LECTURE 6
UNITS OF TRANSLATION
The major task of the translator is to be able to find in the original text a minimum language
unit (this does not mean the simplest one), which must be translated. In translation theory
this unit is called the unit of translation. It is such a unit in SL, which has an adequate
equivalent in TL. Such unit may have a complicated form, that is- it may be composed of
simpler language units in the original text, but its parts, if taken separately, are not translated
and in the target text one can not find equivalents to them, even if in the original language
they have their own, relatively independent meanings. Each word, taken separately in wordcombinations, given below, does not mean what the entire expression does. Here word-forword translation is unacceptable. It means we must not descend here to the word level, but
consider the expression on the level of word-combinations; otherwise we will get illegible
literal translation:
On cloud nine — very happy: When he got his promotion, he was on cloud nine.
At loose ends — restless, unsettled, unemployed: Jane has been at loose ends
ever since she lost her job.
To be at sea (about smth.) — confused, lost and bewildered (as if one were lost
at sea): Mary is all at sea about getting married.
To be at sixes and sevens — disorderly, lost and bewildered: Mrs. Smith is at
sixes and sevens since the death of her husband.
Begin to see the daylight — to begin to see the end of a long task: I’ve been so
busy. Only in the last week have I begun to see daylight.
Every level of language hierarchy assumes a curtain (ascending) position in the language
hierarchy and includes the previous levels. Each level of language has its own translation units.
In translation theory we will distinguish the following levels of translation units:
1. level of intonation;
2. level of phonemes and graphemes;
3. level of morphemes;
4. level of words;
5. level of word-combinations;
6. level of sentences;
7. level of a text.
Level of Intonation
The level of intonation is not considered by linguists as a constituent part of the language
hierarchy, but in the translation theory it should be paid attention to and analyzed. The level
of intonation exists and has a specific, if not great, influence on our speech. Intonation can
impart more information, than words. Vibration of vocal cords — membranes, says sometimes
more, than words. Intonation is capable of exaggerating things said, to neutralize or even
distort them, disfigure words said — to change their meaning into something absolutely
contrary. Intonation reflects our sub-consciousness.
Intonation says much more, than words. We have the expression “to read behind the text”
or “between the lines”. A person says something, but his intonation, the way he says it, says
something different, it unveils the true meaning of words. It is intonation, and not words,
which discloses character of a person, his attitudes, true emotions, etc. So, what is said and
how it is said are two big differences.
Intonation would unveil absolutely opposite to what is said, fully turning round the entire
meaning. There are many anecdotes, where the major humour is based on intonation.
Intonation is music of language. We, translators, must have ear to it, to perceive correctly
and reproduce it in translation. We are learning to give ear to language music, its intonation
diversity, feel this music by heart, in case we have a desire, inspiration, love to language and
the people, who listen to us.
For example, the sound “O” can be pronounced with at least forty different intonations,
and each of them will have a definite meaning, sometimes much information, which is
impossible to compress into one sentence. The interjection “Oh!” used in different contexts
may express a number of different feelings: surprise, admiration, excitement, anger, desire,
disappointment and so on. In Armenian we can render the English interjection “Oh!” in a
number of different forms depending on what it expresses (as the Armenian language is much
richer in its choice of interjections): Օ՜հ, Ա՜խ, Վա՜յ, Է՜հ, Ու՜խ, Հաա՜, Վա՜խ, Վու՜յ, etc.
Level of Phonemes and Graphemes
Phoneme is a sound of spoken language, which in the written language refers to a
grapheme, or a letter symbol. Phoneme or grapheme is not a carrier of independent meaning.
In language it plays only a meaning distinguishing role. But, nevertheless, in translation
practice there are cases, when phonemes (or graphemes) become the translation units.
Phonemes of SL are replaced by phonemes which are the closest to them in articulation and
acoustic properties in the TL (or graphemes in the SL are replaced by the graphemes in the TL,
which convey the identical sounds). For example, in the English name Ruth it is possible to
pick up to each phoneme the ones closest in articulation and sounding in Armenian and
Russian. In Armenian it will sound like Ռութ, in Russian — Руфь. To each phoneme of the
outgoing word we find an equivalent in phonemic storage of the target language, in other
words, here a phoneme comes forward as a translation unit.
