© 2020 Journal compilation
https://biotaxa.org./mjbs
DOI:10.22353/mjbs.2020.18.11
Volume 18(2), 2020
Mongolian Journal of Biological
Sciences
ISSN 1684-3908 (print edition)
MJBS
ISSN 2225-4994 (online edition)
Review
Dryland Forest Restoration Under a Changing Climate in
Central Asia and Mongolia
John A. Stanturf1, Evgeniy Botman2, Andrey Kalachev3, Yuliya Borissova4, Michael
Kleine5, Muslim Rajapbaev6, Nurstan Chyngozhoev6 and Batkhuu Nyam-Osor7
1
Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University pf Life Sciences,
Kreutzwaldi 5, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
2
Research Institute of Forestry 2, apt.17, Darkhan village, Tashkent region,
Zanghiota district 111104, Uzbekistan
3
Altai Branch of the Kazakh Research Institute of Forestry and Agroforestmelioration, East Kazakhstan region,
Ridder, Ostrovskii str., House 13/A, Republic of Kazakhstan
4
Department of Forest Resources and Game Management, Faculty of Forest, Soil Resources and Phytosanitary,
Kazakh National Agrarian University, Abay av. 8, Almaty 050010, Republic of Kazakhstan
5
International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO),
Marxergasse 2, A-1030 ViennaAustria
6
Forest Institute of National Academy of Sciences, Karagachevaya Roscha 15,
720015 Bishkek Kyrgyz Republic
7
Department of Environmental and Forest Engineering, National University of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar 14201,
P.O. Box 412, Mongolia
Abstract
Key words: Forest
landscape restoration,
dryland forestry, desertification, reclamation,
dune stabilization
Article information:
Received: 12 Feb. 2019
Accepted: 18 Dec. 2019
Published online:
10 February 2020
Correspondence:
jstanturf@fs.fed.us
Cite this paper as:
Diverse environmental gradients in Central Asia and Mongolia, from high mountain
forests to semi-desert lowlands salinized by past agriculture and water withdrawals,
pose challenges to restoring degraded forests and landscapes. Technical approaches in
dryland forestry and agroforestry methods are available to overcome these challenges,
but to be fully effective, require policy and institutional changes. Climate variability
and natural hazards are features of the region and the future is projected to become
more arid with more intense rainfall. Closed forests, open woodlands, and shrublands
are features of the dryland landscape, and provide a variety of ecosystem functions
and services to be restored. In this work, steps in the restoration process are discussed,
including halting degradation, conserving and rehabilitating existing forests, restoring
dryland forests and agroforestry where trees are lacking, and adapting to climate
change.
Stanturf, J. A., Botman, E., Kalachev, A., Borissova, Y., Kleine, M., Rajapbaev, M.,
Chyngozhoev, N. & Nyam-Osor, B. 2020. Dryland forest restoration under a changing
climate in Central Asia and Mongolia. Mong. J. Biol. Sci., 18(2): 3 ̶ 18.
Introduction
Land degradation is a threat to global
sustainability with an estimated 25% of the
world’s land area already degraded. Soil erosion,
loss of productivity potential, biodiversity loss,
water shortage, and soil pollution are ongoing
processes. The international community has
responded to environmental degradation with
several policy initiatives, such as for example
the Changwon Initiative of the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
developed at the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development Rio+ 20 in 2012 that
aims to achieve land net degradation neutrality
(LDN) by 2030. The objective of LDN is to
3
4
Stanturf et al. Restoration of dryland forests in Central Asia
maintain or improve the condition of land
resources, including restoration of natural and
semi-natural ecosystems. Similarly, the 2010
Strategic Plan of the Convention on Biological
Diversity set a goal of no net biodiversity loss,
and net positive impacts on biodiversity. Aichi
Target 15 specifically calls for countries to restore
at least 15% of degraded lands by 2020.
Heightened global concerns over climate
change impacts on ecosystem services such as
lowered productivity, lessened mitigation capacity,
and loss of biodiversity underscore the importance
of forest land cover as a carbon sink and habitat
for biodiversity (IPBES, 2019). Global forest land
cover has been reduced by approximately 50% in
historic times with concomitant levels of carbon
loss and emission into the atmosphere (Meiyappan
& Jain, 2012). Loss of forest cover has manifold
impacts on climate; carbon emissions from
changing land use are similar to emissions from
fossil fuel combustion and other climate effects
include changing albedo. Deforestation and forest
degradation also negatively impact biodiversity
(D’Odorico et al., 2013; Runyan & D’Odorico,
2016). Land use change costs an estimated $4.3–
20.2 trillion/year in terms of loss of ecosystem
services (IPBES, 2019). The nexus between
forests and food security is particularly important
in rural areas.
Drylands comprise 41% of the Earth’s
terrestrial surface and are home to 2 billion people
(Middleton et al., 2011). Water scarcity is the
defining characteristic of drylands and drought is
expected to increase due climate change (Orlowsky
& Seneviratne, 2012). Limitations on sustainability
are due to low or erratic rainfall; high temperatures;
and poor soils (Berrahmouni et al., 2015; Chasek et
al., 2015). These inherently fragile lands are easily
degraded by unsustainable uses; an estimated
10% to 20% of drylands globally have been
degraded leading to desertification (MEA, 2005).
Degradation of dryland forests is a global problem
(Chasek et al., 2015; Stavi & Lal, 2015) that occurs
as well in Central Asia and Mongolia (Tsogtbaatar,
2004; Lioubimtseva & Henebry, 2009; Klein et
al., 2012; Jiang et al., 2017). The objective of this
review is to present current practice and research
results and to suggest future lines of research for
the diverse environmental and social conditions in
the region.
Table 1. Dryland forests in Central Asia and Mongolia (Sources: Botman, 2009; Meshkov et al., 2009; Orozumbekov et al., 2009; Squires and Safarov, 2013; Tsogtbaatar, 2009).
