Journal of Psychology and Theology
Copyright 1996 by Rosemead School of Psychology
1996, Vol. 24, No. 4, 284-291
Biola University, 0091-6471/410-730
Psychotherapy as “Work in the Spirit”:
Thinking Theologically
About Psychotherapy
JENNIFER KUNST
Pacific Psychological Resources
SIANG-YANG TAN
Graduate School of Psychology
Fuller Theological Seminary
Bobgan, 1979). Others argue that the principles of
secular psychology can fit within a Christian framework but only if they are substantially revised
(Crabb, 1977). This latter approach has become
quite popular among some Christians, leading to the
development of “biblical counseling” and “Christian
counseling” models which rely on the basic assertion that the Scriptures contain all that is necessary
for psychological growth and healing.
Yet another viewpoint holds that neither discipline
needs to be radically altered for integration to be possible, for psychology and theology supplement one
another in forming a more complete view of human
beings (Malony, 1986). However, since there are multiple approaches to theology as well as multiple
approaches to psychology, the success of supplemental integration will vary as different “theologies” and
“psychologies” are compared. For instance, it would
be difficult for most theologies to accommodate a
psychology which held to a rigid determinism or
which outrightly rejected the value of religious belief.
Similarly, most psychologies would be incompatible
with a theology which claimed that mental illness is
solely the result of a person’s sin. However, despite
competing ideologies, there are basic principles to
which most theologies and psychologies traditionally
hold, allowing us to speak about the integration of
the two disciplines more generally. From the supplemental point of view, many fundamental principles of
secular psychology are seen as resources which are
potentially helpful in the Christian’s call to aid those
who are in psychological distress.
This article is an exploration of the meaning,
value, and function of psychotherapy within
a theology of work. Using Volf’s (1991)
three-fold model of “work in the Spirit,”
psychotherapy is seen as cooperation with
God, as eschatological work, and as
pneumatological or Spirit-centered work.
Psychotherapy’s most basic goal is to repair
the broken personality. The work of psychotherapy is cooperation with God in God’s
own work of preserving and transforming
the original, now-fallen creation. The fruit of
such work—the healed and restored human
person—will be the raw material from
which God will build the new creation. Thus,
the work of psychotherapy is God’s work in
both its intrinsic and instrumental value, as
it honors the original creation and makes
way for the new. Finally, psychotherapy is
seen as God’s work in that it is empowered
by the Holy Spirit, who gifts, calls, and
enables psychotherapists to participate in
God’s own preserving and transforming
work in the world.
F
or several decades, there has been an ongoing
controversy about integrating the theories and
treatments developed by secular psychology
into a Christian framework. Some argue that secular
psychology stands in contradiction with theology,
and thus can offer nothing to Christians (Bobgan &
The authors wish to thank Dr. Miroslav Volf for his kind
reading, critique, and affirmation of an earlier draft of this
manuscript. Requests for reprints may be sent to Jennifer L.
Kunst, PhD, Pacific Psychological Resources, 200 East Del
Mar Blvd., Suite 122, Pasadena, California 91105-2551.
The Problem of Eschatology
Eschatology, or doctrine concerning the end
times, and soteriology, or doctrine concerning the
284
KUNST and TAN
salvation of the soul, are critical issues in Christian
theology. At the heart of the integration question,
we believe, is the Christian’s eschatological concern,
namely, “What can psychotherapy contribute to
humanity in its ultimate destiny?” Put simply, the
underlying assertion among some Christians is that
psychotherapy that does not lead to salvation of the
soul can have no real significance or value. Some
integrators have asked the question: “Is psychotherapy simply rearranging the seats on the Titanic?”
Though the passengers may be more comfortable,
they are still headed to the same tragic end. Conversely, there are those who have suggested that
this-worldly liberation of people from oppression
was Jesus’ main concern and thus the bedrock of
soteriology, thus minimizing the importance of
eschatological issues. In this context, psychotherapy
could be considered a tool leading to human liberation which itself is sufficient for salvation.
These controversial questions about the integration of psychology and theology are imbedded in
more fundamental questions about the eschatological significance of human activity in general. What
kinds of work really make a difference for the kingdom? Are some types of work more “spiritual” than
other types of work? Is the work of the clergy more
important than the work of the laity? How is salvation accomplished? Is the work of evangelism the
only eternally consequential work of Christians in
the world? Or, on the other hand, is evangelism
important at all?
