A2 Sociology Beliefs in Society 7 Postmodernism and Religion Postmodernist theory believes that the UK and other western societies have experienced major economic and cultural change in the past 20 years. They claim that this transformation from modern society to postmodern society has profound implications for religious organisations and the way religion is practised. Religion and modern society In order to understand postmodernist beliefs, it is important to understand how they see modern society, i.e. the type of society they argue existed before the emergence of postmodern society. a) Modern society is dominated by an industrial economic system focused on factories producing manufactured goods. In other words, modern society began with the industrial revolution, and the emergence of free enterprise, i.e. capitalism. As industrial society developed, so too did other characteristics of modern societies, in particular, urbanisation (i.e. a majority of people moved from the countryside to live in cities), a meritocratic society based on universal rules, especially examinations and qualifications a centralised government the nation-state (i.e. people developed a sense of national identity). b) Postmodernists argue that modern society is dominated by particular approaches to knowledge. In modern societies, people are concerned with pursuing ‘absolute truths’ or right answers to particular problems. It is believed that by adopting specific approaches based on rational thinking and logic that problems can be solved for good. Post modernists claim that three types of belief systems or metanarratives (i.e. ‘big stories’) emerged in modern society to provide explanations or truths about the world. 1 A2 Sociology Beliefs in Society 7 Science – the most high status form of knowledge because it underpins the standard of living of modern societies Political ideologies, e.g. ideas about how we should organise our economies and lives such as communism, conservatism, liberalism, socialism, feminism etc. Religion – the established religions in modern European societies were based around Christianity, e.g. the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England etc generally claimed a monopoly on God and spirituality. c) In modern societies, people’s identities are shaped by social influences over which they have little or no control such as their social class, gender, ethnicity nationality In regard to religion, in modern societies, people are usually born into a religion – they do not choose it. Postmodern society So how is postmodern society different from modern society? (1) If we examine the economic system, we can see that manufacturing industry in the UK is in decline. Postmodernists argue that the economy has undergone radical change. It is no longer exclusively concerned with producing manufactured goods. One reason for the decline in manufacturing industry in the UK is that in postmodern societies, production has 2 A2 Sociology Beliefs in Society 7 undergone globalisation. Manufactured goods are now mainly produced in the developing world. The postmodern economy in the UK is now a service sector economy which mainly provides personal services in retail, mass media, education and welfare. The focus on these services is on knowledge and consumption. Most people work in jobs which either involve the processing of information (e.g. government, finance etc) or the servicing of consumption (e.g. retail, fast food etc). As a society, we now consume more than we produce. (2) Postmodernists argue that people have become disillusioned with the old meta-narratives of science, politics and religion. For example, science, for all its benefits, is seen to have a downside associated with environmental destruction. Political ideologies such as communism have been discredited whilst people generally no longer have faith in politicians. The established Christian religions are experiencing secularisation as people make the choice not to go to church. Postmodernists argue that people no longer see knowledge and truth as absolutes. People understand that there are no right answers. Instead people are turning to ‘relativism’ – the notion that there are many ways of looking at a problem - all of which have some validity. (3) Postmodernists note that culture and personal identity have undergone a transformation in the move from modern to postmodern society. In particular, we have seen the globalisation of culture through a global mass media and the internet. 3 A2 Sociology Beliefs in Society 7 We have also seen a move away from compulsory forms of identity. In postmodern society, we choose our identity from a rich and diverse global culture, and consequently mix and match styles from a fantastic range of sources. The emphasis on postmodern society is therefore on the self, the pursuit of lifestyle choices and the construction of personal identity. Postmodernist studies of religion (1) Hervieu-Leger There are two crucial ideas in the work of Hervieu-Leger relating to religion in the postmodern world. (a) Hervieu-Leger (2000) claims that secularisation is the result of ‘cultural amnesia’ – this means that postmodern societies have experienced a collective loss of religious memory. She notes that for centuries, children used to be taught religion in the extended family, at school and at Sunday school at the local parish church. Religion was handed down generation by generation. However, in postmodern societies, religious knowledge and stories are no longer handed