Vegetation
Zone
High Mountains
Above 3000
meters asl
Mountain
forest
Country
Dominant species
Landform
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan,
and
Mongolia
Kazakhstan
Meadows
alpine and subalpine
More than
2900 meters
1500-2800
meters
1200-1400
meters
Kyrgyzstan
Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica) and Larch (Larix sibirica) oc- Altai mountains slopes
cupy the top part of the mountain slopes
Mixed forests of Siberian pine (P. sibirica) and Larch (L.
sibirica), Spruce (Picea sibirica), silver fir (Abies sibirica),
Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), birch (Betula pendula), aspen
(Populus tremula), Willow (Salix sp.), Padus sp., Sorbus sp.,
Sambucus sp., Rosa canina, Caragana arborescens, Spirea
sp., Populus laurifolia distributed in the middle and lower
parts of the slopes
Junipers occupy the top part of the mountain slopes
Mountain forest of Northern Tyan-Shan
Spruce (Picea schrenkiana)
Birch (Betula tianschanica), Aspen (P. tremula), Apple tree
(Malus sieversii), Apricot tree (Armeniaca vulgaris), Crataegus sanguinea, R. canina, and Sorbus sp.
Junipers (Juniperus seravschanica, Junuperus sp.)
Mountain forest of Western Tyan-Shan
Juglans regia, Almond (Amygdalus sp.), Pistachio (Pistacia
vera), Apricot tree (A. vulgaris), Prunus cerasifera
Spruce forests dominated by Picea schrenkiana,
Northern slopes of Tien-Shan Mountains
Juniper
Walnut-fruit forests (Juglans regia, Malus sp. and Prunus
sp.)
Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences 2020 Vol. 18 (2)
Tajikistan
800 to 3,700
meters
2,300 to
3,500 meters
Juniperus semiglobosa, J. turkestanica and J. seravschanica
Turkestan, Zeravshan and Gissar mountain
ridges, mainly on their northern slopes
White willow (Salix alba), Tian-Shan birch (Betula
tianschanica), Tajik poplar (Populus tadschikistanica) and
Pamirs poplar (Populus pamirica), tamarisk (Tamarix laxa)
Badahshan, Zeravshan, Gissar-Darvaz, and
partially East Pamirs i.e. all Tajikistan’s area.
Small-leaf forests spread within valleys of
Pyanj, Vanch, Yazgulem, Bartang, Gunt,
Muksu, Obihingou, Zeravshan, Fandarya,
and Iskanderdarya rivers
Southern slopes of Gissar mountain ridge as
well as on Darvaz ridge and Peter I ridge, in
upper reaches of Yakhsu and Kyzylsu rivers
1,200 to
2,500 meters
Walnut (Juglans regia), maple (Acer turkestanicum) and
apple-tree (Malus sieversii)
600 to 1,700
meters
Uzbekistan
Pistacia vera, Amygdalus bucharica, Punica granatum
1000-2600
m asl
2000-2800
m asl
2300-3000
m asl
750-1800
m asl
Juniper forests (Juniperus seravshanica, J. semiglobosa and Top slopes
J. turkestanica)
Juniperus seravshanica Kom.
Chatkal, Kurama, Ghissar, Turkestan, Babatag ridges
J. semiglobosa Rgl.
Mainly on Ghissar, Turkestan ridges
J. turkestanica Kom.
Northern slopes of Turkestan ridge
Walnut-tree forests, pure and mixed
Chatkal, Pskem, Ugam, Kurama, Nurata,
(Juglans regia, Malus sieversii, Cerasus mahaleb, Prunus
Ghissar ridges
divaricate, Crataegus songorica, Acer semenovii, Fraxinus
potamophila, Rosa fedtschenkoana, Euonimus koopmannii) Slopes of northern aspects and lower watersheds
Pure walnut stands (Juglans regia)
Northern slopes of the Fergana and Chatkal,
Pskem, Ugam ridges
Mixed maple-walnut and apple-walnut forests, open stands
Southern slopes with shallow soils
Apple forests (Malus sieversii, M. niedzwetzkyana)
Western Tyan Shan, Pamiro-Alay
1000-2500
m asl
Turkmenistan Juniperus turkomanica
Mongolia
Forest steppe Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
5
Narrow mountain river valleys with high
humidity
Elm (Ulmus carpinifolia), walnut (Juglans regia),
Syrian ash (Fraxinus syriaca), and Thelycrania meyeri
Mountain forest steppe (interspersed forests and grasslands
of Larix siberica, Pinus silvestris, Pinus siberica, Picea obovata, Abies siberica, Betula platyphylla, Populus tremula,
Populus diversifolia, and Salix spp.)
Taiga (Siberian larch), followed by the cedar, with a varying
admixture of spruce, pine, and fir. Although birch and larch
trees are dominant, cold-resistant taiga elements such as
Siberian pine and fir are common
Birch (Betula pendula, B. pubescens, B. krylovii ), Aspen
Continuation of the West Siberian Lowlands
(P. tremula), Willow (Salix sibirica, S. caprea, S. viminalis)
forests, generally scattered among croplands
Pine (Pinus sylvestris) forests
Kazakh melkosopochnik (small tuffets). Continuing to the south there are ribbon-like pine
forests on the banks of the Irtysh River
Mix of walnut, maple, apple, cherry, plum, Crataegus and
almond trees
Uzbekistan
750-2000
m asl
Pistacia vera
700-2500
m asl
Almonds
Amygdalus communis
Turkmenistan, 800 to
2,500 m
Turkmen maple (Acer tucomanicum) and the Christ’s thorn
(Paliurus spinachristi), pomegranate (Punica granatum),
wild grapes (Vitis sylvestris, V. vinifera), fig (Ficus carica),
wild apple (Malus turkmenorum), wild pear (Pyrus boisiieri), wild cherries (Cerasus microcarpa, C. erythrocarpa,
C. blinovskii), wild prune (Prunus divaricata), almonds
(Amygdalus communis and A. scoparia), and hawthorns
(Crataegus spp.)