It is important to note that responses to such
questions are necessarily imbedded in a larger theological framework and guided by assumptions about
the nature of salvation and the eschaton. In this article, we will work predominantly from a post-millennial eschatology which posits a cooperative relationship between humans and God in the redemption
of the creation. This is one approach to the integration issues just mentioned, but certainly not the only
one. It is hoped that this article will serve as a
springboard from which other integrators might consider these issues from theological approaches with
different presuppositions. Approaches which begin
from a pre-millennial or liberation theology point of
view could be fruitful extensions of a theological
understanding of psychotherapy.
Historical Context
The specific questions about the integration of
theology and psychology seem to reflect more gen-
285
eral concerns about the nature and value of human
work, concerns which have been explored for centuries. In philosophy, for example, there has historically been much discussion of the nature and value
of human work, dating back to the ancient world of
Plato and Aristotle and the more contemporary
work of Adam Smith and Karl Marx.
These theorists, especially Smith and Marx, dealt
with issues about the instrumental value of human
work, drawing from their social and economic
philosophies. These ideas suggest that work enables
people to better their condition by earning a living or
increasing their social or economic power. Extending
these ideas to contemporary society, the work of
teacher, politician, businessperson, homemaker,
preacher, and machinist alike helps secure existence
for the common good. Narrowing the focus, psychologists are better off earning a living; their patients and
their communities are better off when mental illness is
treated. But such social and economic frameworks are
limited in scope; yet another challenge is to conceptualize human work within a theological framework.
Issues about the nature and value of work have
long been considered important theological concerns.
Unfortunately, there is not much in the Bible which
directly addresses this problem, although there are
basic principles which provide a foundation from
which a theology of work can be developed. In the
15th century, Martin Luther attempted such a theology in his landmark discussion of Christian vocation.
He addressed a broader question which more narrowly faces Christian psychology today: “Can work
which does not directly contribute to salvation be
considered necessary and valuable to the kingdom of
God?” The backdrop for this question was Luther’s
central doctrine of justification by faith alone, making
his answer particularly relevant to issues of soteriology and eschatology. Additionally, Luther was
responding to medieval monasticism with its elevation of the ascetic, contemplative life over the active
life of work and engagement in the world.
In Luther’s development of a theology of vocation, two fundamental elements emerged (Volf,
1991). First, Luther believed that all Christians have
a vocation and, second, that every type of work
which a Christian does can be considered a vocation. He believed that all Christians have one, same
spiritual vocation in response to God’s call to enter
the kingdom of God and live the Christian life. But
he also believed that all Christians have an external
vocation, which is in response to the call to serve
286
God and one’s fellow human beings by doing some
type of work in the world. This latter concept was a
strikingly new development in the history of Christian theology, for it meant that work in every profession, not only in ecclesiastical professions, rests
on divine calling. This increased the value attributed to work in general and argued that every vocation has fundamentally the same value before God
(Weber, 1958).
Miroslav Volf (1991) brings together the history
of thinking about human work and Christian theology in his book, Work in the Spirit: Toward a
Theology of Work. There he presents and critiques
Luther’s theology of vocation, acknowledging the
advances made but arguing that a theology of
work based on Luther’s notion of vocation is limited, for it allows all work—even alienating or dehumanizing work—to be considered in the same category as divine service, paving the way for the
“fateful elevation” of gainful employment to the
status of religion. Volf argues that a Christian
understanding of work better rests on a theology
of charisms (or spiritual gifts) conceptualized within an eschatological framework. In terms of the
charisms, God’s Spirit gifts people to participate in
and cooperate with God in God’s own creative
work in the world. Then, within Volf’s post-millennial eschatology, this creative work restores the
good of the original creation and makes way for
the coming of God’s kingdom on earth.
Summary of the Integration Problem
In summary, we are suggesting that our current
understanding of integration is lacking due to an
inadequately developed theology of work in general, and an inadequate application of this theology
to the discipline of psychology in particular. Volf
(1991) encourages the application of his general
theology of work to different types of work. The
intention of this article is to make such an application by constructing a “theology of psychology.”
This is a substantial task, and will thus be simplified
by limiting the present discussion to only one
domain of psychology, namely psychotherapy.
Using Volf’s (1991) schema, we will argue that the
work of psychotherapy—when conducted competently and ethically—is consonant with God’s intention for the present created order; psychotherapy is
one way of cooperating with God in God’s
redemptive work in the world.
