Int. J. Environment and Waste Management, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2020
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad
and Tobago to inform an appropriate waste
management strategy
Donnie Boodlal*
Department of Process Engineering,
The University of Trinidad and Tobago,
Point Lisas Campus, Esperanza Road,
Brechin Castle, Couva, Trinidad and Tobago
Email: donnie.boodlal@utt.edu.tt
*Corresponding author
David Alexander
Department of Petroleum Engineering,
The University of Trinidad and Tobago,
Point Lisas Campus, Esperanza Road,
Brechin Castle, Couva, Trinidad and Tobago
Email: david. alexander@utt.edu.tt
Sarim Al-Zubaidy
Office of the President,
The University of Trinidad and Tobago,
O’Meara Campus, Lots 74-98,
O’Meara Industrial Estate, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago
Email: sarim.alzubaidy@utt.edu.tt
Maurissa Charles
Basel Convention Regional Centre for Training
and Technology Transfer in the Caribbean (BCRC-Caribbean),
8 Alexandra Street, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago
Email: maurissa.charles@bcrc-caribbean.org
Abstract: The major issues with waste oil management in T&T are the lack of
adequate strategies, technologies and collectors, which are addressed in this
study. A survey of stakeholders’ views revealed that most preferred proper
recycling and proper disposal and that they are prepared to enter into agreement
with collectors to achieve these ends. The waste oil market in T&T was found
to be sophisticated and partially unregulated. From data gathered, it is seen that
the market volume of base oil in T&T is limited to 15 million litres/pa as this is
the amount used in the nation’s sole blending facility. It was also found that the
fuel oil market is saturated at 2.2 billion litres, which represented exports in
2016. The market volume for off-specification diesel could not be estimated
as the only possible consumers and retailers of this product in T&T is
disinterested in this product.
Copyright © 2020 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
59
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D. Boodlal et al.
Keywords: waste oil management; market study; market survey; waste
management.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Boodlal, D., Alexander, D.,
Al-Zubaidy, S. and Charles, M. (2020) ‘Downstream market analysis of used
oils in Trinidad and Tobago to inform an appropriate waste management
strategy’, Int. J. Environment and Waste Management, Vol. 26, No. 1,
pp.59–74.
Biographical notes: Donnie Boodlal is an Associate Professor in Process
Engineering at the University of Trinidad and Tobago. His main research areas
include environmental management and clean production. He is also well
renowned for his work in the field of GHG quantification and mitigation
strategies.
David Alexander has been a Lecturer and researcher at the University of
Trinidad and Tobago (UTT) since 2007. He is currently the Overall Programme
Leader of the Petroleum Engineering programmes at UTT. He has a wealth of
experience in strategies for reducing anthropogenic greenhouse-gas emissions
including enhanced oil recovery.
Sarim Al-Zubaidy is the President and Acting Provost of the University of
Trinidad and Tobago. He is a well published chartered environmentalist and
has a wealth of experience in systems engineering, fluid handling systems,
thermodynamics and environmental management.
Maurissa Charles is a Project Execution Officer at the BCRC – Caribbean. She
has a wealth of experience and research interest in the area of sustainable and
environmental engineering. At the BCRC-Caribbean, she supports the
implementation of projects that promote technology transfer and public
awareness of environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes.
1
Introduction
The used/waste oil market is one of the overlooked markets in the oil and process
industries and therein lies one of the major problems (DETR, 2001; The Corporate Link
Management Consultants, 2002). Used/waste oil plays an important role in the
downstream industry and can potentially be a very profitable industry, but for this to
happen there needs to be more research done. Development of infrastructure, financial
incentives and legislation need to be put in place to facilitate a growing used/waste oil
market as it represents a significant amount of the pollutants in the environment and thus
needs to be treated with extra care.
