Anatomical positionTo stand erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward sagittal planedivides body into left and right midsagittal planedivides the body into equal right and left sides frontal (coronal) planedivides body into front(anterior) and back (posterior) transverse plane (horizontal plane)divides the body into upper(superior) and lower portions(inferior) Superiorabove Inferiorbelow Anteriorfront of the body Posteriortoward the back Medialtoward the midline Lateralaway from the midline PromixalCloser to the point of attachment Distalaway from the point of attachment superficialnear the surface deepfurther into the body Cytologystudy of cells CellThe basic unit of life and the building block of tissues and organs Major parts of a cellplasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, organelles Nucleus containsDNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) What is DNA?deoxyribonucleic acid, genetic material that codes for protein. Proteins arepolymers of amino acids What do ribosomes do?synthesize proteins Rough Endoplasmic ReticulumHas ribosomes on it to synthesize proteins Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulumsynthesizes lipids and carbohydrates Golgi apparatusPackages proteins for transport out of the cell MitochondriaPowerhouse of the cell; site of cellular respiration and synthesizes ATP ATP (adenosine triphosphate)main energy source that cells use for most of their work LysosomesAn organelle containing digestive enzymes CentriolesOrganize and move chromosomes during cell division CiliaHairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion MitosisNecessary for growth and repair. In the process of cell division, the DNA is duplicated and distributed evenly to two identical daughter cells. MeiosisSpecial cell division that takes place in the gonads (ovaries and testes - chromosome number reduced from 46 to 23, so that when the egg and sperm unite in fertilization, the zygote will have the correct number of chromosomes Histologystudy of tissues TissueA group of similar cells that perform the same function. Four types of tissueepithelial, connective, muscle, nervous epithelial tissueCovers, lines, and protects the body and it's internal organs. connective tissueForms the framework of the body, providing support and structure for the organs. Types include fibrous, bone, cartilage, and blood nervous tissueComposed of neurons, which initiate and conduct merger impulses, and connective tissue cells called neuroglia muscle tissueA body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move. types of muscle tissue(Voluntary) skeletal (Involuntary) cardiac, smooth What are the two layers of the skin?1. Epidermis- the outermost protective layer made of dead, keratinized epithelial cells. 2. Dermis- the underlying layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and the associated skin structure. Where does the DERMIS rest?The subcutaneous tissue that connects the skin to the superficial muscles Layers of the epidermis (superficial to deep)stratum corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, germinativum (basale) What does keratin do?waterproofs the skin Melanocytescells that produce melanin MelaninA pigment that gives the skin its color Two types of sweat glandseccrine and apocrine eccrine glandsThese glands produce sweat. appocrine glandsrespond to emotional stress and begin to function at puberty sebaceous glandsRelease oily recreation called sebum through hair follicles; it lubricates the skin and prevents it from drying As the epidermal cells move from the deepest layer to superficial layers?They move away from their blood and nutrient supply; subsequently, they dehydrate and die skeletal systemThe body's framework, composed of bones and joints and protection of internal organs Hemopoiesisblood cell formation Two types of bone tissuecompact (dense) and spongy (cancellous) compact boneForms the outer layer of all bones spongy boneContains a latticework of plates of bones with spaces in between; this lattice work is called trabeculae red bone marrowfound in cancellous bone; site of hematopoiesis OsteoblastsBone building cells OsteoclastsBone-destroying cells Types of boneslong, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid long bonesbones that are longer than they are wide short bonesbones of the wrist and ankles flat bonesthin, flattened, and usually curved irregular bonesbones of the vertebrae and face sesmoid bonesspecial types of short bones formed in tendons, ex: patellas EpiphysisEnd of a long bone disphysisshaft of a long bone medullary cavitycentral, hollowed-out area in the shaft of a long bone; filled with yellow bone marrow axial skeletonthe part of the skeleton that includes the skull and spinal column and sternum and ribs vertebral column sectionscervical- (C1-C7) thoracic- (T1-T12) lumbar- (L1-L5) sacrum- (S1-S5) all fused together to form the sacrum coccyx- (4) fused coccygeal vertebrae that make the tailbone appendicular skeletonShoulders, hip girdles, and extremities Muscular SystemMuscles produce movement by contracting in response to nervous stimulation. Sacromerecontractile unit of a muscle fiber Myofibrilsprotein structures that make up muscle fibers Actinthin filaments of protein Myosinthick filament of protein sliding filament modelThe theory explaining how muscle contracts, based on change within a sarcomere, the basic unit of muscle organization, stating that thin (actin) filaments slide across thick (myosin) filaments, shortening the sarcomere; the shortening of all sarcomeres in a myofibril shortens the entire myofibril agonist or prime movercauses action or movement AntagonistProduces the opposite movement as the agonist SynergistMuscle that assists a prime mover FlexorsReduce the angle at the joint Extensorsincrease angle of joint AbductorsDraw a limb away from the midline AdductorsReturn the limb back toward the body The nervous systembrain, spinal cord, nerves central nervous systembrain and spinal cord peripheral nervous systemComposed of all other nerves in the body somatic nervous systemthe division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles autonomic nervous systemPart of the PNS that controls digestion, heart rate, blood pressure, and urination. Two autonomic