PSYCHOTHERAPY AS “WORK IN THE SPIRIT”
Work in the Spirit:
A Theological Framework
Volf (1991) constructs his theology of work on the
basis of a three-fold schema: (a) work is cooperation
with God, (b) work is conceived within an eschatological framework, and (c) work is motivated by the
Holy Spirit, who gifts, calls, and empowers people to
participate in the eschatological work of God.
Work as Cooperation With God
Christian theology, both Protestant and Catholic,
holds to the most basic understanding of human
work as cooperation with God. Volf (1991) sees such
cooperation as operating within two spheres. First,
human work can be understood as a direct
response to God’s calling men and women to partnership in tending to the garden of God’s world (cf.
Gen.1:28; 2:5). From the dawn of creation, human
beings are called to responsible work which honors
and preserves the good creation. Those whose work
demonstrates responsibility, respect, and care for the
creation realize their calling as partners with God in
God’s ongoing creative activity in the world.
But the contribution of human work also reaches
beyond the temporal preservation of the original creation. In this second sphere, human work is seen as
cooperation with God in the eschatological transformation of the world (Volf, 1991). Jesus called men and
women to active participation in the world, to work
diligently for the kingdom (cf. Matt. 5:16). Though
God alone will bring about the eschatological new
creation, those who do good works anticipate and
participate in the coming of the kingdom of God.
This, of course, raises the central paradox of
eschatology; human beings actually participate in
the eschatological activity of God. Volf (1991) writes,
In the context of kingdom-participation, mundane human
work for worldly betterment becomes a contribution—a
limited and imperfect one in need of divine purification—
to the eschatological kingdom, which will come through
God’s action alone.… Human work is an aspect of active
participation of the exclusively divine transformatio
mundi. (p. 100)
Within such a framework, God’s call to care for
the sick, the poor, the oppressed, the orphaned and
widowed takes on eternal significance. Those who
offer a cup of cold water in the name of Christ do
so, not simply to satisfy a temporary human need,
but to restore the intention of the old creation and
so make way for the new.
287
KUNST and TAN
Work and Eschatology
Work and the Spirit
Volf (1991) centrally argues that a theology of
work only makes sense when considered within an
eschatological framework. Indeed, work which
restores creation has intrinsic value as it participates
in God’s ongoing preservation of the original, good
creation. But work also has instrumental value—
eschatological significance—as it anticipates and
participates in the ultimate transformation of the
now-fallen world.
How can the work of fallen human beings have
eschatological significance, if the new creation will
come by divine action alone? Here, Volf relies on
the position that God will not destroy the good of
the first creation but will use it as the raw material
for the new. He thus relies on a post-millennial view
of the eschaton which links the present creation’s
transformation to the establishment of the New
Jerusalem. In so doing, he also rejects an annihilationist approach which argues that this present
world will be destroyed and a new one created ex
nihilo. He argues that such a position is theologically
inconsistent with the belief that the creation is intrinsically good. “What God will annihilate must either
be so bad that it is not possible to be redeemed or
so insignificant that it is not worth being redeemed.
It is hard to believe in the intrinsic value and goodness of something that God will completely annihilate.” (Volf, 1991, pp. 90-91).
The more consistent theological position, Volf
asserts, is that the present world will not be
annihilated but will be transformed to make way for
the new heaven and new earth. The Trinity’s work
in this present world—as seen in the creating work
of God, the redeeming work of Christ, and the
enabling and empowering work of the Spirit—could
have no meaning or significance apart from the
belief that the fruits of their work will have eternal
consequences. Similarly, the cumulative work of
human beings—our participation in “doing justice,
loving mercy, and walking humbly with God”
(Micah 6:8)—will have lasting effects since all that is
good will be the raw material from which God will
build the new creation. As with Luther, spiritual
work is not elevated above mundane work within
such a framework; evangelists, ecologists, homemakers, and psychologists work side by side. Any
work which restores or redeems what was broken
in the Fall has instrumental value as it participates in
and anticipates the eschatological new creation.
Fundamental to a biblically-based theology of
work is the belief that people are gifted and
empowered to use their gifts by the Holy Spirit. The
Bible speaks of the Spirit inspiring craftsmen and
artists (Exod. 35: 2-3), judges and politicians (Judg.