Based on the Washington State Legislature Standard, used oil means any oil that has
been refined from crude oil, or any synthetic oil, that has been used and as a result of
such use is contaminated by physical or chemical impurities. This definition is well
accepted in T&T. An example of used oil would be oil that was drained from the engine
of a truck or vehicle, lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids, metal working fluids, heat transfer
fluid and insulating fluid to name a few. The definition of the term ‘waste oil’ is given in
the Waste Oils Directive as any mineral-based lubrication or industrial oils, which have
become unfit for the use for which they were originally intended, and in particular used
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
61
combustion engine oils, gearbox oils, mineral lubricating oils, oils for turbines and
hydraulic oils. Some of the constituents of used/ waste oils are water, fuel, carbon, metals
and oxidation products.
Probably the most common facility that generates waste oils is the automotive sector.
Used/waste oils are generated in the service stations, garages, new car dealer showrooms
and other retail establishments. In areas that are more highly industrialised, a majority of
the used/waste oils are generated from the trucking, transportation and construction fleets
along with public transportation and airports, which are also major contributors to the
used/waste oil volumes. Second is often the industrial sector where the main used/waste
oil are lubricating oils which include: turbine oils, gas engine oils, refrigeration oils,
compressor oils and heat transfer oils (Boodlal et al., 2017). Third is the marine sector
where a large number ships and vessels use huge volumes of lubricating oils and greases.
They have collection tanks to retain the used/waste oil. These tanks are later discharged
during port calls. A large volume of used/waste oil may also come from leakage/spillage
from tankers which would have a plethora of negative environmental effects.
Of paramount importance in this study is the determination of the sources, varieties,
volumes and methods used to treat used oils generated in T&T. To provide a practical
insight into all the above parameters of used oils of interest in this study, due cognisance
was taken of the four principal sources of used lubricants – maritime, industrial,
transportation, and others – as encapsulated in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Principal sources of used oil (see online version for colours)
Note: Please note this is not proportion representative.
These used oils are classified as hazardous waste in many countries. If not managed
properly, used oils can cause significant health and environmental problems. The proper
62
D. Boodlal et al.
disposal of waste oil is vital in reducing these risks, as failure to do so can result in
percolation through the soil and contamination of ground water. Subsequently this can
lead to the destruction of both land and marine flora and fauna in proximity to the
contamination.
Some of these threats are explained below:
•
Just one gallon of used/ waste oils can make a million gallons of fresh water
undrinkable (Sabock, 1994)
•
A film of used/waste oils prevents oxygen from entering the water and blocks
sunlight, therefore plants will not be able to undertake photosynthesis and the effects
will be compounded by the fact that oils tend to spread out more on the surface of the
water thus affecting a larger area than predicted.
•
Dumping of used/ waste oils on lands can lead to the soils becoming unproductive.
•
Waste oils degrade very slowly, thus leading to extended periods where the effects of
these in the environment can be felt.
•
Waste oils contain contaminants that are carcinogenic in nature and thus if ingested
via contaminated drinking water or foods, can lead to serious side effects for humans
and animals. New motor oils do have some traces of lead, which can cause mental
retardation in children or if really bad, even death.
•
Uncontrolled burning of used/waste oils may result in significant levels of hazardous
emissions to the environment.
It follows therefore that more emphasis should be paid to the recycling (both at national
and micro-enterprise levels), and/or re-refining of used/ waste oil. Recycling and
recovery of used/waste oil will not only mitigate the negative impacts on health and the
environment, but it can also help to conserve finite resources (Church, 2000; Motshumi
et al., 2013). Simultaneously, these recycling and recovery processes often can yield
significant benefits through the creation of profitable end products at the micro-enterprise
level and the national level.
There are three potential treatments of used/waste oil which will be considered in this
study. All of these can give positive returns from this waste type. The first two of these
fall under recovery, and the third under recycling (Danish Topic Centre on Waste and
Resources, 2006). The first is direct use as a fuel. This may or may not require previous
removal of water content in the waste oil. Users of waste oils as fuels have included
cement kilns, combined heat and power and district heating plants (Giovanna et al., 2003;
Chari et al., 2012). Plants burning waste oils direct are covered by the Incineration
Directive which has set tight emissions standards. The second involves re-refining of
waste oils to fuel oil. The resulting fuel oil is no longer considered as a waste and can be
used as a fuel in any power plant or facility which can use this fuel type (Motshumi
et al., 2013; Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 1989). The third is the
regeneration of waste oils to base oil which can be used as the basis for new lubricants
(Hsu et. al., 2009; El-Fadel and Khoury, 2001). Side products from this process are fuel
oil, oil sludge and wastewater. Only waste oils which have earlier been used as lubricants
can be regenerated to base oil (i.e. which fall under category Water content should not be
more than 10%). Base oil can be sold to lubricant blenders or mixed directly with various
additives to produce lubricants of various qualities. There are many environmental
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
63
benefits for these potential treatments, based on the surveyed literature (GEIR, 2016).
