AMBO UNIVERSITY
Food Security and Livelihoods (4 Cr. Hrs)
DEST640
Workneh A. Wodajo (PhD)
Associate Professor of
Development Studies
"INTERWEAVING EDUCATION, RESEARCH , TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
AND COMMUNITY
SERVICES FOR CHANGING THE LIVES OF PEOPLE”
1
Introduction to Food and Nutrition
security
“Food security” and “nutrition security” were
articulated in the early 1940s during World War II
In 1943, 44 governments met in Hot Springs,
Virginia, USA, to consider the goal of freedom
from want in relation to food and agriculture
They concluded that “freedom from want”
means a secure, adequate and suitable supply of
food for every man, woman and child
2
THE EVOLUTION OF FOOD AND NUTRITION
SECURITY CONCERNS
1960 Food For Development
1970 Food Assurance
1980 Broadened Food Security
1990 Freedom from Hunger & Malnutrition
2000 Food and Nutrition for Poverty Reduction
and Development
3
Conceptual clarity on food security
• In its narrowest definition, food security means
that enough food is available, whether at the
global, national, community, or household level.
• But what is meant by “enough” ?
• Is it enough to meet economic demand and if so,
at what price, or is it enough to meet energy and
nutrient requirements?
Conceptual clarity on food security
• The term “food security” was used to describe
whether a country had access to enough food to
meet dietary energy requirements
• National food security was used by some to mean
self-sufficiency, i.e. the country produces the food it
needs or that which its population demands
• It was not clear whether self-sufficiency meant that
all citizens had access to enough food to meet energy
and nutritional requirements or whether meeting
economic demand from domestic production was
enough to claim self-sufficiency
Conceptual Clarity on Food Security
• The use of the term food security at the national and
global level tends to focus on the supply side of the
food equation.
• The question raised is: is there enough food
available, where food is usually interpreted to mean
dietary energy?
• But availability does not assure access, and enough
calories do not assure a healthy and nutritional diet.
• The distribution of the available food is critical
Conceptual clarity on food security
• If food security is to be a measure of household
or individual welfare, it has to address access.
• This was widely recognized by scholars and
practitioners in the mid-1970s, and food security
was defined as access by all people to enough
food to live a healthy and productive life.
• This definition was subsequently amplified by
FAO to include the nutritional value and food
preferences.
Definition of Food Security
Food security as a concept originated in mid1970s, in the discussions of international food
problems at a time of global food crisis
A person, household or community, nation or
region is food secure when all members at all
times have physical and economic access to buy,
produce, obtain or consume
sufficient, safe
and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs
and food preferences for a healthy and active life
8
• The addition of “safe and nutritious” emphasize food
safety and nutritional composition while the addition
of “food preferences” changes the concept of food
security from mere access to enough food, to access to
the food preferred
• People with equal access to food, but different food
preferences, could show different levels of food
security.
• The term “preferences” is interpreted to mean foods
that are socially and culturally acceptable and
consistent with religious and ethical values
9
DEFINITION….
 Food insecurity is typically referred to incidence of
famine and resulting in death from starvation
 Food insecurity occurs when people lack continued
access to sufficient quantity and quality of food
 Household food security – Ability of a household to
acquire enough food through production or purchase to
meet the nutritional and physiological needs of all its
members at all times
10
 National food security – Ability of a nation to
acquire and store food sufficient to meet the food
requirements of all its residents
 Transitory food insecurity –Temporary shortage
of food because of a particular event of short
duration (e.g., season, temporary loss of
employment or income)
 Chronic food insecurity - reflects a long-term lack
of access to adequate food, and is typically
associated with structural problems of
availability, access or utilization
11
The duration of Food Insecurity
12
 Food insecurity exists when people do not have adequate
physical, social or economic access to food
 Nutrition security: nutrition adds the aspects of health services,
healthy environment and caring practices
 More precisely, “a person is considered nutrition secure when she
or he has a nutritionally adequate diet and the food consumed is
biologically utilized such that adequate performance is
maintained in growth, resisting or recovering from disease,
pregnancy, lactation and physical work” (Frankenberger et al.
1997)
13
Recently, FAO has defined nutrition security as:
• A condition when all people at all times consume
food of sufficient quantity and quality in terms of
variety, diversity, nutrient content and safety to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for
an active and healthy life, coupled with a sanitary
environment, adequate health and care (CFS 2012)
• FAO estimated that, in 2016 alone, 800 million
people worldwide did not have access to sufficient
food to meet their dietary energy requirements.
14
• Weingärtner (2010) defined FNS as: a condition
under which adequate food (quantity, quality,
safety, socio-cultural acceptability) is available
and accessible for and satisfactorily utilized by all
individuals at all times to live a healthy and
happy life
15
Food sovereignty
• The concept of food sovereignty had already been
under discussion for a few years when it was
released at the International Conference of La Vía
Campesina in Tlaxcala, Mexico, in April 1996.
• In the words of La Vía Campesina:
– Food sovereignty is the right of peoples to define their
own food and agriculture; to protect and regulate
domestic agricultural production and trade in order to
achieve sustainable development objectives; to
determine the extent to which they want to be self
reliant; and to restrict the dumping of products in their
markets.
16
Food sovereignty
• The right of individuals, peoples, communities
and countries to:
– Safe, nutritious and culturally appropriate food and to
food producing resources.
– Define their own agricultural, food, land and water
management policies which are ecologically,
economically and socio-culturally appropriate to their
unique circumstances;
– Manage, use and control life-sustaining natural
resources: land, waters, seeds, livestock breeds and
wider agricultural biodiversity, unrestricted by
intellectual property rights and free from genetically
manipulated organisms;
17
Food Sovereignty
• Produce and harvest food in an ecologically
sustainable manner, principally through lowexternal input and organic production as well as
artisanal (traditional) farming;
• Choose their own level of self-reliance in food
and develop autonomous food systems that
reduce dependence on global markets and
corporations;
• Protect and regulate domestic production and
trade and prevent the dumping of food and
unnecessary food aid in domestic markets
18
Food sovereignty
• Thus, food sovereignty refers to the right of peoples to
healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through
ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their
right to define their own food and agriculture systems
• National food sovereignty is used to measure the extent to
which a country has the means to make available to its
people the food needed or demanded, irrespective of
whether the food is domestically produced or imported
• A country that does not produce the food it needs or its
population is prepared to buy and does not have the hard
currency to import what is missing, would not be food
sovereign.
19
Shifts in food security thinking
• Global and national food crises at the beginning
of 1970s have, indeed, attracted academic efforts,
particularly a concern to identify and understand
predicament/difficult situation that hinder
nations to produce sufficient food
• Hence, the issue of food security has become
central to academic research that came up with
various perspectives/theories
20
Shifts in food security thinking
Three main shifts in thinking and concern regarding
food security over the last several decades.
– Shift from ‘international and national’ to ‘households
and individuals’
– Shift from ‘food first’ to ‘livelihood perspective’
– Shift from ‘objective indicators’ to ‘subjective
perceptions’
21
Shifts in food security thinking
Shift from ‘international and national’ to
‘households and individuals’
• Availability of sufficient food at global and
national levels was the main focus in the 1970s
• However, it is realized that access to food by each
household, and its members should be the central
concern (following Sen’s argument in 1981).