3:10; 1 Sam. 16:13), as well as those gifted for
church ministry (Eph. 4:11-12). The Spirit is seen as
the source for any human work which honors, preserves, and transforms creation.
The significance of a Spirit-centered or pneumatological understanding of work cannot be overemphasized. It stands in marked contrast to the traditional split between “spiritual” and “mundane” work,
in the assertion that no gift is better than another
because it is the same Spirit who gives them (1 Cor.
12:4-11). A pneumatological focus also reflects the
integrity and dignity of God’s calling people to
engagement in non-alienating, edifying work in the
world. God does not gift people to perform jobs
which are dehumanizing or inconsequential.
Instead, “the pneumatological understanding of
work implies an obligation to overcome alienation
because the individual gifts of the person need to be
taken seriously” (Volf, 1991, p. 116).
Psychotherapy as
“Work in the Spirit”
In proposing a theological framework in which
to understand psychotherapy, one must carefully
examine what psychotherapy is. At first glance, the
answer to this question may appear quite complex.
There are many different theories about what the
“talking cure” is and how it helps people with their
psychological difficulties. Beginning with Freud’s
pioneering work in psychoanalysis, numerous
approaches to psychotherapy have emerged, including the behavioral, cognitive, psychodynamic, interpersonal, existential, Gestalt, and family systems
approaches, among others. Each approach has its
own set of assumptions about personality, psychopathology, and the tools and processes of psychotherapy. In addition, each has a different way of
understanding the goals of psychotherapy, from
changing maladaptive behaviors to reducing psychiatric symptoms to altering personality structure.
It is interesting to note that psychotherapy outcome research does not convincingly demonstrate
that any one of these approaches to psychotherapy
is better than another. There is some evidence
288
which suggests that certain types of therapy (i.e.,
behavioral and cognitive therapy) are more effective
for certain types of disorders (i.e., phobia, panic, or
compulsion) (see Lambert & Bergin, 1994). Yet
questions persist about the source of the main
effects of psychotherapy in general; the literature
does not definitively identify what specific ingredients of various psychotherapies actually help people
change (Lambert, Shapiro, & Bergin, 1986; Meltzoff
& Kornreich, 1970; Smith, Glass, & Miller, 1980).
Nonetheless, the research generally agrees that
Eysenck’s (1952) infamous assertion that psychotherapy is ineffective was wrong; psychotherapy
does help people change (DiLoreto, 1971; Lambert
& Bergin, 1994; Lambert et al., 1986; Luborsky,
Singer, & Luborsky, 1975; Meltzoff & Kornreich,
1970; Smith et al., 1980). Though the nature of psychotherapy remains somewhat elusive, it is generally seen as “an interpersonal process designed to
bring about modifications of feelings, cognitions,
attitudes, and behavior which have proven troublesome to the person seeking help from a trained
professional” (Strupp, 1978, p. 3).
Psychotherapy Basics
Assumptions. The most basic assumption of psychotherapy is that people have problems in living.
Though there are disputes about the causes of these
problems, it is commonly held that psychological
functioning is most strongly influenced by two general factors: biology (nature) and environment (nurture). A person’s ability to function adaptively largely
relies on his or her original material (constitution,
genetic/hereditary factors, innate resources), the
degree of damage (early trauma/learning/development and adult frustrations), and what remains to be
worked with (enduring resources plus the reality situation) (Colby, 1951). To the degree that these variables are intact or damaged is the degree to which
people will experience disruptions in successful living. Psychotherapy is available to those for whom the
disruptions are significant and its working assumption
and mission are clear: with the right tools, people can
learn to better manage their problems in living.
These assumptions fit nicely within a theological, specifically eschatological, framework. The creation narratives tell us that human beings were
made in goodness and in the image of God. God
intended them to live fruitfully in a world which
contained all that was necessary for their survival
and growth. The bliss of humanity’s original nature
PSYCHOTHERAPY AS “WORK IN THE SPIRIT”
and environment included a kind of personal innocence and intimate partnership with other humans
and with God. But something went wrong.
Adam and Eve betrayed God, the creation, and
themselves by choosing the way of disobedience.
The account of the Fall of the first parents reflects
humankind’s ongoing disobedience, resulting in a
breach among people and between people and
God. Humanity’s disobedience results in injury to
the self; self-consciousness, shame, and projection
of blame would come to dominate humankind’s
self-experience.