Pastureland, covered with feather grass, couch grass, wormwood, and many fodder plant species
Mongolia
The belt of foothills and low mountains
(Ridges of the Babatag Mountains. Chatkal,
Ghissar). Turkestan ridges with long-living
with trees reaching an age of 300 years and
more, very drought-resistant, but form very
open stands
Western Tyan Shan, Pamiro-Alay
Shiblyak (Mediterranean short-tree woodland)
Inter-mountain basins, the wide river valleys, and the sunny southern flanks of the
mountains
6
Stanturf et al. Restoration of dryland forests in Central Asia
Lowland and Kazakhstan
tugai forests
Tajikistan
Willow, aspen, poplar, European white elm, birch, bird
cherry and alder
English oak (Quercus robur)
Asiatic poplar (Populus diversifolia, P. pruinosa), Russian
olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), willow (Salix songarica),
tamarisk, ash (Fraxinus sogdiana) shrubs of the genera
Tamarix, Berberis, Hippophae and others
Populus pruinosa, oleaster (Elaeagnus oxycarpa), tamarisk
(Tamarix laxa) in combination with reed grass, liana, bulrush
The northern rivers: Irtysh, Ishim, Tobol and
Ural
Floodplains of the Ural River
Delta of the Amudarya , Syrdarya , Chu, Ile,
Karatal, Lepsy, Aksu Rivers
Vakhsh River within “Tigrovaya balka”
nature reserve as well as in Pyanj, Kafirnigan
and Zeravshan rivers
Mongolia
Uzbekistan
Populus and Salix
Oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia), turanga (Populus
euphratica), willow (Salix spp), ash (Fraxinus patamopholia) and tamarisk (Tamarix spp.)
Turkmenistan Populus euphratica, Salix persa, Elaeagnus orientalis,
Tamarix florida, and T. meyeri
Narrow strip (10 to 30, rarely 50 to 100 m
wide) along the Sumbar Valley at the altitudes from 200 to 700-800 m
Semi-desert, Kazakhstan
Black (Haloxylon aphyllum) and white (H. persicum) saxaul, Zaisan saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron)
desert steppe
tamarisk (Tamarix sp.), salt tree (Halimodendron sp.), kanalso grow in the Zaisan valley.
dym (Calligonum sp.) and saltwort (Salsola sp.), sarsazan
(Halocnemum strobilaceum) and Nitraria sp.
Tajikistan
White saxaul (Haloxylon persicum) and black saxaul (H.
aphyllum)
Turkmenistan Sagebrush communities (Artemisia herbaalbae species
South foothills of Southwest Kopetdagh (300
group A. badhysi, A. turcomanica, and A. kulbadica)
to 800 m).
Mongolia
Tracts of saxaul and groves of elm, poplars and Tamarix
Great Lakes inter-mountain depression.
cluster around springs or other underground water sources
Desert
Kazakhstan
Black (Haloxylon aphyllum) and white (H. persicum) saxaul,
Tamarisk (Tamarix), salt tree (Halimodendron), Calligonum,
Ammodendron sp.
Uzbekistan
Saxaul (Haloxylon persicum and H. aphillum). Large areas
Kyzylkum
are also occupied by saltwort (Salsola Richterii, S. paletzkiana), kandyms (Calligonum), and tamarisks (Tamarix)
Mongolia
Rock-floored desert with gravel cover. Only the far eastern
Gobi
part has small areas of sandy desert
Context.
Forests in Central Asia and Mongolia occur
along climatic and altitudinal gradients from the
boreal forest margins and lowland plains in the
north, and spruce, pine, or larch forests in the
upper reaches of several mountain ranges, to
the semi-arid woodlands and saxaul forests of
the desert margins (Table 1). Over-grazing, fire,
illegal logging, and exploitive harvesting of nontimber forest products have reduced forest cover
and degraded the remaining forests (Kleine et al.,
2009). Mountain forests provide critical ecosystem
services, primarily provisioning, regulating, and
supporting services (Postel & Thompson, 2005).
All of the major rivers in Central Asia originate
in the mountains and all are transboundary, in that
they flow between two or more countries (Mueller
et al., 2014). Paramount is the role of forests in
protecting watersheds. The mountains are the
water towers of Central Asia; the rivers are the
life-lines of Central Asia, and the forests protect
them both (Yessekin et al., 2008).
The Central Asian countries, such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and
Uzbekistan are highly exposed and vulnerable to
natural hazards (Thurman, 2011). Seismic hazards present the greatest risk (Thurman, 2011),
alone or in combination with meteorological hazards that produce landslides (Sidle and Bogaard,
2016), mudflows, and glacial lake outburst floods
(GLOF) (Thurman, 2011). Most of the rivers are
regulated and historically water allocation decisions in the region have favored hydropower and
agriculture (which consumes 90% of the water),
without regard for other uses (Yessekin et al.,
2008). This has led to deterioration in drinking
water and health of human populations and significant degradation of environmental resources,
for example, the shrinking Aral Sea (Bai et al.,
2011; Kezer & Matsuyama, 2006; Micklin, 2007;
Qi et al., 2012). Climate change is expected to
decrease water availability in the medium- to
long-term (Reyer et al., 2017).
Climate variability affects water resources in
the region, with precipitation characterized by
wet and dry cycles (Bai et al., 2011; Cook et al.,
2015). The region has become warmer over the
last 30 years, but there have been no apparent
Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences 2020 Vol. 18 (2)
anomalies in precipitation. Nevertheless, the
higher temperatures have increased regional
aridity (Yessekin et al., 2008). Climate projections
indicate a bleak, warming future for Central Asia;
by the end of this century, mean temperatures
may increase by up to 6.5°C as compared to a preindustrial baseline (Reyer et al., 2017). This will
be felt as more frequent and prolonged heat waves
with increases in extremely hot days (>40°C).
Precipitation is projected to be more variable
(Giorgi, 2006; Qi et al., 2012).
Increased temperatures and altered precipitation
regimes will cause more arid conditions. Recent
conditions in drought-sensitive semi-arid forests
in Mongolia and Kazakhstan have caused growth
declines (Dulamsuren et al., 2010a, b; Liu et al.,
2013), perhaps portending the effects of future
climate (Dai, 2011, 2013). Mountain areas may
see increasing rates of glacial and snow melt
that could lead to greater seasonality and amount
of river runoff resulting in greater exposure to
river floods, mudflows, and glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOFs) (Middleton & Sternberg, 2013;
Reyer et al., 2017; Sorg et al., 2012). Central
Asia is seismically active and earthquakes trigger
landslides, mudflows, and GLOFs (Thurman,
2011).
