extremely accurate measurements (in contrast with
something like a simple voltage divider).[1] Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer.
The Wheatstone bridge was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie (sometimes spelled "Christy") in 1833
and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone bridge's
initial uses was for soil analysis and comparison.
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
In the figure, Rx is the fixed, yet unknown, resistance to be measured.
R1, R2, and R3 are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of R2 is adjustable. The
resistance R2 is
adjusted
until
the
bridge
is
"balanced"
and
no
current
flows
through
the galvanometer Vg. At this point, the potential difference between the two midpoints (B and D) will be
zero. Therefore the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg (R2 / R1) is equal to the ratio of the two
resistances in the unknown leg (Rx / R3). If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates
whether R2 is too high or too low.
At the point of balance,
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high precision. Therefore,
if R1, R2, and R3 are known to high precision, then Rx can be measured to high precision. Very small
changes in Rx disrupt the balance and are readily detected.
Alternatively, if R1, R2, and R3 are known, but R2 is not adjustable, the voltage difference across or
current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the value of Rx, using Kirchhoff's circuit laws.
This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements, as it is usually
faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.
Magnets
Magnets have been proving its worth every day with its incredible function by making the most
strenuous tasks easier. With the various uses of magnets in daily life, we can do heavy lifting which is
not humanly possible to do every day. Magnets play an important role in various devices which can be a
small toy or a heavy 100-ton device to pick up heavy metals. We come across magnets in various forms
such as computers, MRI machines or inside some appliances which are used in the house, business or
medical industry. The size can be from very small to the large giant like structures. Some magnet uses at
home, in the laboratory and in daily life is provided in the points below.

We might be using computers in our day to day lives but never wondered the presence of a
magnet inside it. Magnetic elements present on a hard disk helps to represent computer data
which is later ‘read’ by the computer to extract information.

Magnets are used inside TVs, Sound speakers and radios. The small coil of wire and a magnet
inside a speaker transforms the electronic signal to sound vibrations.

Magnets are used inside a generator to transform mechanical energy to electrical energy where
there are other kinds of motors which use magnets to change electrical energy to mechanical
energy.
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022

Electrically charged magnets can help cranes to move large metal pieces.

Magnets are used in filtering machines which separates metallic ores from crushed rocks.

It is also used in food processing industries for separating small metallic pieces from grains etc.

Magnets are used in MRI machines which are used to create an image of the bone structure,
organs, and tissues. Even magnets are used to cure cancer.

At home, you use magnets when you stick a paper on the refrigerator in order to remember
something. Attaching a magnetic bottle opener to the fridge can come in handy.

We often use pocket a compass to find out directions when we are on a trek. The pocket compass
uses a magnetic needle to point north.

The dark strip on the back of debit and credit cards is of magnetic nature and are used to store
data just like computers’ hard drives.