22
Shifts in food security thinking
Shift from ‘food first’ to ‘livelihood perspective’
This has been in response to:
• Observations on food insecurity have shown that
the victimized people focus on long-term
objectives (sustaining livelihood) rather than
attaining the short-term satisfaction of immediate
food consumption
• People respond to food shortage crisis by
practicing a variety of coping and adapting
strategies
• An application of an analogy of concepts of
environmental management, i.e. ‘sensitivity’ and
‘resilience’ in explaining the situations before,
during and after food crisis for households.
23
Shifts in food security thinking
‘Food - first’ approach
Sustainable- livelihood approach
Objective
Access to food
Secure and sustainable livelihood
Point of departure
Failure to subsist/survive
Success in feeding, living
Priorities
Food at the top of hierarchy of needs
Food one part of a jigsaw/complex of livelihood
needs
Time preferences
Food needs met before and in preference to all
others
Food needs meet to the extent possible given
immediate and future livelihood needs
Entitlements
Narrow entitlements base (current and past
consumption; household defined)
Broad entitlement base (include future claims,
access to Common Property Resources (CPRs),
etc.); defined at household and community level
Vulnerability
Lack or want of food
Defencelessness, insecurity, exposure to risks,
shocks and stress
Security
Opposite of vulnerability is enough food,
irrespective of the terms or conditions on which
it is acquired
Opposite of vulnerability is security
Vulnerable groups
Based on social, medical criteria
Also based on economic and cultural criteria
Coping strategies
Designed to maximize immediate consumption
Designed to preserve livelihoods
Measuring and monitoring
Present and past consumption
Livelihood security and sustainability
Relationship between food security and
natural resource base
Degrade environment to meet immediate food
needs
Preserve environment to secure future
24
Shifts in food security thinking
Shift from ‘objective indicators’ to ‘subjective
perceptions’
• Practical problems related to recommending a
standardized amount of calorie and micronutrients;
• Cultural differences and food preference; and
• Human dignity and quality of entitlement
25
Shifts in food security thinking
Implications of shifts
• Shifts in thinking does not mean simply discarding
previous knowledge, rather it signifies adding to
existing understandings.
• The shift from global and national food security to
household and individual level indicates how an
understanding of issues has moved from general to
specific and in-depth insights of processes.
• Shift in measurement of food security from
quantitative to qualitative would be an indication of
shift in concern from food measurement in economic
and nutritional terms to normative human-related
factors or people perception, food preferences and
feelings.
26
Shifts in food security thinking
Implications of shifts
• The move from food first to livelihood first means
there is a need to look into wider and sustainable
objectives that households aim to attain, and food
needs to be considered as one of the elements of
household’s livelihood.
• The dynamic nature of the issue of food security, as
well as its explanations have motivated research for
further inquiries, which in turn contributed to
generate additional knowledge.
• From the policy perspective, it appears that the food
insecurity problem has persisted at various scales
(globe, region, national, household, and individual),
which basically calls for further theories that will help
put in place appropriate policies.
27
VULNERABILITY
• The dynamic nature of food security is implicit
when we talk about people who are vulnerable
to experiencing food insecurity in the future.
• Vulnerability is defined in terms of the following
three critical dimensions:
– Vulnerability to an outcome; e.g. climate change
– From a variety of risk factors;
– Because of an inability to manage those risks.
• A person can be vulnerable to hunger even if he
or she is not actually hungry at a given point in
time.
28
VULNERABILITY
• Vulnerability analysis suggests two main
intervention options:
– Reduce the degree of exposure to the hazard;
– Increase the ability to cope.
• By accounting for vulnerability, food security
policies and programs broaden their efforts from
addressing current constraints to food
consumption, to include actions that also address
future threats to food security
29
HUNGER, MALNUTRITION AND POVERTY
• Hunger is usually understood as an
uncomfortable or painful sensation caused by
insufficient food energy consumption
• Scientifically, hunger is referred to as food
deprivation
• All hungry people are food insecure, but not all
food insecure people are hungry, as there are
other causes of food insecurity, including those
due to poor intake of micro-nutrients.
30
HUNGER, MALNUTRITION AND POVERTY
• Malnutrition results from deficiencies, excesses
intake of unhealthy food or imbalances in the
consumption of macro - and/or micronutrients.
• Malnutrition may be an outcome of food
insecurity, or it may relate to non-food factors,
such as:
– Inadequate care practices for children
– Insufficient health services; and
– An unhealthy environment.
31
HUNGER, MALNUTRITION AND POVERTY
• Poverty is undoubtedly a cause of hunger, lack
of adequate and proper nutrition itself is an
underlying cause of poverty.
• A current and widely used definition of poverty
is:
– “Poverty encompasses different dimensions of
deprivation that relate to human capabilities
including consumption and food security, health,
education, rights, voice, security, dignity and decent
work.”
[Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development - OECD]
32
Food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty are
deeply interrelated phenomena
33
HUNGER, MALNUTRITION AND POVERTY
• It is argued that a strategy for attacking poverty in
conjunction with policies to ensure food security
offers the best hope of swiftly reducing mass
poverty and hunger
• However, recent studies show that economic
growth alone will not take care of the problem of
food security
• What is needed is a combination of:
– Income growth
– Supported by direct nutrition interventions; and
– Investment in health, water and education
34
KEY DETERMINANTS OF FNS
Geography (where a household lives)
Who the household is (gender, ethnicity, age,
resource endowment)
When (seasonality)
35
Dimensions of food security
Food availability is achieved when sufficient quantities
of food are consistently available to all individuals
within a country
Food access is ensured when households and all
individuals within them have adequate resources to
obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet
Food utilization is the proper biological use of food,
requiring a diet providing sufficient energy and
essential nutrients, potable water, and adequate
sanitation
Stability: captures the susceptibility of individuals to
food insecurity due to interruptions in access,
36
availability or utilization
Three pillars of food security
Availability of food
 food production, food imports, etc
Access to food
 household food production and reserves,
family income, solidarity mechanisms,
barter, etc
Utilization of food
health situation (diarrhoea, malaria, AIDS),
food storage and cooking practices, fuel, age
related needs, etc
37
Categories
Examples of indicators
Rainfall and expected effects on harvest
Food availability Crop production (types of crops, yields, methods of production)
/ general context Livestock holdings and status
Land area cultivated and systems of land access
Livelihood strategies
Food access
Income and food sources
Essential expenditures
patterns
Household food consumption
Household food stocks
Productive household assets
Market prices of key staples and productive assets (e.g. livestock) – Terms
of trade
Coping strategies
Nutritional status
Food utilisation
Water sources and sanitation facilities
Health status
Feeding and caring practices
Food consumption patterns
38
39
 Summarizing the conceptual literature on food
security, Maxwell and Frankenberger conclude:
 First, "enough" food is mostly defined ... with
emphasis on calories, and on requirements ... for an
active, healthy life rather than simple survival
 Second, access to food is determined by food
entitlements [Amartya Sen 1981], which are derived
from human and physical capital, assets and stores,
access to common property resources and a variety
of social contracts at household, community and
state levels
Having a right to access food
40
 Entitlements is defined by Sen (1984, p. 497) as “the set of
alternative commodity bundles that a person can
command in a society using the totality of rights and
opportunities that he or she faces”
 Third, the risk of entitlement failure determines the level
of vulnerability and hence the level of food insecurity,
with risk being greater, the higher the share of resources
devoted to food acquisition
 Finally, food insecurity can exist on a permanent basis
(chronic) or on a temporary basis (transitory) or in cycles
 Starvation is the characteristic of some people not having
enough food to eat
41
 Coping strategies- (fallback mechanisms to deal with a
short-term insufficiency of food)
 Coping strategies are employed to mitigate the effects
of not having enough food to meet the household’s
needs
 Strategies described included relatively small changes
in eating practices (such as eating a less expensive and
less preferred food, Limiting portion size, Skipping
meals, Borrowing food or money to buy food) to
relatively severe changes (such as going for an entire
day without eating)
 Adaptive strategies- (long-term or permanent changes
in the way in which households and individuals acquire
sufficient food or income eg migration )
42
What is famine?
 Famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any
faunal species, a phenomenon which is usually accompanied by
regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased
mortality
 Famine is a situation where more than five people in 10,000 are
dying every day due to malnutrition and hunger
 USAID says a famine is a “catastrophic food crisis that results in
widespread acute malnutrition and mass mortality. It is a process,
rather than an event, with a beginning, a middle and an end.”
 The World Food Program says a famine occurs when a serious
food crisis is made worse by “governments’ failure to deal with
the situation”
 Famine may be seen as “the regional failure of food production
or distribution systems, leading to sharply increased mortality
due to starvation and associated disease”
43
What are the major causes of Famine?
 Traditionally, famines are thought to be caused by reduction in
food output or a population outgrowing its regional carrying
capacity
 The operative cause of famine is an imbalance of population with
respect to food supply (and could thus be solved by population
control methods)
 Famine could also come from the problem of food distribution
and poverty, as observed by economist Amartya Sen
 Food shortages can certainly cause famines, it does not follow
that all famines must necessarily be caused by food shortages
 Famine implies that some people do not have adequate access to
food, it does not imply that food itself is in short supply
44
Causes of famine
 Classifying them into natural causes beyond
human control and artificial causes within
human control
 Historically, natural causes include drought,
excessive rains and flood, unseasonably cold
weather, typhoon/storm and other high winds,
tidal
waves,
depredation/damage
by
vermin/pest and such insects as locusts, and
plant diseases
45
The artificial causes were commonly political,
poor governmental policies, misguided or
deliberate public policies, and repressive
/oppressive political systems
– They include warfare that involves siege or
blockade or destruction of food stocks or growing
grain, and wartime strains on economics that
diminish manpower, machines, or fertilizers
46
Situations affect availability/access/utilisation of food
 A severe drought can reduce a harvest or kill livestock
 Pipeline break in food assistance
 High market prices of important food products
 Shortage of seeds or fertilisers
 Lack of nutritional knowledge causes people to have an
inadequate diet or cause extensive vitamin loss during
preparation
 A broken bridge can hamper access to food or trade markets.
 Some strong cultural beliefs prevent people from eating certain
healthy food products
47
Factors that Affect Food Security
• Individual constraints (knowledge, habits)
• Household constraints (production, purchasing power,
intra-household distribution)
• External constraints (stigma, price, market fluctuations)
• External shocks (droughts, floods, conflict)
48
Factors that affect food security ----The factors that negatively affect food security can be
divided into four categories
Individual-level constraints: Food habits, reduced
capacity to eat, lack of knowledge of the benefits of
proper feeding, and psychosocial factors such as
depression
Household constraints: Lack of production and
purchasing power, inequitable intra household
distribution of food and income, lack of knowledge of
nutritional needs and dietary practices, food taboos, and
changes in prioritization among household members as a
result of disease
49
Constraints external to the household:
Seasonal variation in production, price
fluctuations, social stigma, market availability,
legal issues, and social customs/habitual
practice
 External shocks: Conflicts, drought, floods,
earthquakes, macroeconomic crises, etc.
50
The concept of Poverty
 Poverty is pronounced deprivation of well-being
 hardship which is unacceptable.
 Traditionally poverty was understood primarily
as material deprivation, as living with low
income and low consumption, characterized
primarily by poor nutrition and poor living
conditions.
51
However, it is multidimensional
 Income poverty is associated with human
poverty—the low health and education
levels that are either the cause or the result
of low income.
 Income and human poverty also tend to be
accompanied by such social deprivations as
high vulnerability to adverse events (for
example, disease, economic crisis, or
natural disaster)
 Voicelessness and powerlessness are
outcome of poverty
52
• Poverty is the lack of basic necessities that all
human beings must have: food and water,
shelter, education, medical care, security, etc.
• Material conditions - needing goods and
services, multiple deprivation, or a low
standard of living
• Economic position - low income, limited
resources, inequality or low social class
53
 Social position of the poor, through lack of
entitlement,
dependency
or
social
exclusion
 Capability poverty occurs when people are
unable to reach a certain level of essential
human achievement or functioning (i.e.,
malnourishment, illiteracy, poor health).
54
The poor lack sufficient desire
motivation to escape poverty
Some factors of poverty

education

natural resources

attitudinal differences

corruption

government

knowledge

poor economic conditions
and
55
Causes of poverty
• Natural factors such as the climate or environment:
access to fertile land, fresh water, minerals, energy, and
other natural resources. Presence or absence of natural
features helping or limiting communication, such
mountains, deserts, sailable rivers, or coastline.
• Historically, geography has prevented or slowed the
spread of new technology to areas such as Sub-Saharan
Africa.
• The climate also limits what crops and farm animals may
be used on similarly fertile lands.
• On the other hand, countries with an abundance of
natural resources creating quick wealth from exports tend
to have less long-term prosperity than countries with less
of these natural resources.
56
Causes of poverty
• Inadequate nutrition in childhood: in poor nations inadequate
nutrition in childhood may lead to physical and mental stunting that
may lead to economic problems. Hence, it is both a cause and an
effect.
• For example, lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in
impaired brain development, and this can affect enormous numbers of
people In developing countries, it is estimated that 40% of children
aged 4 and under suffer from anaemia because of insufficient iron in
their diets.
• Disease, specifically disease of poverty: AIDS malaria, and
tuberculoses and others overwhelmingly afflict developing nations,
which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and
national health and economic resources from investment and
productivity.
• Further, many tropical nations are affected by like malaria,
scistosomasis (bilharzia), and trypanosomes that are not present in
temperate climates.
57
Causes of poverty
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Unemployment and/or underemployment
Lacking infrastructure
Lacking equitably available education
Over population and lack of access to birth control methods
Lack of freedom and social operation
Lack of social integration. For example, arising from immigration
Lacking rule of law and democracy
Corruption
Tax evasion and organized crimes
Historical factors, for example colonialism
Policies of Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, Monarchy, and
Totalitarianism as causes by scholars writing from different
perspectives.
• For example, poorly functioning property rights is seen by some as a
cause of poverty, while socialists see the institution of property rights
itself as a cause of poverty.
58
Causes of poverty
• Lacking free trade. In particular, the very high
subsidies to and protective tariffs for agriculture
in the developed world prevents exports by
more competitive agricultural and other sectors
in the developed world due to retaliatory trade
barriers; and undermines the very type of
industry in which the developing countries do
have comparative advantages.