Guidelines for restoring degraded forests and
landscapes in drylands have been released by FAO
(2015a) and described in brief by Berrahmouni et
al. (2015). For policymakers and other “enablers”,
FAO (2015) advocates investing in monitoring
and assessment to among other things, prioritize
areas needing restoration. Integrated, crosssectoral dialogue is needed to address drivers of
degradation and to plan restoration at the landscape
level. Capacity development and improved
governance and policy frameworks are needed
to ensure local people are adequately involved in
restoration from the beginning. Improvements are
needed in the supply and access to quality plant
materials. Investments are needed in restoration,
including funding for research and knowledge
sharing.
The FAO (2015) guidelines are generally
applicable almost anywhere, but countries will
have their own particular set of issues to address
in order to undertake successful landscape-scale
restoration activity. For example in Kyrgyzstan, a
recent assessment of the forestry sector concluded
that there was an inadequate legal framework
for sustainable forest and land management, and
7
land tenure reforms enacted after the transition
to a more open economy were insufficient. Outdated approaches to sustainable forest and land
management were cited as obstacles to restoration,
as well as limited capacity of local institutions
and a lack of adequate financial resources for
forest management (GEF 2012). No doubt many
of these statements apply to other countries in
Central Asia.
Restoring Dryland Forests.
The FAO (2015) guidelines provide four
general objectives for restoring dryland
landscapes: (1) plan and choose the most effective
restoration strategies; (2) protect and manage; (3)
promote natural regeneration; and (4) plant where
necessary. The following discussion will amplify
these objectives and apply them to conditions in
Central Asia and Mongolia.
Halt degradation.
The first step in restoring dryland forests
is addressing the drivers of degradation. Land
degradation in Central Asia costs an estimated 6
billion USD, mostly due to rangeland degradation
(4.6 billion USD), desertification (0.8 billion
USD), and deforestation (0.3 billion USD).
Taking action against land degradation would cost
20% of the cost of inaction over a 30-year horizon
(Mirzabaev et al., 2016). Almost 78% of the land
area of Mongolia is subject to desertification
and soil degradation (Desertification Atlas of
Mongolia, 2013). Forms of degradation include soil
erosion in the mountains, secondary salinization
of irrigated lowland agriculture, and reduced
vegetation from deforestation, overgrazing, and
wildfire (Djanibekov et al., 2016; Kleine et al.,
2009; Mirzabaev et al., 2016; Tsogtbaatar, 2004;
Tsogtbaatar, 2009).
Policy and institutional constraints, some
relicts of the Soviet centrally-planned economic
policies, are obstacles to addressing degradation
drivers (Djanibekov et al., 2016; Mirzabaev et
al., 2016). For example, agroforestry is not a
recognized land use in national legislation in
Central Asian countries and farmers cannot use
land for agroforestry that has been designated for
other crops such as cotton (Djanibekov et al., 2016).
Land tenure is another obstacle, both because lack
of tenure deters farmers from making investments
such as planting trees and because afforestation
to protect fields is no longer under government
control (Kleine et al., 2009). After the collapse of
the Soviet Union, government budgets for forestry
and forest restoration declined precipitously
8
Stanturf et al. Restoration of dryland forests in Central Asia
along with a breakdown in the forest management
system (Kleine et al., 2009; Tsogtbaatar, 2009).
Sustainable restoration of drylands in Central Asia
and Mongolia necessitates an “all lands” approach
or “multi-sectoral platform”, by this is meant that
dryland forest restoration and agroforestry must
be integrated with other land using sectors such as
agriculture, mining, and water resources (Kusters
et al., 2017; Qi et al., 2012; Reed et al., 2016;
Sayer et al., 2013) including full participation of
local peoples whose livelihoods depend on using
these resources.
Conserve and rehabilitate existing forests.
Government policy in Central Asia is to
expand forest cover and enhance biodiversity
and protective functions of forests (Kleine et
al., 2009). Protected forest area has expanded to
include wilderness areas, national and state nature
parks, and nature preserves, with a goal of 8 to
10% of land area in protected status in Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan (Kleine et al., 2009).
Similarly, production forests are to be regenerated
with native species by natural regeneration or
by planting. Species choices are dictated by the
ecological zone: in Kazakhstan, it is pine and birch
in the north and central regions and fruit and nut
trees and broadleaves in the south; in Kyrgyzstan,
spruce and larch at the higher elevations and
walnut and fruit trees in the southern region. In the
foothills and low mountains of Uzbekistan, natural
pistachio woodlands are rehabilitated and the area
enlarged with improved varieties (Botman 2009).
Natural regeneration is effective in the Taiga zone
in Mongolia except after wildfire or logging when
birch replaces conifers. In the sub-taiga zone,
larch naturally regenerates after selective cutting
and forest fire prevention but is replaced by steppe
vegetation when clearcut. Larch, pine and birch in
the pseudo-taiga are the main timber resource and
natural regeneration is good. Broadleaves such
as birch and poplar replace conifers after wildfire
and/or logging (Tsogtbaatar, 2009).
Reforestation by planting and direct sowing
is labor-intensive and expensive and natural
regeneration is receiving more attention. In
Uzbekistan, for example, recommendations for
promoting natural regeneration include conserving
and protecting undergrowth, especially retaining
seed trees during timber harvesting. Protection
from grazing livestock is accomplished by fencing
off harvested areas. To promote regeneration after
harvesting, different soil preparation techniques
are used and cleaning competing vegetation
liberates regeneration (Botman, 2009).
Restore dryland forests and agroforestry where
trees are lacking.
As Peter Ffolliott noted two decades ago,
dryland forestry and agroforestry are practically
synonymous (Ffolliott et al., 1995); the difference
is that dryland forestry also encompasses
sustainable
management
of
woodlands,
shrublands, and closed canopy stands. Drylands
in central Asia and Mongolia have suffered
degradation and face on-going desertification
(Chen et al., 2013; Kleine et al., 2009; Stavi and
Lal, 2015; Tsogtbaatar, 2004), and restoration by
planting trees and shrubs is a way to reverse these
trends and adapt to a changing climate (Ramón
Vallejo et al., 2012).