Christian theology generally agrees that the
implications of the Fall are far-reaching. All humans
are born with the brokenness of the first parents
(“original sin”) and continue to make the same
kinds of choices which they made (“actual sins”)
(Calvin, 1977). The marred creation groans in its loss
of original goodness and in its longing for redemption (Rom. 8:22). Here, the assumptions of theology
and psychotherapy join in a single hope that, with
help, human beings can find a way back and a way
into the life which God intended for them.
Processes and goals. Colby (1951) in his
Primer for Psychotherapists, mirrors the biblical
understanding of human need by asserting that psychotherapy is most basically repair work. Something about a person is broken; his or her functioning is not what it was intended to be.
Psychologically speaking, these troubles typically
show themselves as maladaptive ways of thinking,
feeling, or behaving. Inevitably, they have a common effect as they interfere with a person’s ability
to fulfill his or her essential needs (Glasser, 1965).
Though different in severity, this basic inadequacy
is true for the schizophrenic and the neurotic character alike. Each is unable to meet his or her essential needs: to develop and sustain a competent
sense of self, satisfactory relationships, and adaptive
patterns of living in a complex world. Without the
resources to meet essential needs, human beings
barely survive instead of thrive in the ongoing
development of their personhood.
Theologically, we might say that this kind of
alienation from the self, from others, and from the
created order is the consequence of the Fall. The
truth of Adam and Eve’s story is that human beings
today wander the earth as strangers, cast out of
their intended home where needs for life, love,
and work were met in abundance. Without help,
we, like our first parents, have no way back to the
289
KUNST and TAN
kinds of resources which we once had in Eden.
Cut off from these life-sustaining and life-transforming resources, we find ourselves trapped in a
static human existence with no way forward to the
New Jerusalem—our future home and Godordained destiny.
When people become sufficiently dissatisfied
with their functioning (or when others are sufficiently dissatisfied with them), they may seek psychotherapy for help. Simply put, psychotherapy is
one way of helping people change (Strupp, 1978).
The psychotherapist endeavors to help people function more adaptively, to make better choices about
how they want to be in the world. This often
involves helping a person change his or her disruptive patterns of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Psychotherapy “hopefully results in a situation where
the patient can give up old behavior patterns and
assume more and more appropriate ones which
lead to greater happiness and effective functioning”
(Beier, 1966).
Psychotherapy as Cooperation With God
The work of psychotherapy relies on a basic
belief which is theologically sound: it is important to
help people with their problems in living. Taken further, this assumption suggests that helping people
manage their psychological difficulties is wholly consonant with God’s will and activity in the world;
such work is cooperation with God. As with the
healing miracles of Jesus, work which redeems the
brokenness of human existence is important both in
its preserving and transforming functions. It is valuable to help people live more adaptively in the here
and now (as they were created to live). God delights
when the blind receive sight, when the lame walk,
when the wounded are healed, and when the broken-hearted are filled with peace and joy.
To be called Christian, psychotherapy does not
need to be considered as a universal work which is
necessary for everyone but an important work
which helps some. In this way, psychotherapy is
guided by the same goals that all Christian work is
guided. The kind of healing wrought by psychotherapy—and by many other types of human work—is
Christian because it reaches into the heart, intention,
and very work of God by anticipating the coming
age in which there will be no more tears or sorrow,
when people will live at peace with themselves,
with one another, and with their God. The work of
psychotherapy is one expression of God’s own
redemptive work in the world. In addition, it is a
particularly fertile ground for integration because
psychotherapy so closely mirrors and models God’s
own work in its efforts to be present to people in
the depth of their need and in the longing to restore
and build community.
Psychotherapy and Eschatology
Psychotherapy fits within an eschatological
understanding of work as cooperation with God in
the preservation and transformation of the present
world. As repair work, psychotherapy’s business is
the preservation and restoration of the goodness of
God’s original creation. Yet its product is not static
but dynamic. It is work that makes way for human
beings to grow again, that is, not only to be
“repaired” but to bear fruit—to be engaged in the
process of growth and transformation.
Like all Christian work, the work of psychotherapy is forward-reaching. Psychotherapy participates
in the eschatological new creation by enabling
human beings to be kingdom-people, to help them
live out their original, intended calling as people
thriving in peaceful community with one another,
respecting and working well with the created order,
and living unencumbered by the weight of self-consciousness, shame, and pride. Here, Volf’s (1991)
eschatology becomes clear: where human beings
live more nearly as they were meant to live, there
God will build a second Eden, the New Jerusalem.
