MODULE 6
The Learning Process: Views Fromn
The Cognitive Constructivists
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Learning Objectives
At the cnd of this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Differentiate Bruner's discovery learning from Ausubel's expository learning.
2.
Discuss Bruner's three ways of representing objects and events.
3. Explain the different conditions that promote effective discovery learning
Introduction
Even though information processing theorists believe that we actively construct knowledge
based on what we already know and the new information we encountered, many constructivists
believe that information processing does not take the idea of knowledge construction for enough
(Deny,1992, Garrison,1995 as cited in Woolfolk,1998).
Constructivism is an educational philosophy which holds that learners ultimately construct
their ownknowledgethat then resides within them, so that each person's knowledge is a s unique
as him or her (ALN Magazine 1997). In other words, learners construct knowledge for themselveseach learner individually and socially constructs meaning- as he or she learns.
In the Constructivist theory, the emphasis is placed on the learner or the student rather than
the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with objects and events and thereby gains an
understanding of the features held by such objects of events. The learner, therefore, constructs his/
her
own
conceptualizations and solutions to problem.
In this module, the noted contributions of Jerome Bruner and David
Ausubel to
constructivism will be discussed.
cognitive
JEROME BRUNER'S CATEGORIZATION
AND DISCOVERY LEARNINGG
Jerome Bruner is
was
set to
one
of the forerunners of the
Cognitive Revolution in the late 1950's that
replace behaviorism. His most notable contributions were his ideas about
categorization.
differences which
world in terms of similarities and
Bruner maintained that people interpret the
in the same
as similar are placed
events. Objects that are viewed
are detected among objects and
the learner
which
into
in his theory of learning is the coding system
variable
The
major
category.
organizes these categories.
learning theory states" to
Based upon the idca of categorization, Bruner's cognitive
to learn is to form categories, to make
perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize,
decisions is to categorize".
Categorization involves
two
which is the initial
stages: a) Concept formation
and that there are distinguishing
understanding that there are different classes and categories
can determine what those
attributes between objects/ events. b) Concept attainment where one
and what does not.
particular attributes are and how they can be used to identify what belongs
Bruner believes that all human cognitive activity involves categories. This is the process
of building and using representations in order to make sense of the world. Either incoming
information is organized in terms of pre-existing categories or we create new ones.
He also believes that a person has three means of achieving understanding: enactive,
iconic, and symbolic representation. Each of these modes has its unique way of representing
objects and events as cited by Sprinthall and Sprinthall (2001).
Three Kinds of Representation Identified by Bruner
KINDS OF
REPRESENTATION
Enactive
PROCESSS
(doing)
Using mental
image to stand for
objects
Symbolic
USE
Tying a knot
motor skills
Represented in
the muscle
Iconic
EXAMPLE
Having an
sensory skills
image of what the (mental picture
knots look
of things)
like
Describing the
Using symbol
systems (thinking knot and how to
and reasoning)
tieit.
| Intellectual skills
knowing the
reality of things)
The first phase is enactive where a child's world is represented in terms of their immediate
sensation and through which learning is achieved
through doing. These motor acts (know-how)
that involve sequential movements are being
integrated by a certain conceptual scheme. When
young children are in this stage of thinking, the best, the most comprehensible, messages are
wordless one.
The second phase is iconie which happens during 2-3 years of age and involves the use of
mental images to stand for certain objects or events when they are changed in minor ways. Here,
objects become conceivable without action, children can now draw a spoon, without acting out the
cating process. This is a significant breakthrough in the development of intellect, for the use of
pictures allows children at this stage to be tutored in simpler ways.
The third phase is the symbolic
representation which is the highest and most complicated
manner by which we acquire learning. This phase starts from age 7 and beyond. Children can now
translate experience into language. It involves the ability to transform action and image into a
symbolic system to encode knowledge. Primarily, these symbols are language and mathematical
notation.
BRUNER'S DISCOVERY LEARNING
Bruner also advocated the discovery oriented learning approach in schools which he
believes would help students discover the
relationship between categories. Discovery learning
Occurs when students are presented with problem situations that require them to discuss the
essential
concepts of the subject matter (Bruner, 1960 as cited in McCown, 1995).
A teacher who
uses a
discovery learning approach
to
instruction
presents
examples
problems and then asks students to examine and think about them inductively
with
a goal of
or
formulating a general principle. For example, by experimenting, the students would discover and
articulate the essential properties of salt water and fresh water rather than
being told what they are.
Discovery learning encourages students to actively use their intuition, imagination, and creativity.
