Metabolism
n.,
plural:
[mɪˈtæbəˌlɪzəm]
Definition: catabolic and anabolic processes
metabolisms
Table of Contents
 Metabolism Definition
 Key Biochemicals
o 1) Amino acids and proteins
o 2) Lipids
o 3) Carbohydrates
o 4) Nucleotides
 Table 1: Nucleotide and nucleic acid nomenclature
5) Coenzymes
 Table 2: List of various coenzymes and details about their
specificities.
o 6) Minerals & Cofactors
How Does Metabolism Work?
Types of Metabolism
o Table 3: Difference between anabolism and catabolism
Energy Transformations
o Oxidative phosphorylation
o Energy from inorganic compounds
o Energy from light
Xenobiotics and Redox Metabolism
Thermodynamics of Living Organisms
Regulation and Control
Evolution
Investigation and manipulation
Conclusion
Quiz
o Send Your Results (Optional)
Further Reading
References
o












Metabolism Definition
What is metabolism in the body? Metabolism encompasses the various biochemical
processes, reactions, and conversions that transform one form of energy to another.
Any molecule that’s synthesized or utilized in metabolism is a physically-recognizable
form of energy. The basic law of conservation of energy in Physics states that “energy
can neither be created nor be destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to
another”. Following this basic rule, we can explain that biologically-active chemical
molecules, too, can’t be destroyed. It can only be transformed from one physical form
to another. (Feynman, 1970). And the processes that endow this molecule with the
capabilities of “form transformation” are studied under “Energy Metabolism”!!!
In Biology, the definition of metabolism goes by “life-sustaining chemical reactions
involving biologically-active chemical compounds and molecules”.
Figure 1: Define metabolism- Metabolic processes are tightly-regulated, interlinked
processes that aid in molecular conversions from one form to another. Source:
Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online
So when asked what is metabolism in biology, we can explain that it’s the biological
way to conserve energy in some or the other form when different types of organisms
produce or metabolize biologically-active chemical molecules.
Biology
definition:
Metabolism is the process involving a set of chemical reactions that modifies a
molecule into another to essentially maintain the living state of a cell or an organism.
It includes all the chemical reactions involved in modifying a molecule into another. The
major functions of metabolism are storage (i.e. converting certain molecules as an
energy source for various cellular processes), transforming certain molecules as a
component of biomolecules (e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids),
and
eliminating
byproducts
such
as
nitrogenous
wastes.
Etymology: Greek metabolē (“change”), from metaballein (“to change”), meta- +
ballein
(“to
throw”).
See also: anabolism, catabolism
Key Biochemicals
When we refer to biologically-active molecules, we are actually referring to chemical
molecules that have biological activity and play a pivotal role in sustaining essential
biological
pathways.
There
are
majorly
4
basic
biochemicals: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Apart from these four
are
two
more
biochemicals
that
are
generally
studied.
They
are coenzymes and minerals. All these molecules play some of the most vital roles
without which the proper functioning, coordination, and efficiency of biological
systems.
Figure 2: Different types of biochemicals that are involved in various metabolic
processes of a living cell and organism. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online
Now let’s learn about each of them in more detail and gain some useful insights about
their roles and purposes in metabolic activities. Before that, we should just know these
basic things:
Anabolism definition:
It’sthe constructive metabolism accompanying synthesis and production of complex
molecules from simpler monomers of biochemicals.
Catabolism definition: It’s the destructive metabolism accompanying the breakdown
and degradation of complex molecules to simpler monomers of biochemicals.
1) Amino acids and proteins
What are amino acids and proteins?
Amino acids and proteins are the basic structural unit of all cells. Proteins are the
building blocks of any biological entity. Proteins are actually polymers that are made
up of monomers called amino acids. Amino acids are organic compounds having 2
essential groups: amino group and carboxylate groups. Then there’s one side chain
group that is specific to each amino acid. Different or same amino acids are linked to
each other via peptide bonds and form long peptides (polypeptides/ proteins).
Metabolism of proteins and amino acids
1. Protein Anabolism (Synthesis)