59
Causes of poverty
Some effects of poverty may also be causes, as listed above,
thus creating a "poverty cycle” and complicating the
subject further:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Increased vulnerability to natural disaster
Hunger and starvation
Human trafficking
Increased risk of political violence; such as war/conflict
Lack of opportunities for employment
Low literacy
Social isolation
Loss of population due to emigration
Increased discrimination
60
The poverty line is defined typically as the
minimum income level required to
purchase
the
socially
determined
essentials for living
The new global poverty line is set at $1.90
 It is specified by a discreet income level
 The poor are defined as those with
incomes at or below the poverty line
 The non-poor are defined as those whose
incomes are above the poverty line
61
 Although rural poverty is a worldwide
problem, the incidence of poverty is
highly uneven among the regions within a
country
 The incidence of poverty varies by social
groups, season, location and region
 Most of the poor live in rural
areas/isolated disaster prone areas where
physical infrastructures are relatively
underdeveloped
62
• The difficulties of having
poverty line is due to:
international
• cultural differences in defining human
needs,
• the availability of differing goods,
• the various types and levels of transfer
payments (welfare, social security)
• the numerous exchange rates and inflation
rates, etc.
• Such
problems,
have
prohibited
the
development of a universally accepted
international poverty line.
63
Absolute poverty
 A condition characterized by severe
deprivation of basic human needs,
including food, safe drinking water,
sanitation facilities, health, shelter,
education and information.
 Inability of households (and individuals) to
command sufficient resources to satisfy
basic needs or a standard of living
 The World Bank defines extreme poverty as
living on less than $US1 per day, and moderate
poverty as less than $2 a day.
64
 lack of minimum income level necessary to
sustain physical existence and to support a
person at the subsistence level of
food,
 shelter,
clothing, and
other necessities
A situation where individuals do not have
access to the basic requirements of life –
food, shelter, clothing.
65
• Indicators of absolute poverty includes life
expectancy, Child mortality, per-capita food
supplies, literacy rate, child labor, trends for
electric power, cars, radios, and telephones
per capita, as well as the proportion of the
population with access to clean water and
health etc. This will happen in developing
country
66
Relative Poverty:
 A situation where individuals are
excluded from being able to take part in
what are considered the normal,
acceptable standards of living in a society.
 It is based on a comparison of poor
people with others in society.
 It will happen developed country
67
Lorenz Curve:
• A curve showing the proportion of national
income earned by a given percentage of
the population
• e.g. what proportion of national income is
earned by the top 10% of the population?
68
69
70
If a person says “ I am living
good life” what does it mean?
( what is good life?)
71
Living a Good life may people reflect
in different ways
Commonly it indicates never ending
satisfaction
72
Wellbeing:
•A contented/satisfied state of being
happy and healthy and prosperous
• It is good or satisfactory condition of
existence
• It is a state characterized by health,
happiness, and prosperity
•Wellbeing is connected to pleasure,
aesthetics, happiness, satisfaction
73
• Well-being can be understood as how people
feel and how they function, both on a personal
and a social level, and how they evaluate their
lives as a whole.
• How people feel: refers to emotions such as
happiness or anxiety.
• How people function: refers to things such as
their sense of competence or their sense of
being connected to those around them.
• How people evaluate their life as a whole is
captured in their satisfaction with their lives, or
how they rate their lives in comparison with the
best possible life.
74
You can think of someone as having high
well-being if they function well, have
positive feelings day-to-day and overall and
think their lives are going well; we call this
‘flourishing’
Similarly, you can think of someone as
having low well-being if they do not
function well and have negative feelings
day- to-day and overall
75
The ‘Potential drivers of well-being’ refers on
the one hand to external things such as
• Income
• Housing
• Education
• Social networks
• Certain ‘internal’ things such as health,
optimism and self-esteem, all of which
influence how people feel and function
76
• Measuring well-being can be done in a number
of ways – there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach.
In general, however, well-being measurement
tends to be based on:
• Individuals Individuals, rather than groups, are
the ‘unit of measurement’, even if we are
ultimately interested in the well-being of a
particular group of people.
• Subjective indicators Subjective, rather than
objective, indicators provide the data.
‘Subjective indicators’ refers to questions which
ask about feelings, experiences and judgements
about life.
77
Rural Poverty in Developing Countries: A case of Ethiopia
• The majorities of the world’s extremely poor
people live in rural areas and have livelihoods
which are bound closely to smallholder
agriculture as farmers, laborers, transporters,
marketers and processors of produce and as
suppliers of non-agricultural services to
households whose income is principally
agriculture-derived
78
• Despite
improvements
and
significant
reductions, rural areas in Ethiopia are extremely
vulnerable to external shocks that may include
climate change, suffering with malnutrition and
hunger, Lack of income and assets to attain basic
necessities, lack of access to education and
other basic services.
• Despite the impressive growth record in recent
years, low levels of income and savings and
productivity in the agricultural sector, limited
implementation capacity, unemployment and a
narrow modern industrial sector base are the
major challenges facing Ethiopia
79
 Paramount among all the social issues
in the rural area is poverty
 Rural population is, being agricultural
with lacking educational facilities,
owned very small acreage of land, they
are poor.
 The problems of poverty have been
explained in many ways.
80
Pathological explanations are those which
attribute poverty to the characteristics or
behavior of poor people. They include:
• Individualistic explanations: Poor people are
assumed to be inadequate, to have made
choices, or to have chosen their lifestyle.
• Familial: Poverty is believed to run in families,
with the transmission of inadequate behavior
from one generation to the next.
• Sub-cultural views: The 'culture of poverty'
suggests that poor people learn to be different,
and 'adapt' to poverty.
81
Structural explanations explain poverty in
terms of the society where it occurs. They
include:
 Class-based explanations: Poverty is the
result of some people's marginality in
relation to the process of economic
production, which limits their life-chances
 'Agency' views: Poverty is attributed to the
failures of public services
82
 Inequality: Poverty is attributed
inequalities in the structure
society, which lead to denial
opportunity and perpetuation
disadvantage
 Examples are the inequalities
income, wealth, race, and gender
to
of
of
of
of
83
Social problems
• Health and Sanitation Conditions: health
and sanitary conditions are poor, disease
are prevalent leading to high mortality
rates which reduces the life expectancy
• Migration: migration from rural to urban
areas has very badly hit the rural areas
demanding for youths and young adults to
continue its agricultural development
84
Social Equity and Poverty Reduction
• Growth and distribution are found to be
important
determinants
of
poverty
eradication
• Justices begins with a presumption of
equality; people should not be treated
differently without a reason
• The need to reduce inequality and poverty
emanates form higher inequality means
slower poverty reduction and higher
insecurity and vulnerability of some social
groups
85
• On the other hand lower inequality
directly contributes to socio-economic
stability, which in turn positive
impacts on reform sustainability ‘‘an
inequitable distribution of the benefits
and costs of development can
eventually
compromise
social
stability’’.
86
Poverty Reduction
The anti-poverty strategy depends heavily on reducing poverty
through the:
• Promotion of economic growth.
An overview of many studies show that:
– Growth is fundamental for poverty reduction, and in
principle growth as such does not affect inequality.
– Growth accompanied by progressive distributional
change is better than growth alone.