divisionssympathetic and parasympathetic sympathetic nervous systemfight or flight parasympathetic nervous systemrest and digest Neuronsa nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system Parts of a neuroncell body, dendrites, axon dendrites and axons-transmit the impulse toward the cell body -transmit the impulse away from the body afferent neurons (sensory neurons)Neurons transmit nerve impulses towards the CNS efferent neurons (motor neurons)Neurons transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS Four major parts of the braincerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, brain stem CerebellumResponsible for muscular coordination DiencephalonContains thalamus and hypothalamus Thalamus- routes incoming sensory information to the appropriate part of the cerebrum. Hypothalamus- monitors many of the conditions of the body, controls the autonomic nervous system and interacts with the endocrine system CerebrumAssociated with sensory interpretation, movement, thinking and personality BrainstemControls "vital" functions like respiratory and heart rate spinal cordFound in the vertebral columns and is approx. 18 inches long. Extends from the brainstem to the first or second lumbar. How many spinal nerves are there?31 pairs What is a reflex?quick automatic response to a stimulus Simple (spinal) reflexesThose in which nerve impulses travel through the spinal cord only and do not reach the brain Where do the Endocrine System and the Nervous system meet?hypothalamus and pituitary gland HormonesChemical messengers that control the growth, differentiation, and metabolism of specific target cells Two major groups of hormonessteroid and nonsteroid hormones steroid hormonesenter the target cells and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus nonsteroid hormonesremain at the cell surface and act through a second messenger, usually a substance called adenosine monophosphate (AMP) What hormones are released during stress?adrenaline and cortisol How is the pituitary gland attached to the hypothalamus?by a stalk called infundibulum The pituitary glad has two major portionsThe anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) Hormones released from the anterior pituitary glandSomatotropin hormones (STH) or growth hormones(GH) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone(ACTH) thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinzing hormone (LH) somatotropic hormonegrowth hormone Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)stimulates secretion from adrenal cortex Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)stimulates secretion from thyroid gland Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)Stimulates secretion of ovarian follicles and secretion of estrogen in females And stimulates sperm production in males luteinizing hormone (LH)Causes ovulation in females And stimulates secretion of testosterone in males Hormones released by posterior pituitaryoxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Oxytocin (OT)Stimulates uterine contraction during labor and stimulates milk production from the mammary glands antidiuretic hormone (ADH)Stimulates retention of water by the kidneys thyroid glandsecretes hormones that regulate growth and metabolism parathyroid glandsSecrete parathyroid hormone, which increase blood calcium levels PancreasRegulates the level of sugar in the blood Gonadsovaries and testes (sex glands) whole bloodConsisted of approx. 55% plasma (the liquid portion) and 45% formed elements (cells and cell fragments) Erythrocytesred blood cells, contain hemoglobin, transport oxygen Leokocyteswhite blood cells Thrombocytesplatelets Agranulocytesmonocytes and lymphocytes -they are involved in phagocytosis, defense against parasites and inflammation. Granulocytesneutrophils, eosinophils, basophils They are involved in antibody production, cellular immune response, and phagocytosis. veins vs arteriesVeins carry blood to the heart and the walls are thinner and less elastic then those of arteries and arteries carry blood away from the heart SA node (sinoatrial node)pacemaker of the heart cardiac cyclethe period between the start of one heartbeat and the beginning of the next systole and diastolesystole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) vasoconstriction and vasodilationresult from contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the arterial walls left vs right lungLeft has 2 lobes and the right has 3 lines external respirationRefers to the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood through the alveoli. internal respirationRefers to the exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells. When exhaling the diaphragmrelaxes, reducing the space available for the lungs When inhaling the diaphragmcontracts and moves down The four layers of the GI tract, from deep to superficialmucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serous layer accessory organs of the digestive systemsalivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas AmalayseEnzyme in saliva that breaks the chemical bonds in complex carbs What acid is in the stomach?hydrochloric acid PepsinEnzyme that breaks down proteins in the stomach Chymethe pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food. small intestine structureduodenum, jejunum, ileum BileA substance produced by the liver that is stored in the gallbladder that breaks up fat particles. villiFingerlike extensions of the intestinal mucosa that increase the surface area for absorption DisaccharideA double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis. Monosaccharidesglucose, fructose, galactose lactealsthe lymphatic vessels of the small intestine that absorb digested fats. The large intestineAbsorbs water and forms feces The large intestine portionsAscending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and the rectum Kidneysfilter blood and produce urine Ureterstransport urine from the kidneys to the bladder urinary bladderstores urine Urethratube leading from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body Functional units of the kidneynephrons The male and female sex organs produceGametes through meiosis sex cellsgametes When is a female most fertile?during ovulation When is ovulation?14 days before menstruation starts