The type of translation, where the correlation between units of SL and TL is established on
the level of phonemes, is called transcription (հնչյունադարձում). In other words,
transcription is a method of translation in which the translator transfers the way the word
sounds in the Source Language. For example, George - Ջորջ, Michael - Մայքլ.
In case, when the correlation is established on the level of graphemes, i.e. of the graphic
form or spelling of an outgoing word, and not of its pronunciation, then we speak about
transliteration (գրադարձում). For example, George - Գևորգ, Michael – Միքայել,
Michelangelo - Միքելանջելո, Einstein - Էյնշտեյն.
The methods of transcription and transliteration are used mainly for translating proper
names, but they can also used for transferring other culture-specific words from the source
language into the target language in the form they sound in the source language: exotic –
էկզոտիկ, pudding -փուդինգ
Thus, on the level of phonemes (graphemes) we translate personal names, geographical
names, names of celestial bodies, organizations, hotels, restaurants, newspapers, magazines,
steamers, aircraft, as well as special terms of different scientific domains — lately these are
Computer Sciences: թրաֆիկ, քարթրիջ, սկաներ, պրովայդեր, etc. The translator lacking the
ready made equivalents is forced to create “occasional” equivalents, and to resort to
transcription/transliteration, where phoneme becomes the unit of translation.
Level of Morphemes
In some cases a morpheme becomes the unit of translation. It means that for every
morpheme of the word to be translated a curtain morpheme in the word of the target language
should be found. For example, the following correlation of morphemes is easy to set for the
pair of words: ball — գնդակ, balls — գնդակներ, where the root of the word ball corresponds
the root գնդակ, and the morpheme of plural -s corresponds the morpheme of plural -ներ.
The same accordance can be observed and applied when translating the English word post-
war— հետ-պատերազմյան, anti-corruption— հակա-կոռուպցիոն.
This type of translation is still more seldom, than the translation on the level of phonemes:
morphological structure of semantically equivalent words in different languages usually does
not coincide, especially in the domain of grammatical (word-changing and word-forming)
morphemes, their set being different in different languages.
The terminological systems make exception, especially medical sciences (MS) and
chemistry. In general, any vocabulary, in which the international (of Latin and Greek origin)
morphemes are present, is translated with preserving these morphemes. For example
morphemes -ling and -y(-ie) form the nouns with diminutive meanings: princeling, grannie,
girlie, piggy, fatty, mannie. These suffixes correspond to the Armenian diminutive suffixes –
իկ, -ուկ, -ակ (արքայազնիկ, տատիկ, ազջնակ, խողուկ, գիրուկ, մարդուկ), etc.
Some adjectives adopt the diminutive suffix -ish, mainly the ones denoting colors:
yellowish, reddish, etc. In Armenian this suffix corresponds to the suffix –ավուն։ դեղնավուն,
կարմրավուն, etc.
Level of Words
Words become units of translation when the correlation between source and target languages
is established at the level of words, that is- the word of the source text is substituted with its
proper equivalent in the target language. For example, based on the context the word սեղան
may be translated into English as table, desk, writing table, counter, etc.
Level of Word Combinations
Word combinations become units of translation when the correlation between source and
target languages is established at the level of word combinations, collocations, phrases, idioms,
that is- such units of the source text are substituted with their proper equivalents in the target
language. For example, կապույտ երկինք – голубое небо, to kick the bucket – մահանալ․
Level of Sentences
Sentences become units of translation when the correlation between source and target
languages is established at the level of a sentence, that is- the sentence of the source text is not
divided into its components, but is viewed as one unit and substituted with its proper
equivalent in the target language. For example, Կողմնակի անձանց մուտքն արգելված է։ -
Staff only.
Level of a Text
Texts become units of translation when the correlation between source and target languages
is established at the level of the whole text. For example, translation of poems.