These include:
•
Reduction in CO2 emissions
The proposed recycling targets for waste oils would contribute to supporting the
targets set by the European Union on CO2 emission reductions. Waste oil re-refining
contributes to CO2 reductions associated with extracting and processing crude oil
(AEU Technology, 1999). With modern re-refining technologies, CO2 emissions (kg
of CO2 per ton of base oil) can be reduced by more than 50% as compared to the
conventional production of base oil (Grice et al., 2014).
•
More sustainable production
In comparison to the primary production of lubricants, re-refined waste oils save up
to 30% of energy in the entire operation. The European Commission outlined in its
Environmental Action Programme for 2020 (Endl and Berger, 2014) that the energy
recovery (burning) should be limited to non-recyclable products. Modern re-refined
base oils fulfil high standards on low sulphur, aromatic or phosphorus content and
deliver a high viscosity index (Abdulkareem et al., 2014).
•
Avoidance of illegal dumping of used oils
Recycling targets translate into higher collection rates, which reduce the potentially
severe risks for human health and the environment arising from illegal dumping in
water or soil or uncontrolled energy recovery (energy recovery (burning)) (Sigman,
1998). Illegal dumping of used oils in water could have serious environmental
impact. Estimates indicate that one gallon of used oil dumped in water can
contaminate up to 1 million gallons of clean water (McKenzie-Mohr & Associates,
n.d.).
•
Improved life-cycle analysis (LCA)
Based on commonly accepted LCA data, waste oil re-refining attributes positive
environmental benefits. This is well documented in IFEU (2005).
This paper seeks to address the best strategy for waste oil management in T&T using a
market survey approach. In particular, the following are addressed:
•
Identification of the main sources of used oils in the country and estimations of the
quantities and types of used oils produced, stored and disposed.
•
Identification of the key stakeholders in the waste used oil market in the country
(mainly those in the production, distribution, storage, refining and utilisation).
•
Identification of existing disposal and treatment facilities and their capacities.
2
Method of study
The research (taking due cognisance of the framework of the oil market in T&T) was
carried out using a combination of desk study, primary data collection through the
development and administration of questionnaires, and field visits. Primary data sources
64
D. Boodlal et al.
were explored to generate the information required for various aspects of the study. The
survey instruments to obtain primary data were sets of questionnaires addressed to the
following groups of respondents:
1
the producers/importers of lubricating oils
2
the users of lubricants/generators of used oils
3
the dealers in used oils
4
the users of used oils.
These structured questionnaires were prepared for the key target groups. They were
aimed, among others, at the:
•
estimation of levels of usage of the different lubricants
•
estimation of the levels of generation of used oils from the different uses
•
determination of the roles of each stakeholder in the management of used oils in the
country.
For Trinidad, 63 stakeholders were identified. All of these were targeted with the survey
instrument. However, only 26 responded. This represented approximately 41% of the
identified population, which is still acceptable and consistent with historical sample sizes
for surveys in Trinidad. These companies represented a range of industries, including
vehicle maintenance and servicing, heavy industry, oil and gas and power generation.
For Tobago 51 stakeholders were identified. All of these were targeted with the
survey instrument. Responses were received from 48. This represented a 94% of the
identified population, which is far beyond historical sample sizes for surveys in Tobago.
This large sample size was possible as a ‘face-to-face’ approach was utilised in Tobago.
3
The market of base oils and virgin oils in Trinidad and Tobago
Our interest in establishing the level of base oils entering T&T’s market in this study
stems from the fact that it is a useful basis for estimating the level of generation of used
oils. Consequently, the major marketers and the independent marketers were surveyed in
this study. Prior to discussing the results of this survey, we establish the base oil volumes
in T&T along with the major stakeholders.