– High initial income inequality is a slow down on poverty
reduction.
– Poverty itself is also likely to be a barrier for poverty
reduction; and wealth inequality seems to predict lower
future growth rates. Poverty not only related to food only
it relate education, health
87
Poverty Reduction
• Reduction of barriers to the creation of new businesses, or
reducing barriers for existing business, as having the effect of
bringing more people into the formal economy.
• Improving the social environment and abilities of the poor
– Subsidized education.
– Subsidized health care.
– Assistance in finding employment.
– Subsidized employment
• Encouragement of political participation
• We should improve our education, health job opportunity
etc..
88
Poverty Reduction
Development aid
• Most developed nations give some development aid to
developing nations. The UN target for development aid is
0.7% of GDP; currently only a few nations achieve this.
• Some think-tanks and NGO have argued, however, that
Western monetary aid often only serves to increase poverty
and social inequality, either because it is conditioned with
the implementation of harmful economic policies in the
recipient countries, or because it's tied with the importing of
products from the donor country over cheaper alternatives,
or because foreign aid is seen to be serving the interests of
the donor more than the recipient.
• If we want to reduce poverty it is important to developed
our policies in all aspect
89
Development aid contd.
• Critics also argue that much of the foreign aid
corrupted and that higher aid levels erode the
quality of governance.
• Policy become much more oriented toward
getting more aid money than it does towards
meeting the needs of the people. Supporters
argue that these problems may be solved with
better audit of how the aid is used.
• Some argue that Aid from NGOs may be more
effective than governmental aid; this may be
because it is better controlled at the grassroots
level.
90
Building the Case for Overseas Aid
Helps to overcome the
savings gap + aid can play a
key role in stabilising postconflict environments and in
disaster recovery
Project aid can fast forward
investment in critical
infrastructure projects –
capital deepening effects
+higher productivity
Building a Case
for Overseas Aid
Long term aid for health and
education projects - builds
human capital and stronger
social institutions. Aid
projects for enterprise
Well targeted aid might add
around 0.5% to growth rate
of poorest countries - this
benefits donor countries too
as trade grows
Risks and Costs of Overseas Aid
Poor governance - aid can be
expropriated and leaves
recipient country - aid can
finance corruption / strengths /
locks-in ruling elites
Lack of transparency –
hundreds of $m spent on aid
consultants and developed
country NGOs – many donors
forget cost of maintaining a pet
capital project
Some arguments
against overseas
aid
Dependency culture – one aid
paradox is that aid tends to be
most effective where it is
needed least – it may stunt
entrepreneurial culture
Aid may lead to a distortion of
market forces and a loss of
economic efficiency and risks of
inflation
Dambisa Moyo – Dead Aid
“I have long believed that far from being a
catalyst, foreign aid has been the biggest
single inhibitor of Africa's growth. Among
its shortcomings, aid is correlated with
corruption, fosters dependency, and
invariably instils bureaucracy that hinders
the emergence of an essential
entrepreneurial class.
For Africa to grow in a sustained way,
foreign aid will have to be dramatically
reduced over time, forcing countries to
adopt more transparent strategies to
finance development.”
Source: Independent, March 2009
Moyo’s Approach
“In five years, all aid to Africa must stop. In its place, African
nations will need to implement new policies including microloans, improved remittances and formalised domestic savings
schemes, as well as, internationally, improving foreign direct
investment, borrowing responsibly and securing more
equitable trading arrangements with the west.”
Source: Dambisa Moyo, Dead Aid
Sovereign
Wealth
Funds
Formalised
domestic savings
Remittanc
es from
Diaspora
MicroFinance
More equitable
trade flows
Different types of aid
•
•
•
•
•
Bi-lateral aid: From one country to another
Multi-lateral aid: Channelled through international bodies
Project aid: Direct financing of projects for a donor country
Technical assistance: Funding of expertise of various types
Humanitarian aid: Emergency disaster relief, food aid, refugee
relief and disaster preparedness
• Soft loans: A loan made to a country on a concessionary basis
with a lower rate of interest
• Tied aid: The aid is tied to the goods/service/projects i.e. to
be used from suppliers in the donor country
• Debt relief – e.g. cancellation, rescheduling, refinancing or reorganisation of a country’s external debts
Poverty Reduction
Other Approaches
• Another method in helping to fight poverty is to have
commodity exchange that will supply necessary
information about national and perhaps international
markets to the poor who would then know what
products and where it is sold will bring better profits
• The poverty reduction strategy papers recommends the
following--- to help eradication of poverty worldwide it
needs intervention in the areas of housing, food,
education, basic health, agricultural inputs, safe drinking
water, transportation and communications
97
The poverty reduction
Commercialization of Smallholders economic activity /production play a
critical role in the livelihoods of the poor
• Production of food staples provides the rural poorest with most of
their work, income, consumption and calories (70-80% of the calorie
needs of the extreme poor).
• becomes increasingly important because successful development can
release land, labour and skills for other specializations.
• Widening market access and liberalization increasingly allow rural
people to escape poverty through both staples and non staples
production and exchange
• Critical in this process are non-farm assets and skills and infrastructure
and institutions that help small units to maintain market access in
globalization
98
The poverty reduction
Reducing
poverty requires better allocation and
distribution of water to increase the output of staples.
• Eg. horticulture create much employment income for
the poor, but is heavy users of water. Many dry lands
already suffer from severe water stress
• Groundwater tables are falling and surface water may
become scarcer due to climate change
• There is also heavy pressure to divert water to urban
areas and industrial uses. Securing more efficient water
use, and increasing availability and quality for the rural
poor is a major challenge
99
The poverty reduction
Achieving the poverty target requires redistribution
in favor of the rural poor
• Economic growth alone in many countries will not
be sufficient to reduce poverty.
• In some very poor countries, too many people are
too deeply poor.
• In some middle-income countries, initial inequality
is too great. In such cases, the poor must acquire
higher shares, access and control of appropriate
assets (land, water and other appropriate assets),
institutions, technologies and markets.
100
The poverty reduction
Disadvantaged groups – and women need special attention.
• Redressing/compensate disadvantage for women, ethnic minorities,
people living in semi-arid areas helps the efficient use of anti-poverty
resources – schools, land, water – as well as fairness.
• Women especially need direct influence over resources and policies.
Participatory and decentralized methods are effective
• Participatory and decentralized management secures democratic
control, develops human potential and often improves the cost
effectiveness of a range of actions through microfinance, to rural
schools and public works programme
• However, from experiences with common resource management and
without special measures, decentralization alone will not secure
participation of the rural poor.
101
The poverty reduction
Labor-intensive approaches are appropriate to rural poverty
reduction.
• Capital is scarce in low-income countries and land is scarce in
more and more of them.
• Developing countries, with high ratios of labour to capital,
also gain more from market liberalization if they encourage
labour-intensive production
• Employment intensive policies, technologies and institutions
usually help both economic growth and poverty reduction,
since the poor can usually offer only their labour.
• Thus, subsidies to labour-displacing capital, like tractors, can
harm the poor.