down by parents to their children. Instead parents often let children decide for themselves with regard to religious belief. Hervieu-Leger also notes the decline of Sunday schools and observes that religion no longer has the status it once commanded in the education system. As a result, young people today have little religious knowledge and are less likely to inherit a fixed religious identity. (b) However, Hervieu-Leger notes that religion has not disappeared despite these trends. Instead, she argues that individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition with regard to religious belief 4 A2 Sociology Beliefs in Society 7 and practice. She argues that people today feel that they are consumers of religion and consequently they have become spiritual shoppers in a religious marketplace characterised by great diversity and choice. Moreover, Hervieu-Leger argues that religion is now more individualised in postmodern society. This means that people can construct their own unique programmes of religious belief and practice rather than having it imposed on them by membership of an organised religion. This do-it-yourself approach to religion allows people to explore spirituality in their own time and in their own way. Hervieu-Leger argues that two types of religious people have consequently become more common in postmodern society: Pilgrims – these are people who choose to follow an individual path in a search for self-discovery or development. This is achieved by joining ‘new age’ spiritual groups or through individual therapy or meditation. Converts – these are people who join religious groups that offer a strong sense of belonging, usually based on a shared ethnic background or religious doctrine. Such groups aim to re-create a sense of community in a society and to make up for the loss of traditional religious knowledge. Examples of such groups would include the evangelical ‘born again’ denominations such as Baptists and Pentecostals. (2) David Lyon David Lyon (2000) argues that in postmodern society traditional religion is being replaced by new religious forms that suggest religion is still important. He makes three important observations: (a) He argues that the globalisation of mass media, especially the rise of satellite television and the internet, has 5 A2 Sociology Beliefs in Society 7 ‘disembedded’ religion. This means that religious beliefs and practices have been lifted out of their normal context, i.e. the physical church with its fixed programme of worship, and moved to media sites so that people can choose to practice religion at their own convenience. Lyon notes that many religions now have web-sites – the ‘electronic church’ is becoming the norm – or global satellite television channels. People no longer have to physically go to their local churches to worship – they can just log on to their computer or turn on the television. Religion has become de-institutionalised and instead become a cultural resource that individuals can adopt and adapt for their own purposes. (b) Lyon argues that people in postmodern societies construct their identities through what they choose to consume. Lyon argues that people have not abandoned religion. Instead religion has re-located to the sphere of consumption and people have become conscious consumers choosing to relate to those bits of different religions that they find useful. For example, Ammerman’s study of Christian fundamentalists in the USA found that they were happy to worship at a range of Christian denominations. However, Lyon concedes that religious consumerism has weakened the power of the major religions because it has given people greater access to a wider set of beliefs and consequently made people sceptical about the ‘truth’ of any one religious belief system or meta-narrative. (c) Lyon is very critical of the view that secularisation is occurring and that religion is being replaced by a rational scientific worldview. He argues that society is actually experiencing a period of ‘re-enchantment’ in which there has been a growth in unconventional religious beliefs, practices and spirituality. From Lyon’s perspective, religious beliefs and practices are just as strong as 6 A2 Sociology Beliefs in Society 7 ever –they just take different forms compared with the past. Postmodernism – an evaluation Some sociologists believe that postmodernists have taken their analysis too far and are very sceptical that we have entered a brand new age of postmodernity. Steve Bruce (2002) rejects the postmodern concept of relativism and the idea that all truths carry equal weight. He notes that people can see that science is always superior in terms of its outcomes compared with religion, e.g. people will always see that astronomy is more believable than astrology or that medical science works better than faith healing or aromatherapy. Bruce also rejects the idea of individualisation and suggests that postmodernists underestimate the continuing power of group identities based on social class, age, ethnicity and nationality. There is little evidence that the new ways of religious practice found on the internet or on satellite television are resulting in new forms of belief and worship. Research shows that people choose to view programmes that confirm their existing beliefs. Bruce argues that consumerist religion is weak religion – it has little effect on the lives of its believers because it is often too dependent on fad and fashion. It may be trendy one week and unfashionable the next. 7