Healed, redeemed, and restored humanity will be
the raw material from which God will create the
new humanity; those whose lives participate in and
anticipate the new creation will be used one day, as
God births it anew as the kingdom of God.
This view of psychotherapy must be carefully
placed within Volf’s understanding of the eschaton.
It should not mistakenly be taken to mean that psychotherapists could in some way precipitate the
New Jerusalem by their good, successful work with
clients. Psychotherapists do not precipitate but participate in and anticipate the new creation through
their work which transforms the injured creation.
But ultimately, the work is God’s alone. Like medical doctors, psychotherapists work to heal wounds
and so cooperate with God in God’s own healing
work in this world.
Psychotherapy and the Spirit
Finally we come to the question with which we
began. Is psychotherapy “spiritual” work? Does
290
psychotherapy have value if it does not directly
lead to “spiritual” conversion? Hopefully, the foregoing discussion has offered a sufficient theological
base from which one can confidently answer these
questions in the affirmative. Psychotherapy, no less
than evangelism, is work in the Spirit for its end is
the preservation and transformation of God’s creation. Evangelism is a vital work of God in the
world, but it is not God’s only work. God’s concern for the world is not limited to the sphere of
the soul, for God cares for all aspects of the creation. The whole of the created order has been
broken—the soul, mind, and body of human
beings, as well as all the earth and its creatures—
and the whole broken creation is in need of
redemption. Psychotherapy addresses one important element of injured reality— the broken human
personality—and begins the repairs which the Spirit
will complete in the new creation.
Psychotherapy is “spiritual” work because it is
charismatic work. While some are gifted to be
teachers, others evangelists, others leaders, still others are gifted to the burden-bearing, comforting,
restructuring work of the psychotherapist. In 1
Corinthians 12, Paul explicitly refers to gifts such as
wisdom, knowledge, and healing, which are important aspects of the psychotherapist’s work. Spiritual
gifts relevant to the work of psychotherapy may
include exhortation or encouragement, wisdom,
knowledge, mercy, discerning of spirits, and healing
(see Tan, 1991). The New Testament testifies to the
fact that there is a great diversity of gifts; no one gift
is better than another, for it is the same Spirit who
gives them. As Luther suggested, God calls us to
develop an understanding of our unique gifts, and
then to use such gifts in service of others (Volf,
1991). Those gifted to do the work of psychotherapy honor the creation, the gift, and the Giver of the
gift when they use it well.
The evidence that psychotherapy is “spiritual”
work also can be found in its consonance with the
biblical notion of the way in which the Spirit works.
Just as the Spirit works in the healing community of
the church, so psychotherapy provides space in
which burdens, weeping, rejoicing, and suffering
are shared in relationship. The work of the therapist
also mirrors the work of the Spirit in Jesus’ own
incarnational ministry, for people were dramatically
changed through personal encounter, conversation,
understanding, and challenge which Jesus offered to
them. Christ practiced and called his followers to the
PSYCHOTHERAPY AS “WORK IN THE SPIRIT”
work of feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, and
tending to the needs of the sick and imprisoned.
Good psychotherapy is akin to this kind of work
with those who suffer—whose needs are both
external and internal. The ministries of compassion
and helping are central to Christian life and service.
Finally, a place for integration can be found in
the reality that the fruit of psychotherapy is much
like the fruit of the Spirit. Those who find relief from
their psychological difficulties are enabled to live
and grow in love, joy, peace, patience, kindness,
goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control
(Gal. 5:22-23). Through psychotherapy, a person
might be enabled to become a healthier human
being and to discover the gifts and call which each
uniquely has been given by God. In these ways,
psychotherapy can be seen as a kind of edifying,
non-alienating work which builds up the body of
Christ as a whole and each member of it, thus participating in the Spirit’s ongoing work in the world.
Final Comments
The work of psychotherapy described above
actually refers to an “ideal”—to how psychotherapy
should be practiced, especially from a Christian perspective. We are aware that the actual practice of
psychotherapy is as diverse as the practitioners who
engage in such work, espousing different schools
and methods of psychotherapy and relying on differing degrees of talent, skill, experience, and values. It is no surprise, then, that the ideal of how
psychotherapy should be practiced is not always
realized.