102
The poverty reduction
Better access to assets by the poor
• For the sustainable development of rural areas, the rural
poor must have (i) legally secure entitlement to assets –
land, water, credit, information and technology – and
human assets like health, child nutrition, education and
skills; and (ii) access to markets
• An asset is typically pro-poor if it is labour-intensive, helps
build marketable skills, is accessible by women and
minorities, has low seasonal and annual variation and
risk, and focuses on producing items that loom large in
poor people’s budgets, such as staple foods.
• Small and divisible assets are easier for the poor to
acquire and manage.
103
The poverty reduction
How asset building help poverty eradication
Access to Assets is Effective in bringing quick relief from
poverty.
• Assets empower the rural poor by increasing their incomes,
increasing their reserves against shocks and increasing the
choices they have to escape from harsh or exploitative
conditions – their ‘exit options’
• The poor can gain from assets directly by owning or renting
them and indirectly through the growth and employment
that assets make possible
• But assets alone, without adequate technology, institutions
and markets, or the political or economic power to obtain
them, are of limited value to the poor
104
The poverty reduction
How asset building help poverty eradication
Improving the assets of the rural poor promotes efficiency
by stimulating higher productivity and economic growth
• Rural assets, more than urban assets, are more efficient
when operated on a small scale and labour-intensively
• The benefits of assets strongly reinforce one another
• The poor gain more from some improvement in health,
nutrition and schooling than from a lot of one and none
of the others.
• Such human assets do more for a poor person if he/she
also has some farm or non-farm assets and his/her
productivity is rising.
105
The poverty reduction
How asset building help poverty eradication
Important assets, bias against women harm the
poor
• The gaps between men and women’s access to
education and literacy are huge. These gaps are
greater in rural areas and greatest for the rural
poor.
• Eg Women’s lower adoption of agricultural
innovations, poor child health and nutrition
• Additional human capital for poor rural women
and girls could create a virtuous circle of higher
income and better health and education
106
The poverty reduction
Land Reform
• Land is the main asset of agricultural households in
developing countries and is a key determinant of
household welfare.
• Most land is used for agricultural production,
which provides the basis for economic sustenance.
• Access to land plays an important role in improving
agricultural productivity, achieving sustainable
poverty reduction, and creating broader economic
development.
• This overview provides a rationale for investments
in land administration and reform
107
The poverty reduction
Land Reform
Land redistribution is crucial to getting more assets to the
rural poor
• Highly unequal land ownership reduces and diverts its
benefits away from the rural poor
• Most of the rural poor depend on usually little farmland.
Land reform to create small, not-too-unequal family farms is
often cost-effective in reducing poverty
• Reformed land-allocation systems have significantly raised
women’s control over land. Such empowerment reduces
their vulnerability within the household.
108
The poverty reduction
Access to water
• The poverty reducing Green Revolution was largely confined to water-controlled
lands.
• Poverty has fallen fast in East and South Asia, in large part because of irrigation;
in sub-Saharan Africa, where rural poverty persists and agriculture is stagnating,
less farmland is irrigated.
• Water control is also vital for adequate and healthy drinking water and
sanitation. Yet the rural and the poor have even less access to water control
than to land.
• Climatic and economic developments threaten many rural people – especially
the poor – and their food production with growing water stress.
• Improving this depends partly on redistributing water-yielding assets and partly
on incentives to use assets that save water by using labour.
• Small, divisible, farmer-controlled water supply systems benefit the poor most,
user participation in design, management and maintenance are proven keys to
asset efficiency.
109
The poverty reduction
Improving human assets
Improving human assets
•
Better health, education and nutrition help the escape from rural poverty by raising the
income and food production of farmers and workers in low-income areas
•
In these roles, human assets complement others: if the economy, physical capital,
technology and employment stagnate, extra human assets for the poor may simply shift
income among them
•
Moreover, while education, health and nutrition assets in developing countries have
been improving unevenly and often slowly, the huge rich-poor and urban-rural
disparities have widened
•
Investing in improving the human assets of the rural poor, especially women, is usually
cost-effective, partly because of mutual reinforcement among better health, nutrition
and learning and smaller families, less poverty and higher productivity.
110
The poverty reduction
Improving human assets
• Education improves child health, education and
nutrition. The rising proportion of women farmers
increases these prospects.
• Nutrition improvement raises subsequent learning,
productivity and wage rates and cuts the risk of
income loss due to illness: it does most for the worstoff.
• The rural poor’s gains from improved health can
depend on complementary nutrition and schooling.
• Decentralized responsibility for asset formation in
health, education and nutrition increases returns to
the poor.
111
The poverty reduction
Improving human assets
Education
• Education speeds up the adoption of productive
new technologies, often bringing large productivity
and income gains for small farmers and farm
workers.
• In Thailand, four years’ education triples the
chance that a farmer will use new chemical
fertilizers; educated farmers in India are more likely
to use credit, irrigation and improved seeds.
• This matters most during rapid change, as with the
early Green Revolution in Punjab, Indian
112
The poverty reduction
Improving human assets
Health and nutrition
• Acute illness especially handicaps the rural poor from
increasing their incomes, learning and escaping poverty.
• They are also vulnerable to chronic illness and injury due
to unfavorable working, living and water sanitation
environments and to low nutritional assets, such as height
and lean body mass. Shortages of calories substantially
reduced the productivity of rural workers
• For rural labourers in Sri Lanka, wages rose by 0.21% for
each 1% rise in calorie intake.
• Anemia has been found to reduce productivity and iron
supplementation to raise it.
113
The poverty reduction
Improving Other assets
Livestock, especially small stock, can be crucial to
income.
• Cattle ownership is often heavily skewed against
the poor and women.
• Poverty reduction is advanced by refocusing
livestock public-goods provision on small stock;
• by reducing barriers to large stock ownership by
the poor; and by furthering the practices by
which the poor control and manage livestock
114
The poverty reduction
Improving Other assets
• Housing assets of the rural poor are often even
worse than for the urban poor, yet almost all
habitat policy is urban.
• The rural poor’s dwellings need frequent repair.
• Traditional materials are getting scarcer and need
research on better durability and access.
• Public works can include off-season work in small
local firms to test new house designs.
• Redistribution and service support for rural siteand-service and home gardens may also be
feasible.
115
The poverty reduction
Improving Other assets
• Transport and communications assets are often
unsuitable for private or joint producer control by
the poor.
• But the poor’s weak access as consumers and
producers carries huge handicaps and costs, both
in market access and, especially for women, in
domestic and inter-village farm, fuel and water
transport.
• Non-motorized vehicles can greatly cut such costs
and are easily maintained.
116
The poverty reduction
Improving Non-farm activities
• Poor households typically have diverse sources of livelihood, both to
reduce risk and to provide income in slack farming seasons and bad
times.
• While farming and hired farm labour usually remain the main
occupations, the rural non-farm sector (RNFS) is becoming
increasingly important as a source of income and employment for the
poor.
• The RNFS now accounts for some 40% of rural employment in Asia
and is growing over twice as fast as farm employment.
• The share of rural employment has increased rapidly in Latin America;
in Brazil and Ecuador it reached at least 30%.
• The proportion of rural incomes earned from RNFS has also increased
in most cases, averaging 45% in 25 African country case studies;
• The proportion is higher for poor than non-poor households in many
places like India, Pakistan or Mexico,
• in Africa the RNFS share in non-poor incomes may be twice that of
the poor.