Magnets can help collect all the nails which are scattered on the ground after a repair job.
Forceps
Forceps are hinged, handheld instruments commonly used in the medical field. Outside of the medical
field, forceps-like instruments are sometimes known as tweezers, pliers, tongs, etc.
What are forceps used for? Many people associate forceps with childbirth, but they have other
applications as well. Forceps are typically used to grasp, hold or produce traction on an object.
Forceps function as a set of levers working together. Principles of mechanical advantage determine the
forceps science used to design different forceps. A greater distance from the hinge to the handle will
create more mechanical advantage and be easier to open and close and will clamp with greater force. A
smaller distance from the hinge to the clamps will also generate more clamping force.
Forceps can be made out of plastic; these are designed to be used once and then disposed of. Repeated
sterilization is required when forceps are being used for surgical purposes. These forceps need to be
made out of high-grade carbon steel to be durable enough to go through repeated sterilization processes.
There are two primary types of forceps: locking and non-locking forceps.
Non-locking forceps open and close repeatedly controlled by simple hand motion. They can be hinged
at one end and closed at the other end. Outside of medical use, this type of forceps would be called
tweezers. Some non-locking forceps are hinged in the middle and look similar to scissors. Unlike
scissors, the ends of the forceps are flat to grasp or hold instead of to cut.
Locking forceps lock the clamping surfaces together or closed. This allows an object to remain held or
grasped so that it can be easily manipulated or moved.
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
Q.4 What is condition of Practical Science in low income countries?
Research and development (R&D) offer promising clues to address a wide range of socioeconomic
problems through the development of new products and services or often by improving the existing
ones. High-income countries (HICs) have realized the worth of R&D and invested tremendously in that
sector; however, resource-poor low-income countries (LICs) are still far behind in realizing the potential
benefit that R&D could offer for economic growth and national development. Even if some LICs have a
positive outlook towards the R&D sector, the trend of emulating works from HICs to solve local or
regional issues have most often yielded counterproductive results. LICs are suggested primarily to focus
on applied research by incorporating their socioeconomic and cultural aspects to solve their everyday
problems whose investigation is often ignored in research-intensive nations. Moreover, applied research
in LICs offers the potential to provide low-cost and innovative solutions to local and regional problems
with global implications. Good research drives most of the advancements across all scientific
disciplines. How do we know if climate change is real? We need to conduct research: plot long-run
temperature, rainfall, and carbon emissions and analyze them to determine any significant trends that
might be of concern. How do we know which medications will help us feel better when we are sick? We
need to conduct research, perhaps ask people to participate in double-blind trials for new medications.
How do we know which fertilizer best helps a plant grow? We need to conduct research, maybe conduct
randomized controlled trials under various environmental settings. The medications that we take,
fertilizers that we apply in fields and even gadgets, which have become integral to our lives, were part of
the investigational program in the past and we only use them because researchers have examined them
and determined that they are effective and helpful for our overall betterment. R&D necessitates resource
allocation in advance; however, the resulting innovations serve to reduce the costs through more
efficient production processes or the product itself (Kenton, 2019).
Scientific research is a pre-requisite for human and societal development. There is a strong correlation
between the level of advancement of scientific research and the standard of living (Badr, 2018). Results
from careful research can be utilized to create wealth, increase the nation's worth, and boost the
socioeconomic and political situation of the country. Innovation through quality research and subsequent
patent rights have an additive effect on a nation's wealth and positive ripple effects on the economy. For
example, China succeeded in lifting its 700 million people by domestic innovations and new start-up
businesses (NDRC, 2016; Trivedi, 2018). Similarly, South Korea and Israel also boosted its economy
through intensive R&D and subsequent integration into the global market. South Korea presents a vivid
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
example of how a country, comparable with other poorer countries of Asia and Africa in 1960s,
transcended to a trillion-dollar economy in 2004 by integrating R&D into their national strategy and
spending more than 4% of gross domestic product (GDP) annually on R&D, with the majority being on
applied research sector (Reddy, 2011). Israel is also exemplary in how a country primarily occupied by
arid land succeeded to become one of the largest exporters of agricultural commodities through
innovation following uninterruptible research.
According to the World Bank, countries with gross national income per capita below $955 are LICs and
include 33 countries (World Bank, 2016; Table 1). LICs have limited resources with most of them
having a GDP size of < $500 billion and per capita GDP < $2,000 (CIA, 2019). LICs are mostly located
in the southern hemisphere of the globe. While most countries in the northern hemisphere, high-income
countries (HICs), have outpaced issues such as poverty and underdevelopment long ago, their
counterparts in the south are still stricken with domestic conflict, poverty, malnutrition and food crisis
leaving them far behind in terms of cherishing life amenities and modern infrastructural development.
Keeping aside many factors influencing the success of HICs, one of them is that HICs were able to draw
clues and trace a path to rapid development through timely and careful research and its subsequent
development. HICs including the United States, Japan, and Great Britain, besides prospering
themselves, inspired many other nations on how to identify the problems and tackle them through
demand-driven research, ultimately benefiting citizens and leaving some spillovers around the globe.
Today, if we look carefully at the way of living, infrastructures, ongoing innovation, national policies
regarding both present and future goals and the like, we can feel that there are many small globes within
our globe. Just standing somewhere in the United States, Germany, or Japan and conversely standing in
Afghanistan, Somalia, or even Nepal can give a “big picture” of the vast disparity resembling
completely different globes across different continents. LICs account for ~85% of the global disease