Hence, there is always a need to be critical of
some forms or aspects of psychotherapy as they are
actually practiced, and, with this critique, careful discernment of how such work is consistent with or
runs counter to the work of the Spirit. Helpful critical or comprehensive Christian appraisals of the
major schools of psychotherapy are available and
sensitive to these issues (e.g., see Jones & Butman,
1991). With this crucial caveat in mind, we still propose that psychotherapy when practiced in an ethical, effective, and efficient way (see Tan, 1991), as
we have described in this article, can be viewed as
one aspect of the Spirit’s own work.
This article has been an attempt to articulate a theology of psychotherapy, wrestling with some of integration’s most basic concerns. It is hoped that these
ideas begin to bridge the traditional gap in which
“spiritual” work is elevated above “mundane” work,
291
KUNST and TAN
in which the redemption of the soul takes precedence over redemption of the rest of the injured creation. It is also hoped that they affirm the importance
of eschatological concerns and the interrelationship
between what is accomplished in this world and
what is accomplished in the next. By acknowledging
the value of psychotherapy as one of many types of
non-alienating, edifying work, perhaps Christians will
be better able to unite their gifts and together work
toward the coming kingdom. Those who use their
gifts in work which preserves and transforms the
original creation surely cooperate with God in God’s
ongoing, eschatological activity in the world.
References
Beier, E. (1966). The silent language of psychotherapy.
Chicago: Aldine Publishing.
Bobgan, M. & Bobgan, D. (1979). The psychological
way/the spiritual way. Minneapolis, MN: Bethany Fellowship, Inc.
Lambert, M. J., Shapiro, D. A., & Bergin, A. E. (1986). The
effectiveness of psychotherapy. In S. L. Garfield & A. E.
Bergin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior
change (3rd ed.) (pp. 157-211). New York: Wiley.
Luborsky, L., Singer, B., & Luborsky, L. (1975). Comparative
studies of psychotherapies. Archives of General Psychiatry,
32, 995-1008.
Malony, H. N. (1986). Integration musings: Thoughts on
being a Christian professional. Pasadena, CA: Integration
Press.
Meltzoff, J., & Kornreich, M. (1970). Research in psychotherapy. New York: Atherton Press.
Smith, M. L., Glass, G. V., & Miller, T. I. (1980). The benefits
of psychotherapy. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University
Press.
Strupp, H. H. (1978). Psychotherapy research and practice:
An overview. In Garfield, S. & Bergin, A., Psychotherapy
and behavior change: An empirical analysis (pp. 3-21).
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Tan, S. Y. (1991). Lay counseling: Equipping Christians for
a helping ministry. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
Calvin, J. (1977). Institutes of the Christian religion. J. T.
McNeill (Ed.). Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
Volf, M. (1991). Work in the Spirit: Toward a theology of
work. New York: Oxford University Press.
Colby, K. M. (1951). A primer for psychotherapists. New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Weber, E. (1958). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Crabb, L. (1977). Effective biblical counseling. Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
Authors
DiLoreto, A. O. (1971). Comparative psychotherapy: An
experimental analysis. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
Eysenck, H. J. (1952). The effects of psychotherapy: An
evaluation. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16, 319-324.
Glasser, W. (1965). Reality therapy: A new approach to psychiatry. New York: Harper and Row.
Jones, S. L., & Butman, R. E. (1991). Modern psychotherapies: A comprehensive Christian appraisal. Downers Grove,
IL: InterVarsity Press.
Lambert, M. J., & Bergin, A. E. (1994). The effectiveness of
psychotherapy. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.),
Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed.)
(pp. 143-189). New York: Wiley.
KUNST, JENNIFER L. Address: Pacific Psychological
Resources, 200 East Del Mar Blvd., Suite 122, Pasadena, CA
91105-2551. Title: Staff psychologist. Degrees: MDiv and
PhD (clinical psychology), Fuller Theological Seminary.
Specializations: Psychology of religion, forensic psychology, psychodynamic psychotherapy, personality assessment, and spiritual direction.
TAN, SIANG-YANG. Address: Fuller Graduate School of
Psychology, 180 North Oakland Ave., Pasadena, CA 91101.
Title: Associate Professor of Psychology. Degree: PhD (clinical psychology), McGill University. Specializations: Lay
counseling, intrapersonal integration and spirituality, cognitive-behavior therapy, epilepsy, pain, and psychopathology and culture in the Asian American context.