Significant portions of the countries in Central
Asia and Mongolia are mountainous, although
large lowlands exist in northern Kazakhstan,
western Uzbekistan, and southern Mongolia. Thus,
although the overall restoration goal is to control
and minimize soil erosion, the objectives differ.
In mountainous areas, the objective is watershed
rehabilitation that may include production forests.
In the lowlands, combating desertification is the
objective with the special case of rehabilitating
the land in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan created by
the retreat of the Aral Sea (Kleine et al., 2009).
Internationally, natural regeneration is
promoted as a low-cost, passive restoration
method especially in the Tropics (Chazdon and
Uriarte, 2016; Uriarte and Chazdon, 2016).
Benefits of natural regeneration, besides lower
cost, are the use of locally adapted genotypes and
the development of natural biodiversity. Natural
regeneration is not appropriate everywhere,
however; the necessary conditions for success
include that adequate sources of desired species
must be available and site conditions must be
suitable. Nevertheless, natural regeneration may
be a useful means of expanding forest areas when
the necessary conditions are met (Botman, 2009)
but increasing aridity may change conditions for
site adaptation and in Central Asia and Mongolia,
site conditions are already challenging (Kleine et
al., 2009; Stanturf, 2015; Stanturf et al., 2014;
Tsogtbaatar, 2009). Increasing aridity will likely
cause increased encroachment by domestic
livestock into forests, further limiting natural
regeneration.
Dryland trees and shrubs must withstand
Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences 2020 Vol. 18 (2)
moisture and temperature challenges during
establishment and growth (Ffolliott et al., 1995)
and changing climate conditions of increasing
aridity will alter historic adaptations (e.g.,
Liu et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2015). In lower
elevation forests in Mongolia and Kazakhstan,
for example, Pinus sylvestris may increase at
the expense of more drought sensitive Larix
sibirica (Dulamsuren et al., 2009; Dulamsuren
et al., 2013). In lower elevation forests with the
highest productivity, human disturbances often
lead to natural regeneration failures (Botman,
2009; Tsogtbaatar, 2009). Regeneration failures
in Kazakhstan are corrected by seeding after
mechanical soil scarification or by planting large
nursery stock (i.e., 5-8 year-old trees with root
balls) (Meshkov et al., 2009).
Planting seedlings or cuttings requires much
planning and infrastructure as well as a readily
available labor force. Afforestation in Uzbekistan
began in 1871 in the Aman Kutan River basin
near Samarkand in response to mudflows caused
by deforestation in the mountains (Botman,
2009). Afforestation continued as a major activity
in Central Asian countries under the former
Soviet system primarily for protection purposes.
Different planting designs for dryland forests and
agroforestry (i.e., trees outside of forests) are
summarized in Table 2.
Mountain Forests.
Restoration of mountain forests in Central
Asia is by sowing or planting seedlings,
although natural regeneration is possible in areas
inaccessible to grazers. In the mountain areas of
Kazakhstan, spruce (Picea), pine (Pinus), silver
9
fir (Abies), larch (Larix) and Siberian pine (Pinus
sibirica) seedlings 2 to 3-years-old (5-years-old
for Siberian pine) are planted in clusters of five
plants in a 1 х 1 m spot (600-800 spots ha-1), or
in furrows 0.6 to 0.7 m in width on slopes up to
20°. Furrows are 2.5 to 3.0 m apart and plants
within a furrow are 0.6 to 0.7 m apart resulting in
4,000 to 4,700 plants ha-1. On steeper slopes (20°
to 30°), terraces are formed that are 3.4 to 4.0 m
wide and 6.8 to 8.2 m apart. There are two rows
in a terrace, 1.5 m apart, and plants are spaced at
0.7-0.8 m. In the fruit-and-broadleaf mountain
forests of South Kazakhstan, small pure stands
of apple (Malus), apricot (Armeniaca), Persian
walnut (Juglans regia), almond (Amygdalus) and
pistachio (Pistacia) are established in inaccessible
areas. Persian walnut and pistachio plantations are
established by sowing and almond plantations by
planting of two-year-old seedlings. Plantings are
manual in clusters or terraces with 5-10 seeds or
5-6 seedlings per cluster.
Similar practices are used in Uzbekistan
mountain forests including terracing (Table 3) to
create forest, nut-bearing and fruit plantations,
orchards and vineyards. All operations on slopes
follow the contours. Terraces are both a method
of soil preparation and a structure that intercepts
runoff from between terraces. Mixed species
planting are encouraged and sowing is possible
for species such as walnut, black walnut, almond,
apricot, oak, and chestnut. Willow, poplar, Russian
olive, and sea-buckthorn are planted as seedlings
from rooted cuttings. Willow can be planted as
unrooted cuttings on wet sites. Birch and pine are
planted as 2- to 3-year-old seedlings, and spruce
Table 2. Planting designs and ecosystem services of dryland forests and agroforestry (Ffolliott et al., 1995;
Harper et al., 2017; Stanturf et al., 2014).
Planting Design
Windbreak plantings
Ecosystem functions
Regulating, supporting
Interplantings
Regulating, supporting,
provisioning
Provisioning, supporting,
Scattered plantings
Linear plantings
Greenbelts
Plantations
Dune stabilization
Saline reclamation
Regulating, supporting,
provisioning
Regulating, cultural
Description
Protect agricultural crops and pastures against desiccation and
wind erosion
Agroforestry; protect crops, enrich soil, provide woody and nonwood products (e.g. fodder)
Provide wood and non-wood products, thermal protection for
livestock
Buffer strips along roads and waterways, provide protection and
shade, produce wood and non-wood products
Around villages and cities for protection, psychological benefits
Provisioning, regulating,
supporting, cultural
Regulating, supporting
Regulating, supporting,
provisioning
Rain-fed or irrigated for wood and non-wood products, watershed
protection, recreation
Protect adjacent areas, provide habitat
Protect adjacent areas, provide habitat, fodder, carbon
sequestration
10
Stanturf et al. Restoration of dryland forests in Central Asia
Table 3. Site preparation for mountain forests in Uzbekistan.
Slope
<8°
9° to 12°
12° to 40°
15°-20°
21°-27°
27°<
Method
continuous ploughing
strip tillage or tilled terraces
terracing only
terracing only
terracing only
terracing only
and juniper as 3- to 5-year-old seedlings.