Because the approach starts with the specific and then moves to the
general, it also facilitates
inductive reasoning
Students
are encouraged to discover the facts and
relationships for themselves and
build
on what they already know. The school
continually
curriculum is ideally organized in a spiral
manner to facilitate this process, such as the same
topics are redeveloped at succeeding age or
grade levels to progressively reinforce learning (Bruner, 1996).
What Conditions Promote Effective
McCown,
et.
al
Discovery Learning
(1995) discussed the conditions that promote effective discovery learning.
1. Prior Knowledge
When students have little
or no
prior knowledge
related to
they
discover, they can experience frustration and failure. Asking them to principles
make connections to related
ideas as they enter a discovery
learning environment can help students begin to determine what
information is relevant and what steps they should take to solve
a
problem.
are
asked
to
2. Provision of a Model
"The constant provision of a model, the constant response to the individual's response
after response, back and forth between two people, constitute 'invention' learning guided by an
accessible model" (Bruner; 1973). For instance, in teaching the concept of alliteration, the teacher
could provide both cxamples and non-examples and systematically guide students through an
exploration of their similarities and diffcrences. By asking certain kinds of questions and
prompting students to generate hypothesis, the teacher also models the inquiry process.
3. Use of Contrast to Stimulate Cognitive Conflicts
In science, for example, a teacher could begin a lesson on air and air pressure with a
demonstration that shows water flowing uphill. This is a surprising event because we are
accustomed to the force of gravity causing water to flow downhill. In trying to resolve the
discrepancy, students discover how air exerts pressure that can overcome the force of gravity.
AUSUBEL'S VERBAL LEARNING
AND EXPOSITORY LEARNING
Ausubel's
significant contributions are the following (McCown 1995):
Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning
David Paul Ausubel contributed much to cognitive learning theory in his explanationof
meaningful verbal leaming on cognitive structures, which he saw as the predominant method of
classroom learning. This theory deals mostly with how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful materials from verbal and textual lessons in school. To Ausubel, the stimulus or
concept gains meaning when it is related to an idea that is already present in the mind. Thus, there
must be something in the learner cognitive structure to which it can be related. He believed that a
signifier (i.e. word) has a meaning when its effect upon the learner is equivalent to the effect of
the object it signifies. He described three main categories on meaningful reception of information.
1. Representation- the meaning of a single word or
symbol is learned.
2. Conceptual the learner begins to recognize the features or attributes of a
concept.
3. Prepositional the learner combines words and/ or symbols to form new ideas.
-
Subsumption Process
A subsumer is a concept similar to schema or
coding system. It leads us to think of
cognitive structure as a type or organization where higher level concepts incorporate or 'subsume"
other ideas. In describing the process of
subsumption, Ausubel contended that the most important
single factor in influencing learning is what the learner already knows.
Derivative
have bee derived
subsumption occurs
directly from it.
if the material is similar
to
existing
structure
that courd
Correlative subsumption occurs if the ncw matcrials requircs an cxtcnsion of structurc
some of it is
entirely new.
bccause
RECEPTION AND EXPOSITORY TEACHING
Whereas Bruner advocated a discovery approach to meaningful learning, Ausubel
believed that knowledge is best acquired through reception rather than discovery. Reception
earning occurs when students recoive the essential principles or concepts, think about them
deductively, and are then shown how to apply them in specific instances (Ausubel, Novak, and
Hancsian, 1978 as cited in McCown,1995)
For Ausubel, active processing of information occurs when the ideas presented are well
organized and clearly focused. In order to present effectively, teachers must care fully organize,
sequence, and explain the material so that students can process it efficiently. The kind of
instruction that leads to reception learning is called expository teaching. (expository means
explanation). An essential element of expository is the advance organizer.
Ausubel proposed his Expository Teaching Model to encourage meaningful rather
than rote reception lcarning. He believes that learning should progress deductively- from general
to specific- and not inductively as Bruner recommended.
Advance Organizers
Ausubel's major contribution is the use of advance organizer. An advance organizer is
information presented prior to learning that assists in understanding new information by relating
it to new existing knowledge (Ausubel, Novak and Hanesian, 1978 as cited in McCown, 1995). It
is different from overviews and summaries, which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented
at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the materials. He suggests that the
lesson always begin with an advance organizer- an introductory statement of a relationship of high
level concept, broad cenough to encompass all information that will follow.
According to Ausubel (19963), advance organizer usually serves three purposes:
1. direct attention to what is important in the coming material.
2. highlight relationships among the ideas that will be presented, and
3. remind the student of relevant information already in the memory