117
The poverty reduction
Improving Non-farm activities
• Rural non-farm work is more labour-intensive, lower-skilled, stable
and thus pro-poor than urban non-farm work
• But the sorts of RNFS growth that reduce poverty usually work best
where farm income, and thus local consumer demand, grows too
• RNFS growth is most likely to cut poverty if it is based on successful
farmers and their employees, who demand booming services like
construction, trade and transport
• Most traditional kinds of rural non-farm work, reflecting family skills,
shortage of land or the need to diversify against seasonal
unemployment or annual drought risk, is linked to poverty, so
should not be neglected; but modern, linkage-based RNFS is a more
promising way out of poverty
118
The poverty reduction
Improving Non-farm activities
• Usually, poverty-reducing growth of the modern RNFS is
more likely to arise from widely shared agricultural
growth that generates rising demand for local RNFS
activity and from interventions to provide the poor with
appropriate skills, education and competitive nearby
credit, rather than with physical non-farm assets.
• The history of subsidies for assets in the RNFS suggests
that government intervention seldom succeeds in
targeting gains on the poor: rural ‘industrial estates ’have
a long history of failure and often subsidize medium
entrepreneurs against tiny, poor competitors.
119
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Improving Non-farm activities
• In remote areas, high transport costs can provide natural
protection for RNFS, making it potentially profitable.
• Also, RNFS income can be a source of savings for farm
investment. Yet RNFS itself seems often to need outside
credit more than farm investment does:
• Indian districts with good branch bank networks show
faster growth in RNFS, but not in agriculture.
• Often RNFS profit levels are dependent on local farm
production, forward and backward linkages to agroindustry and especially ‘consumption linkages’ to higher
incomes
• Roads and communications, as well as bank
infrastructure, often affect inputs and marketing more for
RNFS than for farms.
120
The poverty reduction
Improving Non-farm activities
• Yet the modern, dynamic, RNFS sub-sectors, such as
construction, transport and shops, seldom prosper where
agriculture is stagnant.
• Traditional crafts and services are most likely to engage
large proportions of the rural poor, keeping them alive if
not lifting them out of poverty.
• Policy should avoid undermining these sectors
• But artificial support for traditional crafts is doomed,
especially as competition from modern urban sectors and
imports is liberalized
• The best prospect is offered by appropriate regulatory
and credit frameworks, public support for training and
other measures to revitalize RNFS by upgrading assets in
very small units for the rural poor.
121
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Technology is crucial in reducing rural poverty
• In 1965-85, much of Asia and Central America
experienced the Green Revolution: a big technology shift
that increased yields in rice, wheat and maize, enhanced
employment and brought about a rapid fall in poverty.
But these effects have since slowed down.
• Technical progress has bypassed hundreds of millions of
poor people – many of the remaining hard-core poor – in
specific regions (including most of Africa), agro-ecologies
(dry land, upland) and products (Millet, sorghum,
cassava, small stock).
• Recent scientific advance brings new prospects for
reigniting and spreading to laggard areas and crops the
technical progress that can reduce poverty and conserve
resources.
122
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Technology is crucial in reducing rural poverty
Bio-agricultural technology: potentials and priorities
• In bio-agricultural research – whether classical or new – the
goals must be employment-intensive but result in sustainable
yield growth in ‘lead’areas and in spreading progress to
neglected regions and main staples. For this to happen, publicsector funding of agricultural research must be revived and
research redirected towards yield enhancement, stabilization
and sustainability.
• Also needed is much more public-sector research into
transgenic food staples, with traits prioritized in genuine
consultation with labour-intensive smallholders. This means
attracting scientists and research, now increasingly locked into
a few large science-based companies, towards traits and crops
that are relevant to the poor.
123
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Technology is crucial in reducing rural poverty
• Transgenic have proved their potential ,e.g. in virus
resistance in sweet potatoes in Kenya, rice yield
enhancement in China
• insertion of genes for expressing pro-vitamin-A into
the rice endosperm. Rice otherwise lacks such
genes.
• Insertion of genes from other sources may offer the
only plausible option for advance in poor people’s
and poor areas’ crops such as millet, where the
genome, being adapted to robust survival in fragile
and infertile conditions, offers limited opportunities
for yield enhancement.
124
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Technology is crucial in reducing rural poverty
• Transgenic crops and animals have triggered justified
public demand for open, participatory systems, involving
farmers and consumers in scientific decision-procedures
that effectively regulate food safety and the
environmental impact of introduced varieties, species
and foods.
• To realize the huge potential of transgenic, especially for
areas hitherto little affected by research, requires big
changes in the criteria and incentives now guiding the
allocation, use and civil-society overview of scientific
resources.
• Public/private
and
donor-agency/civil-society
partnership action is urgent, especially for those
developing countries that have limited scientific capacity
yet are heavily dependent on food staples yield growth
125
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Technology is crucial in reducing rural poverty
Technologies for land and water management
• Technical choices are crucial to solving the water
crisis that increasingly threatens many rural poor
people.
• Agriculture is being pressed in most developing
countries to ‘use’ less water, but, with appropriate
drainage and recycling, water used need not be
used up.
• With proper incentives and user institutions, water
can be efficiently conveyed and used in ways that
promote employment.
126
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Technology is crucial in reducing rural poverty
• Despite justified pressure for water economy, in many
places more irrigation is needed. Africa’s slow progress
in agriculture and in reducing rural poverty, compared
with Asia’s, has much to do with lack of water control
(only 1-5% of cropland irrigated, as against 30-35%).
• Farmer controlled, small-scale irrigation can benefit the
poor.
• Larger irrigation schemes in Africa have a mixed and
often weak record, but some of the difficulties have
subside.
• Major improvement in water availability, timing and
management is essential for rapid progress against rural
poverty. That may require advances in water research
and some major irrigation.
127
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
The rural poor need better access to markets
• Most of the rural poor already participate in markets
for labour, food, farm and non-farm inputs and credit.
• But poor people often face very high physical and
transactions costs, which restrict trade, specialization
and growth.
• Such costs can range from poor or absent roads to
marketing- monophony.
• Almost everywhere, remote and ill-connected rural
people are poorer.
• But there are many cases of poor -remote people –
separated by terrain, not distance, from nearby markets
– whose welfare increased greatly when improved
access to such markets allowed trade and exchange.
128
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
The rural poor need better access to markets
• But physical access is not just about access to roads.
• Even if the rural poor or the remote have roads, their lack of
choice among modes of transportation and other forms of
market access can impose large transactions or institutional
costs.
• Unlike the non-poor, the poor often have no alternative but
to be exploited by private traders and marketing boards.
• A decentralized solution is marketing cooperatives, to bulk up
for purchase or sale; but these depend for success on mutual
trust.
• Regulation to control adulteration, weights and marketrigging/control can be useful. Improving market institutions is
often a necessary complement to liberalization, to better
prices on poor rural people.
129
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
The rural poor need better access to markets
• Maintenance of rural roads can have important
effects on incomes and livelihoods of the rural
poor.
• Market expansion associated with road
maintenance resulted in an increase in food
services, bicycle repair services and carts on
roadsides.
• In Chile during the public employment schemes in
poor rural areas, including maintaining roads,
provided significant contributions to household
income, reducing poverty and inequality.