Lower Elevation Forests.
The current regeneration method in Mongolia
on degraded forest sites relies on artificial
regeneration. Illegal logging is frequently
accompanied by wildfires and increasingly large
burned areas may impact natural regeneration by
removing local seed sources of conifers. Otoda
et al. (2013) found that larger burned areas
favour post-fire recruitment of Betula platyphylla
because of its wider seed dispersal range than the
common conifer species (Larix sibirica, Picea
obovata, and Pinus sibirica). Restoration consists
of piling-up and burning any logging waste,
manual site preparation and planting of bare-root
seedlings (Tsogtbaatar, 2009). Mechanical site
preparation is adopted in some cases. Nurseryraised 2- to 3-year old seedlings of 20 to 30 cm
size are planted at different spacing, varying from
3 m x 1m to 3 m x 3 m, mostly in 25 cm deep
ploughed lines.
Restoration of pinewoods and birch forests in
the northern and central parts of Kazakhstan is by
planting 2- to 3-year-old seedlings in ploughed
areas (continuous or strip). Planting designs
are varied, depending upon site conditions,
accessibility, and the machinery available.
Mechanized planting is used in glades, wastelands
and burned-over forest lands where natural
Width
2-3 m
2-3 m
2-3 m
2-3 m
2-3 m
Distance between
6m
6m
7m
8m
regeneration is infeasible. Open stands and
cutovers are artificially regenerated by manual
planting; site preparation is partial in spots
(clusters), furrows, and holes. Initial stocking is
3,000 to 8,000 seedlings ha-1; 60% survival after
5 to7 years is considered sufficient stocking.
Lowland and Tugai Forests.
Restoration of lowland and tugai (floodplain)
forests is for water protection. In Kazakhstan
different species are used along the rivers (Table
4). Willow and poplar rooted cuttings (1- to
2-year-old) are planted in the floodplain in the
spring at spacing of 3 m x 1 m (3,000 to 3,500
stems ha-1) (Meshkov et al., 2009). On the
second (upper) river terrace, soil preparation of
spots (1.5 x 1.5 m); four seedlings are planted in
each spot, 500 to 600 spots ha-1, corresponding
to a density of 2,000 to 2,500 stems ha-1. Fast
growing plantations are established on partially
treated (furrow) areas as well as spots with at 1.5
m x 1.5 m spacing. Poplar and willow (1-yearold rooted cuttings) or oleaster and ash (1-yearold seedlings) are planted at density of 2,000 to
2,500 plants stems ha-1.
Desert and semi-desert areas.
In the desert regions of Central Asia and
Mongolia there is much interest in restoration
(afforestation) of shrub and low trees adapted to
harsh soil conditions. The winter-cold deserts
Table 4. Plantings in lowland and tugai forests in Kazakhstan.
River System
Species
Ural
English oak (Quercus robur), Populus sp., and Salix sp.
Irtysh, Tobol and Ishim balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera),weeping birch (Betula pendula), march elder
(Salix sp.) and others
Syrdariya, Chu, Ili,
Trees: Asiatic poplar (Populus diversifolia) and oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia);
Karatal, Aksu, Charyn Shrubs: willow (Salix sp.), tamarisk (Tamarix sp.), and salt tree (Halimodendron sp.)
and Lepsy
Charyn River
Trees: Asiatic poplar (Populus diversifolia), oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia), and
sogdiana ash tree (Fraxinus sogdiana);
Shrubs: willow (Salix sp.), tamarisk (Tamarix sp.), and salt tree (Halimodendron sp.)
Fast-growing plantaPopulus, Salix caprea, oleaster and ash.
tions
Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences 2020 Vol. 18 (2)
11
Table 5. Protective plantings on gypsum desert soils in Uzbekistan (Botman, 2009).
Plant species
Black saxaul (Holoxylon aphillum), salsola
rigida (Salsola orientalis), aellenia(Aellenia
subaphilla), Kochia, and different types of
wormwood and glasswort
Strip width
3–5m
of Central Asia (Kyzylkum, Karakum, and
Muyundkum) cover 2.5 million km2 and despite
the harsh conditions, most of the area is covered
by sparse stands of Haloxylon or Artemisia shrubs
(Thevs et al., 2013). In Kazakhstan, pure stands
of the halophyte Saxaul haloxylon are established
by sowing in the autumn of the year that seeds
are harvested (Meshkov et al., 2009). Success
depends on the type of soils, their salinity, and
ground water level. Survival rate can be very low
(25-30%) and sometimes, late spring frosts kill all
young seedlings. Soil preparation is in strips of
2.8 m x 1.4 m, 2.8 m x 2.8 m, or 4.2 m x 5.6 m,
worked to a depth of 25-27 cm. Seeds are sown at
2.5 kg to 5.0 kg of seeds ha-1.
Uzbekistan has large areas of deserts with
different soil conditions. Protective plantations of
shrubs are established in sandy deserts, gypsum
deserts and foothill semi-deserts. Each of these
belts has its own specific methods of plantation
establishment. For example, the gypsum desert
is the most common type of desert in Uzbekistan
(13 million ha). An arid climate is combined
with loamy gypsiferous soils. Site preparation
method depends on site conditions; for example,
moisture accumulating trenches are used on
strongly compacted soils. Rain water does not
infiltrate deeply into these soils due to weak
permeability, instead flowing down the slope.
Moisture accumulating trenches are established
perpendicular to the slope gradient using a singlemouldboard trenching plough to a depth of 35 cm
to 40 cm and a width at the soil surface of 60 cm
to 70 cm. Water moving down the slope surface
can freely flow into the trench. Trenches are
placed at least 10 m to 15 m apart so that runoff
water collected in the trench provides sufficient
moisture loading for each trench (Botman, 2009).
The cross-section of the trench, spacing between
trenches, and soil morphology are critical to
successful performance. A triangular cross-section
with double-breasted summits has proven the
most successful (Orlovsky and Birnbaum, 2002).