Let’s define anabolism involving proteins! Protein anabolism is the process by
which various proteins are synthesized inside/outside a biological body.
It encompasses 2 processes: amino acid synthesis and protein synthesis (or
polypeptide synthesis)
Amino acids are of 2 types: essential and non-essential in humans. Nonessential ones can be synthesized by the human body but essential ones need to
be taken via diet. There is no such concept of essential and non-essential amino
acids for plants since they can produce all of them.
Protein synthesis from amino acids encompasses 4 major steps: transcription,
translation of proteins, PTMs (post-translational modifications), and protein
folding
Figure 3: List of Essential and Non-essential amino acids. Image Source: Maria Victoria
Gonzaga of Biology Online.
2. Protein Catabolism (Breakdown)


The breakdown of proteins is specifically called proteolysis.
After the proteins are broken down to the monomeric form i.e. amino acids, they
are
further
reduced
by
degradations
to
individual
atoms
like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen (also sulfur, selenium in some
specific amino acids).
Vital roles performed by proteins are:






Catalysis of metabolic pathways
Formation of cell and organism’s structure
Intracellular transportation
Cell signaling
Antibodies and immune functions
Hormones and storage
Figure 4: Proteins are one of the most important biochemicals in the biological world.
They play some indispensable roles as described in the figure. Source: Akanksha Saxena
of Biology Online.
2) Lipids
What are lipids?
Lipids are the biochemicals that don’t dissolve in polar solvents but only in non-polar
solvents. Most of the lipids are either amphipathic or hydrophobic. Amphipathic,
literally means a molecule that has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. There’s an
entire array of lipids in the biological world ranging from simple fats to PUFAs
(polyunsaturated fatty acids), from mono- & triglycerides to long-chain prenol lipids,
from different types of phospholipids and sphingolipids to sterols.
While some lipids are non-essential for animals and mammals as they can be derived
from cetain lipids in the body, other lipids like ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) and LA (linoleic
acid) are essential for the human body. There’s no such concept of essential and nonessential lipids for plants; they are the major producers of lipids on this planet.


Site of major lipid and fat metabolism in animals: liver, pancreas
Site of major lipid metabolism in plants: plastids and peroxisomes
Metabolism of lipids
1. Lipids Anabolism (Synthesis)




Lipid anabolism is the process by which lipids are synthesized biologically.
Plants are the major producers of lipids on the planet.
Plants and bacterial systems are characteristically different from animals and
mammals in lipid production since they possess distinct enzymes for each step
of lipid biogenesis while the animals and mammals possess a multi-functional
enzyme that carries out all the steps of lipid synthesis.
Plants possess special desaturase enzymes that aid in the introduction of double
bonds after carbon 9 and 10. Mammals are devoid of any such enzyme and thus
can’t synthesize their own omega fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6); making
these the “essential fatty acids” that need to be obtained from the diet.
Figure 5: Plants and Bacterial systems possess special desaturases that can help
metabolically synthesize unsaturated lipids by introducing double bonds beyond C-9
and C-10. Image Credit: Fatiha AID, Intech Open.
2. Lipids Catabolism (Breakdown)



The process of lipid breakdown is called beta-oxidation.
Sites of beta-oxidation in plants: peroxisomes and glyoxysomes
Sites of beta-oxidation in animals and mammals: mitochondria and peroxisomes
Figure 6: An overview of lipid catabolic process. Image Credit: AOCS Lipid Library
Vital roles performed by lipids are:






Storage of energy
Structural component of membranes
Hormonal and homeostatic functions
Signaling and chemical messenger
“Cushion” of vital organs
Transport of fat-soluble nutrients
Some essential roles performed by lipids are depicted in the figure below. Ranging from
various biological metabolic functions of membrane composition to energy storage and
from various cell signaling roles to hormonal and behavioral functions, lipids contribute
to the basic and intricate functioning of a metabolic living cell.
Figure 7: Lipids perform some very essential roles in a cell metabolism and organism’s
body as described in the figure. These are only a few of the many roles played by lipids.
Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online.
3) Carbohydrates
What are carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are basically the hydrates of carbon; mainly consisting of carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. The four main types are mono-, di-, oligo– and polysaccharides.