At the time of this study, T&T had its own crude oil refinery. At this refinery, crude
oil from T&T’s production as well as imported crude oil is refined into many products for
local consumption and export. Table 1 illustrates the local and export sales of some of
these products manufactured from the Trinidad’s refinery process in 2016.
Interestingly, from this data, we can see that no base oils from our refinery (most
likely captured under the column ‘other refined/unfinished products’) were sold locally in
T&T in 2016. Upon further investigations this trend also held for previous years. Most of
the base oils produced from our refinery is exported. As such, one had to peruse the
imported records for base oils to ascertain information on the supply of this commodity
for T&T’s market. It should be noted however, that it was difficult to identify base oils
from blended oils using T&T’s import records. Notwithstanding this, (with respect to
base oils use in T&T), there appears to be one major actor. This is the state-owned
Trinidad and Tobago National Petroleum Marketing Company (NP).
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
Table 1
65
Local versus export sales for products from Trinidad’s refinery
Product
Liquefied petroleum gas
Motor gasoline
Naphtha
Aviation gasoline
Kerosene/jet
Gas oils/diesel
Fuel oils
Bitumen
Sulphur
Other refined/unfinished product
Total
Total sold locally (barrels)
Total exported (barrels)
710,383
4,590,362
0
0
1,058,544
3,712,754
0
0
53,380
0
10,125,423
0
13,210,178
0
0
4,452,777
12,034,889
14,102,189
0
59,431
348,021
44,207,485
Source: MEEA (2016)
This was verified when one compared the total import volumes of base oil in T&T with
actual import volumes provided by NP. While the importation records suggest there are
dispersed minor independent marketers for base oil in T&T, these are very insignificant
volumes and were imported for use directly as lubricating oils. As such, no evidence of
any operational oil blending facility was found in T&T, other than NP. It should be noted
that while information was acquired that indicated the presence of another blended
facility in Point Lisas, this facility is not operational at present, having ceased operations
in 2016.
3.1 Levels of lubricating oil importation in T&T
As stated earlier, the only possible major producer of virgin base oil in T&T is the
country’s refinery. However, it seems that all of these are exported. As such, the base oil
that is used in T&T (either pre or post blended), enters the T&T market as imports. When
one examines this actual importation records for T&T, in 2015 it can be ascertained that
from this alone, it is difficult to distinguish base oils from blended oils. The importation
records are divided into four major categories; lubricating oil (paraffinic type),
lubricating oil, waste oil and other lubricating preparations (such as greases). The
respective amounts for these are shown in Table 2. Please note that since no volumes
were provided for ‘other lubricating preparations’, this category is illustrated as a mass.
Table 2
Oil importation records for T&T (2015)
Oil importation categories
Lubricating oil (paraffinic type)
Lubricating oil
Waste oil
Other lubricating preparations
(cutting oils, greases etc.)
Volumes imported (litres) or mass imported (Kg)
51,000 litres
9,724,750,677 litres
235,650 litres
1,464,663 Kg
It can be seen from this data that a total of 9,725,037,327 litres of lubricating oil (base
and blended) was imported into T&T in 2015. In order to have a better appreciation of
66
D. Boodlal et al.
the amount of this volume that is blended to produce virgin oils as compared to the
amount already imported in a blended state, critical data from state owned NP (the only
operational blending facility in T&T) was acquired and is expanded upon below.
3.2 Levels of production of virgin oils in T&T
Base oils are imported into T&T and blended into virgin oils. At present, this is done via
one facility and the base oils are supplied from the USA and blended into different grades
of lubricants. Approximately 15 million litres of base oil are imported annually for this
purpose, of which 80% is grade II and 20% is grade I. The categories of virgin oils
produced from these base volumes are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Categories of virgin oil produced in T&T (see online version for colours)
3.3 Imported base oil volumes, sales and market share of companies in T&T
Table 3 illustrates the imported base oil volumes along with sales and market share for
various companies in T&T. These volumes all refer to engine oils, hydraulic/cylinder
oils, outboard engines and gear/transmission oils.