Protecting oases from shifting sands in the sand
Spacing within
row
5 – 10 times the
strip width
Site preparation
 Ordinary mouldboard ploughing to a
depth of 20-22 cm
 Deep ploughing to a depth of 32-35 cm
 Moisture accumulative trenches; and
 Sand accumulating trenches
desert zone of Uzbekistan requires first fixing the
first row of dunes on the entire windward slope
length by planting saxaul in rows, and subsequent
rows on 2/3, 1/2 and 1/3 of the windward slope
height and creating pastures on 1/4 of windward
slopes height. In the lowlands, planted saxaul
blocks dunes and gradually grows over them.
In order to establish saxaul on shifting sands,
mechanical shields or chemical binding agents
are used to fix the sands. After sands are fixed,
seedlings are planted at spacing of 1 m x 4 m
(2,500 stems ha-1).
The Aral Sea, bordered by Uzbekistan and
Kazakhstan, has been drying since the 1960s,
shrinking in surface area by 74% (Micklin, 2007;
Orlovsky et al., 2001) and exposing bottom
sediments of sandy, sandy-loam, and loamy soils.
Another type of exposed sediment is shifting
sands. The drained bottom is composed of light
and heavy soils. Restoration of the Aral Sea is
doubtful (Micklin, 2010) but reclamation of the
exposed sediments is necessary and possible on
the lighter textured soils (Botman, 2009; Orlovsky
and Birnbaum, 2002). Methods of establishing
protective plantings include sowing and planting
without fixing the sandy relief surface but with
treating the soil, or by fixing the sandy surface.
Three types of protective plantations
are possible including pasture-protective,
reclamation-forage, or soil-protective plantings
(Table 6). These planting recommendations are
for the Aral Sea and other sandy desert areas such
as the delta of the Amudarya River. Where mobile
sands occur in the exposed bottom of the Aral
Sea, soil-protective plantations can be established
using the methods described above for the mobile
sands of the desert zone.
In the Aral Sea environs where past irrigation
has caused shallow saline groundwater tables
leading to agricultural abandonment, conversion
to tree plantations has been suggested (Djanibekov
et al., 2013; Khamzina et al., 2008; Schachtsiek
et al., 2014). Afforestation would be a low-input
method to reclaim this degraded land, provided the
12
Stanturf et al. Restoration of dryland forests in Central Asia
Table 6. Protective plantings to stabilize sandy soils and reduce erosion in the Aral Sea Basin (Botman, 2009).
Type
Purpose/Benefit
Pasture-protective
strip plantings
Improve microclimate and reduce
erosion
Reclamation-forage strip plantations
Forage shrubs and
semi-shrubs
Soil-protective
plantings
Reduce wind erosion
of soil, stabilize the
surface, and increase
forage productivity
Soil preparaSpacing
tion
Chisel and disc 3 m by 5 m
harrow
strip, 90 m
between strips,
1 m between
plants
Strip chisel18 m to 20 m
ploughing
between strips
Chisel-ploughing
appropriate species were planted (Schachtsiek et
al., 2014). Trials with several species have shown
that salinity levels and depth to groundwater are
critical factors, along with species drought and
salinity tolerance. Afforestation was feasible with
Elaeagnus angustifolia, Ulmus pumila, Morus
alba, and Populus nivea × tremula on marginal
agricultural areas with high groundwater but
somewhat risky on long-abandoned cropland
(Schachtsiek et al., 2014). Elaeagnus angustifolia
is a nitrogen-fixing, actinorhizal species native
to Central Asia. It is salt-tolerant and used for
fruit, nectar and honey production and timber and
fuelwood and has potential for sustainable multispecies plantations even under saline conditions
(Khamzina et al., 2009).
Agroforestry systems in Central Asia have long
been implemented around oasis and transitional
zones near desert areas but suffered decline under
the Soviet system that focused on annual crops such
as cotton (Worbes et al., 2006). During that time,
windbreaks and shelterbelts were established on
state-run farms and local people were prevented
from utilizing them. After independence, farmers
gained control of small areas and developed alley
and hedgerow cropping systems with their annual
crops, eventually incorporating fruit trees (Worbes
et al., 2006). Mostly mulberry and other fruit trees
have been planted and there are few multispecies
windbreaks in Uzbekistan (Worbes et al., 2006).
Nevertheless, surveys have found windbreaks on
family farms using a variety of fruit and timber
species accompanied by winter wheat, maize,
and sugar beets (Djanibekov et al., 2016). Other
agroforestry systems occurring on flat land and in
10 m intervals
uniformly over
the area
Species
Planting method
Black saxaul and
Richter saltwort
Sown in spring
Aellenia (Aellenia
subaphilla), kuyreuk
(Salsola orientalis),
and teresken (Ceratoides eversmaniana).
Pure saxaul stands or
saxaul and
saltwort
Sown in autumn,
winter and spring
between the
pasture-protective
belts
Sowing seeds or
planting seedlings
in single species
rows to avoid
competition
low mountains in Central Asia are summarized
in Table 7, including silvopasture, intercropping
fruit trees with other crops in home gardens and
family farms, and alley cropping (Djanibekov et
al., 2016).
Adaptation to climate change.
Our understanding of what will be the
likely future climate in Central Asia and
Mongolia remains uncertain (Jiang et al., 2017;
Lioubimtseva & Henebry, 2009) but increasing
aridity is likely for most of the region. More
extreme rainfall events are projected for the
mountain areas (Nicholls & Seneviratne, 2015;
Orlowsky & Seneviratne, 2012; Reyer et al.,
2017), increasing the risk of flooding and mass
movements (Sidle & Bogaard, 2016; Thurman,
2011). Water resources will become increasingly
scarce as demand increases from rising population
and agricultural development (Reyer et al., 2017;
Zhang et al., 2016) and glacial sources decline
(Propastin, 2013; Sorg et al., 2012). Dryland
forests will play a critical role in adapting to these
climate change drivers and restoration activities
today must be mindful of the conditions of future
climate (Stanturf et al., 2017; Stanturf et al.,
2015). Research is needed in two areas to increase
adaptive capacity of restored dryland forests,
water harvesting and plant material development.
Water harvesting.
Water harvesting methods as an adaptation to
dryland conditions have a long history (Evenari et
al., 1971; Prinz, 1996) and are gaining increasing
attention for restoration of natural vegetation
(Piñeiro et al., 2013; Ramón Vallejo et al., 2012).