Monosaccharides: The main fuel source of all biological activities is
monosaccharides. Glucose, ribose, fructose, trehalose,
ribulose,
xylulose, galactose, mannose, deoxyribose, and lyxose are examples of
monosaccharides and serve as important precursors of many metabolic activities
inside a cell.
Disaccharides: Disaccharides are also simple carbohydrates that are formed via
the
joining
of
two
monosaccharides
by
glycosidic
linkages. Lactose, maltose, sucrose, and cellobiose are some examples of
disaccharides.
Oligosaccharides: Oligosaccharides are small polymers of sugars; of about 3-10
monosaccharides joined together. Raffinose series, maltodextrin, cellodextrin
are some examples of oligosaccharides.
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are polymeric complexes that are composed of
200-2500 monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic linkages. They are both
linear and branched. Starch, cellulose, chitin, glycogen, and galactogen are some
examples of polysaccharides.
Figure 8: The 3 main types of carbohydrates and the basic pointers related to them.
Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online
Metabolism of carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates Anabolism (Synthesis)


Plants: Plants synthesize their own carbohydrates via photosynthesis from
carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water.
Animals & Fungi: Gluconeogenesis is an anabolic reaction method of
carbohydrate production from non-carbohydrate sources in animals and
mammals. The site of gluconeogenesis is the liver in vertebrates. There is another
method of carbohydrate synthesis called glycogenesis; the process of conversion
of glucose to glycogen.
2. Carbohydrates Catabolism (Breakdown)

The
breakdown of
carbohydrates
like
glucose
glycolysis. Glycolysis happens in both plants and animals.
happens
via

The breakdown of carbohydrates like glycogen happens via glycogenolysis, a
catabolic reaction process.
Figure 9: Various carbohydrates anabolic and catabolic processes are explained in the
given flowchart. Image Source: Eschopp, CC license.
Vital roles performed by carbohydrates are:






Storage of energy
Structural components
Coenzyme component
Nucleotide component
Role in the immune system, fertilization
Role in growth and development
Figure 10: Various roles performed by carbohydrates in biological bodies. Source:
Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online
4) Nucleotides
What are nucleotides?
Nucleotides are the basic building structural and functional blocks of nucleic acids.



Nitrogenous Base + Sugar → Nucleoside
Nucleoside + 1 Phosphate group → Nucleotide Monophosphate
Nucleotide Monophosphate + 1 Phosphate group → Nucleotide Diphosphate

Nucleotide Diphosphate + 1 Phosphate group → Nucleotide Triphosphate
(Nucleic Acids)
The different types of nucleic acids and the nucleotide nomenclature can be
understood from the table below:
Table 1: Nucleotide and nucleic acid nomenclature
Base
Nucleoside
Nucleotide
Nucleic acid
Adenosine
Adenylate
RNA
Deoxyadenosine
Deoxyadenylate
DNA
Guanosine
Guanylate
RNA
Deoxyguanosine
Deoxyguanylate
DNA
Cytidine
Cytidylate
RNA
Deoxycytidine
Deoxycytidylate
DNA
Thymidine or
Thymidylate or
RNA
Deoxythimidine
Deoxythymidylate
DNA
Uridine
Uridylate
RNA
Purines
Adenine
Guanine
Pyrimidines
Cytosine
Thymine
Uracil
Data Source: Bioinfo.org – Biochemistry
Metabolism of nucleotides
1. Nucleotides Anabolism (Synthesis)



All living cells are capable of producing nucleic acids.
Dietary intake of nucleic acids isn’t really needed.
Nucleic acids from the diet are actually degraded and reverted back for some
more anabolic-type metabolic reactions via salvage pathways.
2. Nucleotides Catabolism (Breakdown)


Catabolism of nucleotides and nucleic acids is a continuous process that keeps
going on as the nucleotide anabolism.
There are only two possible end destinations of nucleotides: one is degradation
into waste product and final excretion, second is the re-entry of catabolized
products via salvage pathway into nucleotide production.
Figure 11: General pathways for nucleotide catabolism. Image Source: Dsrapp, CC
licensed.
Vital roles performed by nucleotides are:




Storage and transfer of genetic information
Co-substrates and coenzymes
Cellular signaling
Source of a phosphate group
Nucleotides perform some vital biological functions inside a living cell.
Figure 12: Some of the many important roles performed by nucleotides inside a cell are
described in the picture. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online
5) Coenzymes
Coenzymes are very small molecules that themselves can’t catalyze biological
reactions; the binding with apoenzymes makes holoenzymes. Holoenzymes are
the active state of enzymes while apoenzymes are the inactive or less active state.
Many different vitamins actually serve as coenzymes.
Table 2: List of various coenzymes and details about their specificities.
Coenzyme
Vitamin
which
from
it’s
derived
Functional
group
Example
or
atom/s
of
dependent
enzyme
transferred
TPP
(Thiamine
Thiamine (B1)
Aldehyde
Riboflavin (B2)
Hydrogen
Transketolase
Phosphate)
FMN
(Flavin
Mono
Nucleotide)
Electrons
FAD (Flavin Adenine
Riboflavin (B2)
Dinucleotide)
NAD
(Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide)
or
DPN
&
(Diphospho
Pyridine Nucleotide)
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Electrons
acid
oxidase
&
Electrons
Niacin (B3)
L-amino
D-amino
acid
oxidase
&
Lactate
Dehydrogenase
Coenzyme A
Pantothenic
Acyl
Thiokinase
Amino
Alanine
Acid (B5)
PLP
(Pyridoxal
Pyridoxine (B6)
Phosphate)
Biotin
Transaminase
Biotin (B7)
CO2
Pyruvate
Carboxylase
Tetrahydrofolate
Folic Acid
One
Carbon
Unit
6) Minerals & Cofactors
Minerals and cofactors are some essential biochemicals in living bodies. Cofactors can
be any of the two: organic or inorganic. They aid in the functioning of the enzymes.




Cofactors are different from coenzymes as cofactors are in general chemical
compounds while coenzymes are a type of cofactors that are biological
molecules.
On one side while cofactors are inorganic in nature, coenzymes are organic in
nature.
Cofactors are tightly/covalently bound to the enzymes while contrastingly the
coenzymes are loosely bound to enzymes.
Cofactor for enzymes examples: Metal ions Mg2+, Cu+, Mn2+
How Does Metabolism Work?
Metabolism works by the balance of anabolic and catabolic activities. Any metabolic
activity that a living body performs requires some energy. For any such energy, there
has to be a source of energy. Where does energy come from? Now, recall the law of
Physics cited at the beginning of the article, which states that energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another. So the
energy that’s needed for any work to be performed by a living body is derived from a
storage source of energy, which is usually carbohydrate or lipid.
The next question is “how do such sources form in the first place?”
The answer to this is during the basic biological growth and development of a living
being, it tends to either produce its own sources of energy by using other sources. For
instance, plants use energy from sunlight to produce their own sources of food
(energy). While on the other hand, animals and fungi depend on these photosynthetic
organisms or other animals for their energy source.
Figure 13: Figurative representation of anabolic and catabolic processes. Source: Maria
Victoria Gonzaga of BiologyOnline.com.
Types of Metabolism
There are basically 2 types of metabolism that must be very clear by
now: anabolism (synthesis) and catabolism (degradation). Look at the table below to
learn some major differences between the two types of metabolism.
Table 3: Difference between anabolism and catabolism
Criteria
Anabolism
Catabolism
Process
Synthesis process (Constructive)
Breakdown
(Destructive)
process
ATP
Required
Released
Energy-wise
Endergonic
Exergonic
Oxygen
No
Yes
Important role
Growth and development, bone
Digestion, respiration,
in
mineralization, etc
etc.
requirement
utilization
Figure 14: Stages of anabolic reactions – DNA synthesis as an example. Image Source:
Maria Victoria Gonzaga of Biology Online
When asked what are the 3 types of metabolism in the human body. We can
explain endomorph, ectomorph, and mesomorph. Endomorphs have the slow
metabolism amongst all while ectomorphs have the most active and the fastest
metabolism. Mesomorphs have the perfect metabolism, which is a balanced one
between endomorph (low metabolism) and ectomorph (fast metabolism).
Energy Transformations
Since the biological diversity is very wide, the types of energy transformations one can
witness are also wide. On one hand, we see some organisms deriving their energy from
light, while on the other hand, we see some others deriving their energy from minerals
and chemicals. On one hand, we see some organisms synthesizing and storing their
own food as storage of energy for future purposes, at the same time we see some
others depending on the former ones for deriving their nutrition.
Oxidative phosphorylation





Happens in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Mainly constitutes two steps: electron removal and ATP derivation (for energy)
Location in eukaryotes: Mitochondrial membrane (in ETC or electron transport
chain)
Location in prokaryotes: In the inner membrane of cells
Also called electron transport-linked phosphorylation
Figure 15: ETC is the site of Oxidative phosphorylation. Image Credit: Fvasconcellos, CClicensed.
Energy from inorganic compounds