Table 3
Major marketers of base and/or blended oils in T&T
Company/product
name
Level of importation of base
oils (million litres/annum)
Level of sales (million
litres/annum)
Market share
Major shareholder
Shell
Castrol
Total
Supreme
ESSO
Kendall
Chevron
Valvoline
Penzoil
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17 (est.)
11
7
5.5
4
3.5
3.5
3
2
2
22%
16%
10%
8%
6%
5%
5%
4%
3%
3%
67
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
Table 3
Major marketers of base and/or blended oils in T&T (continued)
Company/product
name
Mobil
Quaker State
Conoco
Amsoil
Gulf
Royal Purple
Redline
Liquimoly
Schaeffer
TOTAL
Level of importation of base
oils (million litres/annum)
Level of sales (million
litres/annum)
Market share
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
72
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
100%
As such, the volume of base oil consumed in T&T annually is 15 million litres through
one major shareholder. This accounts for about 22% of the total virgin oil market in
T&T. As such, if this figure is extrapolated, 100% of the total virgin oil market is
approximately 72 million litres annually. Correspondingly, the expected volume of
generated waste oil in T&T should correlate to 72 million litres annually.
4
Results
Some key aspects of the responses for Trinidad are shown and captioned in Figures 3, 4,
5, 6 and 7. These suggest that based on the sample size surveyed, the majority of waste
oil in Trinidad is generated on a cyclic basis and stored in either metal drums, metal tanks
or plastic drums before disposal. While a small percentage of stakeholders dispose the
generated waste oil themselves, the majority of stakeholders (85%) send their waste oil to
collectors. The survey also illustrated that most of the stakeholders in T&T (81%) are
aware of waste oil recycling and a fair amount of these stakeholders (62%) are willing to
pay to have their waste oil properly disposed.
Figure 3
Trinidad responses to ‘Is your waste oil generation steady or cyclic?’ (see online
version for colours)
68
D. Boodlal et al.
Figure 4
Trinidad responses to ‘How do you store your waste oil before disposal?’ (see online
version for colours)
Figure 5
Trinidad responses to ‘How do you dispose your waste oil?’ (see online version
for colours)
Figure 6
Trinidad responses to ‘Are you aware of recycling of waste oil?’ (see online version
for colours)
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
69
Some key aspects of the responses for Tobago are shown and captioned in the Figures 8,
9, 10, 11 and 12. The figures suggest that based on this sample size, unlike Trinidad, the
majority of waste oil in Tobago is generated on a steady basis and stored in plastic drums.
Also interesting is that while the majority of stakeholders dispose their oil in Tobago
through a collector (like Trinidad), this percentage is less than that of Trinidad (71% in
Tobago versus 85% in Trinidad). This speaks to a more sophisticated market for waste oil
management in Trinidad. This could be correlated to the higher levels of industrialisation
in Trinidad when compared with Tobago. Again, the majority of respondents indicated
that they are aware of the negative environmental effects of indiscriminate dumping of
waste oil and the existence of waste oil recycling. This is an important behavioural
characteristic for both markets, as it indicates that generators of waste oil would be more
inclined to participate in a waste oil management system. Also, just as in the Trinidad
market, the majority of respondents (79%) indicated that they would be willing to pay for
collection, albeit this cost must be minimal.
Figure 7
Trinidad responses to ‘Are you willing to pay to have your waste oil properly
disposed?’ (see online version for colours)
Figure 8
Tobago responses to ‘Is your waste oil generation steady or cyclic?’ (see online version
for colours)
70
Figure 9
D. Boodlal et al.
Tobago responses to ‘How do you store your waste oil before disposal?’ (see online
version for colours)
Figure 10 Tobago responses to ‘How do you dispose your waste oil?’ (see online version
for colours)
Figure 11 Tobago responses to ‘Are you aware of recycling of waste oil?’ (see online version
for colours)
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
71
Figure 12 Tobago responses to ‘Are you willing to pay to have your waste oil properly
disposed?’ (see online version for colours)
4.1 The potential market for used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
The used oil market in Trinidad appears to be very sophisticated. In addition, it was
extremely difficult to acquire data on volumes of oil collected and for what purpose.