Some of the site preparation techniques already
Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences 2020 Vol. 18 (2)
13
Table 7. Agroforestry systems in Central Asia (Djanibekov et al., 2016).
System
Description
Silvopasture
Combines trees and livestock
Fodder, thermal protection
Windbreaks
Wide-spaced, single or multiple rows of trees
in an agriculture field
Erosion control, control of moisture loss, timber, fruit
Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan,
Intercropping
Fruit trees with other crops (vegetable/fodder
closer with cherry, peach, poplar and walnut
trees; wheat and fruit orchards; apricot and
cotton, vegetables, legumes, melons))
Family consumption, additional
income by sales,
Kyrgyzstan,
Uzbekistan
Alley cropping
Trees and other crops (spacing between trees
rows narrower than intercropping)
Erosion control, slope stability;
food and fodder (including mulberry for silk worms) production
Tajikistan, Uzbekistan
described are intended to collect rainwater and
maximize its availability to plants, for example
the moisture accumulating trenches used in
Uzbekistan (Table 5). Several processes contribute
to the success of runoff harvesting methods:
placing structures to capture runoff water,
increasing infiltration and water holding capacity
in the soil, and reducing evaporation and water loss
(Ramón Vallejo et al., 2012). Spacing structures
such as trenches so that each trench receives
adequate moisture (Botman, 2009) is an example
of designing micro-catchments and there are other
designs available (Li & Gong, 2002; Shachak et
al., 1998). Combining rainfall harvesting with
mulching to reduce evaporation has proven more
successful than either technique alone (Ramón
Vallejo et al., 2012) and using stone for mulch is
generally easy and inexpensive. Another avenue
to explore under Central Asian conditions is the
use of shrubs to facilitate establishment of trees
(Gómez-Aparicio et al., 2004; Zhao et al., 2007)
Plant material.
Tree and shrub species selected for restoration
of drylands must be adapted to current and future
conditions and also provide ecosystem services
to people (i.e., goods, services, and amenities)
(Ffolliott et al., 1995). In addition to species traits,
nursery culture affects outplanting performance
(Dumroese et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2011; Stanturf
et al., 2014). Moisture stress after planting is the
most critical obstacle to successful establishment
in drylands (Oliet et al., 2002) and several
approaches are under investigation globally but
especially in the Mediterranean region (Chirino
et al., 2009; Chirino et al., 2011; Cortina et al.,
2013; Ramón Vallejo et al., 2012). These include
improving seedling quality using deep containers,
improving water holding capacity of the rooting
medium, drought pre-conditioning, manipulating
fertility, and applying plant growth regulators.
Benefits
Country
Under Mediterranean conditions, rapidly
developing a deep root system is a key strategy
for withstanding droughty conditions (Ramón
Vallejo et al., 2012). A deep root system allows
the planted seedling to reach relatively moister
soil layers in order to withstand the first drought
period after planting. Thus, soil conditions
(rooting depth, texture, and stoniness) influence
the success of this strategy. Deep containers
facilitate deep rooting of species that develop a
main tap root (Chirino et al., 2009; Ramón Vallejo
et al., 2012).
Improving water holding capacity of the
rooting medium using hydrogels has long been
studied for agricultural crops and increasingly for
trees and shrubs in reforestation and restoration
in drylands (Chirino et al., 2009; Chirino et al.,
2011; Ramón Vallejo et al., 2012). Two methods
have been used: treating soil with hydrogel (Chen
et al., 2004; Hüttermann et al., 1999) or just the
culture medium (Chirino et al., 2009; Chirino
et al., 2011). Too much hydrogel, however, has
been shown to cause early mortality by creating
large lumps of hydrogel that shrink upon drying;
leaving large air-filled voids that impede water
flow and reduce root contact with soil (Ramón
Vallejo et al., 2012).
Drought pre-conditioning of seedlings by
exposing seedlings to controlled drought in the
nursery has shown mixed results (Chirino et
al., 2009; Ramón Vallejo et al., 2012). Species
traits, intensity of drought, and length of the preconditioning period have all been shown to affect
results in terms of actual outplanting performance.
For Mediterranean conditions, Vallejo et al.
(Ramón Vallejo et al., 2012) recommended
reduced watering from the rapid growth phase
until lifting. Whether or not this is useful under
Central Asian conditions is a topic that needs to
be investigated.
14
Stanturf et al. Restoration of dryland forests in Central Asia
Fertility manipulation and plant growth
regulators certainly affect growth and morphology
of seedlings in the nursery but effects on field
performance are mixed or unknown (Chirino et
al., 2009). Fertility can be manipulated to create
optimum conditions or to challenge seedlings
(nutritional hardening). Both techniques have
shown positive outplanting performance but based
on limited trials (Chirino et al., 2009). Similarly
with plant growth regulators, limited trials with
forest trees show promising results in the nursery
that has to be validated with field trials (Chirino
et al., 2009).
Conclusion
Countries in Central Asia and Mongolia
are facing significant challenges in restoring
degraded forests and landscapes. Harsh climatic
conditions, past land uses, policy constraints,
and lack of financial resources and technical
capacity are limiting progress toward more
sustainable resource management. Nevertheless,
opportunities for exchange of information within
the region, development assistance, and greater
accessibility to research conducted in other
dryland environments is providing a technical
foundation for moving forward. The prospect of
increasing aridity under future climate, however,
may negate progress in some areas and pose new
challenges. Dryland forestry and agroforestry
methods adapted to the regional environment,
taking into account global change including
altered climate, provide a basis for significant
improvement but must be based on further
research and development to optimize restoration
strategies and methods for Central Asia and
Mongolia.
Acknowledgments
This paper was presented at the “Expert
Workshop on Dryland Forest Restoration and
Conservation in Central and Northeast Asia” held
14-16 August 2017 in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
Thanks to the conference organizers and sponsors
for supporting my travel to the workshop,
in particular to the IUFRO Working Group
1.01.13-Long term research on forest ecosystem
management in Northeast Asia. Thanks also to
Jamsran Tsogtbaatar, Yeong-dae Park, Richard
Harper, Chad Oliver, Emile Gardiner, Palle
Madsen, and Roy Sidle for sharing their research
and ideas.
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