This type of metabolism is present in prokaryotes.
Called “chemolithotrophy”

Major role in biogeochemical cycles as these types of energy derivations aid in
maintaining the flow of electrons, energy, and atoms from one medium to
another. This also aids in soil fertility.
Energy from light



This type of metabolism is present in green plants, algae, some bacteria, and
some protists.
It helps in photosynthesis in plants and algae.
It helps in easy switching between two different modes of metabolism in
bacterial and protist systems.
Xenobiotics and Redox Metabolism
Xenobiotics are those chemicals and molecules which if not properly managed inside a
cell can cause immense harm to a biological system. So, a proper system is vital to
manage, dispose and clear these harmful compounds in living beings. Humans possess
some specialized enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics like:
Figure 16: Some xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes present in humans. Source:
Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online
Thermodynamics of Living Organisms
It is expected out of living organisms and bodies that they will obey the basic laws of
thermodynamics. The law of entropy states that in any closed system, entropy should
always increase and “never” decrease. Eventually, this leads to an increase in
metabolism in biological things. But as we know that all living organisms dissipate
energy and are open systems, the laws of thermodynamics aren’t really challenged
much!
Regulation and Control
Regulations and control are important for a variety of reasons:
1) Helps in maintaining “homeostasis”- the constant basal metabolism of a body
2) Helps in proper signal management and interaction of an organism with its
environment.
Control
is
of
2
ways:
1) Intrinsic Control– via intrinsic factors, feedback controls, allosteric regulatory
systems
2) Extrinsic Control– via growth factors, hormones, secondary messenger systems, and
protein phosphorylation steps
Evolution
Why do organisms and their metabolic processes evolve? The simple answer to this is
that evolution always aims at the optimization of beings and processes. Hence, when
organisms evolve, simultaneously the basic life processes also evolve. But when we
look down the evolutionary timescale, we notice one very important thing that these
basic metabolic processes of different biochemicals like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids didn’t change much down the timelines. This point towards an
important finding. “All these metabolic processes have already been optimized via
evolution so much that now all 3 domains of life share the same basics.” Additionally,
the last ancestors that we notice also shared the same metabolic processes, pathways,
and steps.
Investigation and manipulation



To study the entire array of metabolic pathways and products, a special field has
been defined now. It’s called Metabolome!
Radioactive probes are used to trace the entire pathway and study the steps of
importance.
It has a role in metabolic engineering and aids in advancing our efforts for human
welfare by playing with the biological model systems.
Conclusion
By now, you would have likely gained a lot of clarity about what metabolism means,
how different variety of living organisms come on the same ground when metabolic
processes are compared, why metabolism is so important in biology, what metabolism
does across the variety of body tissues, examples of metabolism, and sites and
functions of each pathway.
Metabolism
includes
the environment,
processes
survival
for cell
mechanisms,
growth, reproduction, response to
sustenance,
and
maintenance
of cell structure and integrity. These chemical reactions utilize various enzymes.
Metabolism
may
be
categorized
into
two: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism includes a series of degradative chemical
reactions that break down complex molecules into smaller units, usually releasing
energy in the process. Anabolism includes a sequence of chemical reactions that
constructs or synthesizes molecules from smaller units, usually requiring the input of
energy (ATP) in the process. A disorder or dysfunction in the metabolism is referred to
as a metabolic disorder.
Definition
noun,
plural:
(1)
(2)
The
The
energies
capacity
ability
to
do
for
work,
or
work.
produce
change.
Supplement
Energy exists in different forms but is neither created nor destroyed; it simply converts to
another form. Examples of energy include: kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, elastic,
electromagnetic, chemical, nuclear, and mass. Energy can be expressed in joules or ergs
In biology, energy is often stored by cells in biomolecules, like carbohydrates (sugars) and
lipids. The energy is released when these molecules have been oxidized during cellular
respiration. The energy released from them when they are oxidized during cellular
respiration is carried and transported by an energy-carrier molecule called ATP.
Word origin: From Ancient Greek ἐνέργεια (energeia) “action, act, work”, < ἐνεργός
(energos)
“active”
<
ἐν
(en)
“in”
+
ἔργον
Related forms: energize (verb), energetic (adjective).
Related phrases: kinetic energy, potential energy, solar energy.
Last updated on March 5th, 2021
(ergon)
“work”.
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