Based on feedback from the survey instrument and related further interviews, many waste
oil collectors were identified in Trinidad (as shown below). Though NP collects waste oil
from their products, they contract the services of one or more of the previously identified
dealers for eventual disposal. The team tried feverishly to acquire data from these dealers
directly with respect to volumes and eventual disposal and/or usage but was not 100%
successful. Many of these stakeholders were very secretive about their volumes and
eventual use. Table 4 anonymously summarises the direct responses acquired from some
of these stakeholders.
Table 4
Company
Waste oil collectors and dealers in Trinidad
Annual volumes (litres)
Eventual use
A
Less than 1,900,000
Recycled into low-grade base oil and exported
B
1,200,000
Exported directly as waste oil for processing
C
960,000
Used to run incinerators
D
5,000
No data
E
2,000
No data
In addition to the above, indirect information was received that illegal dumping of waste
oil is also taking place in T&T (particularly Guapo) and out at sea. However, no further
data was received to verify these claims.
Based on primary data acquired from T&T’s Customs and Excise Division, the total
volume of exported used lubricating oils in T&T for 2016 was 242 million litres. This
varies significantly with the annual volumes reported by the major waste oil dealers
(which is approximately 4 million litres). In addition, this export volume also varies with
the total amount of expected waste oil generated in T&T annually. This is interesting and
somewhat perplexing. It seems as though one or a combination of the following scenarios
apply:
72
D. Boodlal et al.
•
The volumes declared by the waste oil dealers are significantly less than actual. A
more detailed waste oil inventory for Trinidad is required for this apparent gap to
close.
•
It is possible that waste oil is being imported into Trinidad for the sole purpose of
export. However, this was not illustrated in the data acquired.
Further clarification was sought through the Environmental Management Authority
(EMA) to elucidate into the two scenarios above. This response deduces the presence of
the illegal export of waste oil from Trinidad. Volumes are being exported through the
notification procedures to Nepal and the USA for the purpose of recovery. However,
based on EMAs response, these volumes are small in comparison to other acquired data
through Customs and waste oil dealers.
5
Conclusions
In the final analysis, the volume of base oil consumed in T&T annually is 15 million
litres. There is only one major player in the local blending market who converts these into
virgin oil products for eventual use in T&T. This accounts for about 22% of the total
related market in T&T, which is estimated at 72 million litres annually. As such, the
expected volume of generated waste oil in T&T should correlate to 72 million litres
annually.
Based on the market survey across T&T, more stakeholders seem to be interested in a
waste oil management system that ensures proper disposal and/or recycling of waste oil.
The majority of them are willing to pay for proper disposal of their waste oil. Presently,
most of these stakeholders already partake in an arrangement with collectors with respect
to their generated waste oil. The island of Trinidad seems to have the more sophisticated
collection system than Tobago.
The analysis suggests the presence of eight major waste oil dealers in operating in
Trinidad and eight in Tobago. While all the dealers in Tobago are only involved in
collection and disposal, the dealers in Trinidad also seem to be involved in recycling,
re-using and export. The three major possible products that can emanate from these along
with their global prices (as no data were given for local prices) are given in Table 5.
Please note that as identified in Section 2, the total volumes of waste oil that can be used
for these products in T&T is 72 million litres. However, it seems as though some amount
of this is already exported through the existence of a sophisticated collection and re-use
market in Trinidad. Nonetheless, based on declared volumes from the associated
collectors and dealers, a large amount may still be available for a waste oil management
system in T&T.
Table 5
Possible products and prices from waste oil
Possible product
Average global price
Source
Base oil
2.90 (USD/gal)
NP
Fuel oil
298.00 (USD/mt)
WBP
1.80 (USD/gal) – estimate
US EIA
Off-specification diesel
Downstream market analysis of used oils in Trinidad and Tobago
73
One valuable piece of information was that the price of waste oil collection in Tobago
ranged from 100–400 TTD per barrel whilst in Trinidad the range was 80–200 TTD per
barrel. While no explicit reason for this price variation was gathered from stakeholders, it
could be due to the extra cost incurred for marine transportation from Tobago to
Trinidad.
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