burden with the majority of the population fighting against poverty-related malnutrition, infectious
diseases (both airborne and waterborne), hunger, and environmental brunt like climate change, famine,
water scarcity, and deforestation on a day-to-day basis (Batterman et al., 2009; Thomas, 2015). As a
result, R&D is not under a government priority in LICs with investment being <1% of their GDP
(Gaillard, 2010). This is unsurprising due to three reasons: First, LICs are still struggling to meet the
necessities of food, clothing, and shelter of their citizens. This leaves the government with only a few
surplus resources to invest in R&D. Furthermore, LICs typically finance most of their research with
public funds, unlike HICs where the business sector funds most research activities. This fosters stronger
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
budget austerity, making it more important to understand the effect of R&D budget allocation decisions
(Gonzalez-Brambila et al., 2016). Research requires substantial financial investment over a protracted
period. Some pioneer research might take up to a decade or even more to get meaningful results, while
some other cutting-edge research after laboratory experimentation needs validation in the field
condition. All of these processes demand perseverance and continuous financial commitment over a
prolonged period that is difficult to secure in LICs.
Second, with more important social issues, political parties and bureaucrats in LICs believe that research
is a sack into which money is poured and from which nothing of apparent value is reaped. They also
perceive R&D as a waste of limited resources. This preconceived notion of political personnel and
bureaucrats deters from making a proper budget allocation in the R&D sector. Instead, they focus on
immediate needs having practical values: eradication of hunger, control of infectious and debilitating
diseases, decrease in the unemployment rate, and raising the quality of life of their citizens, but in a
conventional way. In other words, LICs are more focused on those issues that have immediate results to
society and the economy as a whole. For example, the national campaign for vitamin A and polio
vaccination, where simple intervention and low investment would have a greater and immediate impact
saving millions of children from potential danger. Investment in such areas might seem rational over
spending on R&D in the short term for them. The process of R&D is severely constrained by a small
budget allocation from lack of knowledge and ignorance of that part.
Third, despite some research efforts, poor implementation of research findings is another pressing issue
for LICs as a result of which research findings are not clearly linked with visible output (Hoekman et al.,
2003). Besides that, some research fails to address the local culture, human rights issues, language
policy, and local environment and thus is not translated into applicable outcomes. In agriculture, there
are several instances where local agribusinesses bypass local science and technology (S&T) systems and
rely on foreign technologies as a response to new innovation elsewhere thereby leading to loss of
inherent profit potential (Keskin et al., 2008).
Insufficient research translates into data and knowledge gaps which are major constraints to future wellbeing and furthering development. An insufficient amount of quality research is the major impediment
to growth, development, and advancement. So, raising awareness on the importance of R&D and a
positive outlook towards its promising nature are very necessary
Q.5 Write need and importance of practical work and science laboratory.
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
Learning by doing can be achieved only by doing experimentation. Any course of Science which does
not period opportunities for lab work is incomplete from the point of view of efficient teaching.
On every practical turn, a student must carry with him the following things to the laboratory so that he is
well equipped to perform various type of experiments1. Scale, 2. Eraser, 3. A pencil, 4 Auxiliary notebooks and 5. Laboratory note-books.
Important of Practical work
1. Learning by doing:
Practical work follows the basic principle of Learning by doing. The students gets an opportunity to
activity participate in the learning process.
2. Training for adjustment:
When students know elementary things about electricity, electronics, sanitation etc. they depend less on
others for minor repairs.
3. Scientific knowledge and Scientific Outlook:
Practical work helps in acquiring of scientific knowledge and scientific outlook, the twin main
objectives of teaching science.
4. Handing of Objects:
By doing experiments students learn how to handle and operate apparatus etc.
5. Development of good habits:
Through practical work the students learn many good habits like resourcefulness, initiative, cocooperation etc.
6. Satisfaction of curiosity:
Validity of the concepts learned by the students can be tested by experimentation. This satisfies basic
human desire of knowledge of what, how and why of things.
. Development of Scientific attitude:
Lab work develops scientific attitude and scientific temper.
8. Motivation:
By doing experiments, students are motivated to know more and more of science.
Administration of Practical-Work:
1. Procedure of Laboratory work:
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Course: Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)
Semester: Spring, 2022
The science teacher should check the availability of the apparatus required for particular experiments.
Afterwards he should assure that the apparatus is ready and working condition before the students enter
the laboratory. The broken apparatus is noted down in the breakage register.
2. Grouping:
In some schools, same experiment is done by all the students at the same time. The teacher gives general
instructions to the whole class at one instant and can cyclise form where the number of students in a
class is much more each group is allotted a different experiment. The experiments are cycled in groups.
This method had following limitationsa. There is every possibility that weaker students may copy the results of the brighter students.
b. It may become difficult to correlate .theory and practicals for all students.
c. Supply different apparatus and chemicals to different groups.
3. Guideline rules:
In order to make practical work effective, the laboratory should be made a place of learning by doing.
Guideline should be laid down by the teacher about the laboratory rules such as the followinga. Work area must be cleared.
b. Strict attention should be paid to own work.
c. Reagent stoppers should not be left on counter tops.
d . Wastage of water, gas, electricity should be strictly avoided.
e. Directions should be read and followed very carefully.
f. Teachers should allow the student’s entry in lab in his/her presence.
g. Only those experiments should be done which are recommended by the teacher-incharge.
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