BIOLOGY
CELLS
A. Eukaryotic Cell – contains nucleus and cytoplasm
with tiny structures called organelles
• Fungi
• Protists
• Plat cells
• Animal cells
B. Prokaryotic cell – a lot smaller than eukaryotic;
lacks both nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles
• Bacteria
• Rickettsia
G. Lysosomes – membrane-bound structures; make
up the cell’s cleanup crew
H. Centrioles – active during cellular division
• Microtubules – produced when a cell is ready
to divide
I. Vacuoles – fluid-filled sacs that stores
J. Peroxisomes – detoxifies various substances; also
contains enzymes that break down hydrogen
peroxide into oxygen and water
K. Cytoskeleton – shape of a cell
• Microtubules – largest; forms spindle for
mitosis/meiosis
• Microfilaments – smallest; support cell; cell
movement
• Intermediate filaments – intermediate size;
permanent fixtures; maintains shape of cell; fix
position of organelle
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLS
STRUCTURE
PROKARYOTE
PLANT
ANIMAL
Cell Wall
Yes
Yes
No
Plasma
Yes
Yes
Yes
Membrane
Organelles
No
Yes
Yes
Nucleus
No
Yes
Yes
Centrioles
No
No
Yes
Ribosomes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ORGANELLES
A. Plasma membrane – outer envelope; regulates the
movement of substances into and out of the cell
B. Nucleus – usually the largest organelle; control
center of the cell
• Nucleolus – where rRNA is made and
ribosomes are assembled
C. Ribosomes – sites of protein synthesis
D. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – continuous
channel that extends into many regions of the
cytoplasm.
• Rough ER – studded with ribosomes
• Smooth ER – lacks ribosomes; makes lipids,
hormones, and steroids; breaks down toxic
chemicals
E. Golgi apparatus – modify, processes, and sorts
the products.
F. Mitochondria – powerhouse of the cell
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – energy
source for cellular processes
• Cristae – folds formed by inner mitochondrial
membrane
➢ Chloroplasts – contain chlorophyll
➢ Endocytosis – moves substances into the cell
➢ Exocytosis – moves substances out of the cell
CELL METABOLISM
- Individual cells process nutrient molecules.
A. Catabolism – breaks down complex molecules to
produce energy
B. Anabolism – constructs complex molecules and
perform other functions
SOURCES OF ATP
A. Photosynthesis – transformation of solar energy
into chemical energy
• Light reaction
• Dark reaction
B. Cellular Respiration (Food molecule to ATP)
1. Glycolysis – break down
2. Krebs Cycle – break down
3. Oxidative Phosphorylation – energy transfer
FINDING VS. PRODUCING FOOD
A. Autotrophs – make their own food
B. Heterotrophs – have to eat other organisms
PROCESSES OF FOOD-MAKING
A. Photosynthesis – energy (Sun), carbon dioxide
(air), water (soil)
6Co2 + 6H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
B. Cellular respiration – uses oxygen to help break
down food molecules (sugar)
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Character – heritable feature (color)
Trait – variant for a character (brown)
True-bred – all offspring of same variety
Hybridization – crossing of 2 different true-bred
P generation – parents
F1 generation – first filial generation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6Co2 + 6H2O + ATP
DNA REPLICATION
1. Parental DNA strands separate. Only part of the
original DNA strand opens up at one time.
• Replication fork – where the replication is
actively happening
2. The enzyme DNA Polymerase reads the DNA
code
GENETICS
- Study of heredity
A. Gene – section of a long DNA molecule; carries
information
B. Alleles – members of a gene pair
C. Genotype – genetic composition
• AA – homozygous dominant
• Aa – heterozygous dominant
• aa – homozygous recessive
D. Phenotype – expression of genotype
Laws
A. Independent Segregation – genes separate
independently
B. Independent Assortment – different gene pairs
assort to recombine with each other
independently
C. Codominance – two alleles in a gene pair appear
together
MENDELIAN GENETICS
CELL CYCLE
Mitosis
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Prophase - prepare
Metaphase - meet
Anaphase - apart
Telophase - tear
Interphase – interlude
Purpose of Mitosis:
A. To produce daughter cells that are identical to the
parent cell
B. To maintain the proper number of chromosomes
from generation to generation
Haploids – one set of chromosomes (sperm cell, egg cell)
Diploid – two sets of chromosomes
Gametes – special cells that are haploid inside the human
body
Meiosis
A. Prophase I
• Synapsis
• Crossing-over
• Forms tetrad
B. Metaphase I – lining up at metaphase plate
C. Anaphase I – one of each pair moves to opposite
poles
D. Telophase I – nuclear membrane forms around
each set of chromosomes
CONSEQUENCES OF MUTATION
A. Spontaneous Mutations – uncorrected mistakes
by DNA polymerase
B. Induced Mutations – environmental agents that
increase the error rate of DNA polymerase
• Mutagen – anything that increases the error
rate
C. Base Substitution – wrong nucleotides paired
together
• Silent mutations – no effect on the protein
• Missense mutations – change the amino
acids
• Nonsense mutations – introduce a stop
codon into mRNA.
D. Deletions – DNA polymerase fails to copy all the
DNA in the parent strand
• Frameshift mutations – changing the way
codons are read
E. Insertions – DNA polymerase slips and copies the
parent DNA more than once
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A. Budding – small outgrowth
B. Fission – original organism grows larger and then
splits in two
C. Fragmentation – small pieces of the original
organism break off and then grow
BIOMES: COMMUNITIES OF LIFE
A. Freshwater biomes – ponds, rivers, streams,
lakes, wetlands
B. Marine biomes – saltwater and oceans
C. Desert biomes – minimal amounts of rainfall
D. Forest biomes – many trees and other woody
vegetation
E. Grassland biomes – dominated by grasses
F. Tundra biomes – very cold; very little liquid water
INTERACTIONS AMONG SPECIES
A. Mutualism – both benefit
B. Competition – both suffer
C. Predation and parasitism – one benefits
POPULATION
Population ecology – studies the structures of population
Population density – how many organisms occupy a
specific area
Dispersion – distribution of population
A. Clumped dispersion – most organisms are
clustered together
B. Uniform dispersion – evenly spread throughout an
area
C. Random dispersion – one place is as good as any
other