130
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
The rural poor need better access to markets
• The poor can share in the benefits flowing from
globalization: as independent producers, as contracted
producers or out growers, or as employees working in
large commercial agricultural or agribusiness enterprises.
• Globalization brings new opportunities for small farmers.
• It links product sales increasingly to exports to rich
countries and to supermarkets, abroad and at home.
• This linkage is especially important in the booming
horticultural sector, which is in principle ideal for small
labor-intensive farms. This imposes on farmers a range of
requirements, like uniform product appearance, pesticide
rules and restrictions on child labour.
131
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
The rural poor need better access to markets
• The cost to farmers of meeting these requirements,
and to buyers of supervising them, is initially much
higher on small farms, whose economic advantages
could be undermined by agricultural globalization.
• Institutional remedies to these problems need to
be stimulated and supported. It can be done: such
solutions are emerging and donors can work with
NGOs and cooperatives, as well as governments, to
increase the bargaining power of the poor through
trade and marketing associations.
• Despite globalization, farms are not becoming
larger on average.
132
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Decentralization of institutions to benefit the rural poor
• The distribution of benefits between rich and poor,
urban and rural, men and women, depends on
institutions: rules (customary or legal) such as
those affecting the division of inherited land or
landlord/tenant shares in a sharecropping
arrangement ETC .
• But they are largely excluded from the institutions
and partnerships that can enable them to share
and control the decisions that affect their lives.
This is because institutions often tend to be
controlled by the powerful non-poor & men
133
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Decentralization of institutions to benefit the rural poor
• All efforts to benefit the poor through institutional
reform face a deep problem.
• Institutions are usually created and run in the interests
of the powerful.
• The power may come under political, economic cultural,
or ethical pressure.
• The problem for current modes of top-down institutional
devolution, decentralization and participation are that
rural ‘big men’ tend to run local institutions in their own
interests.
• change in social and economic relations, and changes
in institutions that give the poor more control over
their environment
134
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Building a global partnership among the stakeholders
• develop and foster genuine cooperation, good
governance and a policy framework in which the rural
poor in developing countries can participate.
• The rural poor need partnerships to support their own
initiatives,
• Effective coordination among donors and partnership
with governments is necessary to make external support
consistent, overlapping and duplication between the
multiple activities of donors have strained country’s
institutional and management capacity
135
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Building a global partnership among the stakeholders
• To be successful, global initiatives to forge coalitions and
partnerships among and with developing countries must
be driven by countries themselves.
• Each government has to be responsible for country
policy.
• History shows that imposed conditionality in aid and antipoverty planning seldom works.
• So participating governments have agreed to draw up
national poverty partnerships with civil-society agencies,
to be used by the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund.
• Eg. MDG & SD targets on poverty, health, education and
gender equality
136
The challenges facing rural poverty Eradication
Building a global partnership among the stakeholders
• Moreover, the poor themselves have to seize
responsibility, as agents, for their own
development: the poor, not just an abstract
‘development partners’, which can be biased
towards the urban, the rich and the strong
• The key issue is whether the poor have room for
maneuver/lead by capturing particular local or
central institutions, or by forming coalitions with
some of the strong
137
INDICATORS AND MEASUREMENT OF FOOD SECURITY
1) Individual intake: This is a measure of the number of calories or
nutrients consumed by individual in a given time period usually 24
hours
2) Household caloric acquisition: This measure produces a crude
estimate of number of calories available for consumption in the
household for a period of 7 or 14 days 1750 Kcal/ 2100 Kcal/
3) Indices of household coping strategy: This is an index based on
how households adapt to the presence or threat of food shortages
138
Individual Food Intake Data
Method for generating these data
• There are two basic approaches used to collect these data. The
first is observational. An enumerator resides in the household
throughout the entire day, measuring the amount of food
served to each person, and the amount of food prepared but
not consumed ("plate waste") is also measured. In addition,
the enumerator notes the type and quantity of food eaten as
snacks between meals as well as food consumed outside the
household
The second method is recall.
• The enumerator interviews each household member regarding
the food they consumed in the previous 24-hour period.
• This covers the type of food consumed, the amount consumed,
food eaten as snacks and meals outside the household.
139
Household Caloric Acquisition
• This is the number of calories, or nutrients,
available for consumption by household
members over a defined period of time.
Description
• The principal person responsible for
preparing meals is asked how much food
she prepared over a period of time. After
accounting for processing, this is turned
into a measure of the calories available for
consumption by the household.
140
Method for generating these data
• A set of questions regarding food prepared for
meals over a specified period of time, usually
either 7 or 14 days, is asked to the person in
the household most knowledgeable about this
activity.
In constructing these questions, the following
considerations should be borne in mind: it is
extremely important that the list of foods
specified in the questionnaire is detailed and
exhaustive
141
Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS):
defined as the number of food groups
consumed by any member of the household
over a reference time period of 24 hours
HDDS International Food Policy Research
Institute (IFPRI) proposal
6+ good dietary diversity
4.5-6 medium dietary diversity
≤4.5 low dietary diversity
142
Cost of basic needs: It estimates the cost of
acquiring enough food for adequate
nutrition—usually 2,100 Calories per person
per day—and then adds the cost of other
essentials such as
 Clothing and shelter
• Food cost and
• None food cost
• FC +NFC=CBN
143
The Household Hunger Scale (HHS)
• The HHS is built around 3 questions about perceptions of a
household on varying degrees of hunger:
• In the past 30 days, was there ever no food of any kind to
eat in your house because of lack of resources to get
food?
• In the past 30 days, did you or any household member go to
sleep at night hungry because there was not enough
food?
• In the past 30 days did you or any household member go a
whole day and night without eating anything at all
because there was not enough food?
144
Household Hunger Scale (HHS)
• Three scoring options for scoring the response to each
question are:
• Never (0 times) =0 score
• Rarely/Sometimes (1-10 times) = 1 score
• Often (more than 10 times) =2 scores
• The total HHS ranges from 0 to maximum 6 score.
The following thresholds of HHS are used
0-1 score: None or light hunger
2-3 scores: Moderate hunger
4-6 scores: Severe hunger
145
Methods and indicators
nutritional status
for
measuring
• The nutritional status of an individual is often
the result of many inter-related factors
• It is influenced by food intake, quantity &
quality, & physical health
• Anthropometry is the measurement of body
height, weight & proportions
146
Anthropometric methods
• It is an essential component of clinical examination
of infants, children & pregnant women
• Anthropometric measures are used to assess the
nutritional status of individuals and population
groups, and as eligibility criteria for nutrition
support programs
Common anthropometric measures are
• Height,
• Weight and
• Mid upper arm circumference (MUAC)
147
height-for-age (HFA),
weight-for-age (WFA),
weight-for-height (WFH), and
MUAC-for-age.
148
1.Underweight: Low birth weight at birth of < 2500
grams
2. Stunting: Children who suffer from growth
retardation as a result of poor diets or
recurrent infections.
3. Wasting: a situation where a child has failed to
achieve sufficient weight for height
4. Overweight: Childhood obesity is associated with a
higher probability of obesity in adulthood
5. Body mass index /BMI/ is a simple index of weight-toheight commonly used to classify underweight,
overweight and obesity in adults.
149
BMI is defined as the weight in kilograms divided
by the square of the height in meters (kg/ M2)
• BMI < 17.0 indicates moderate and severe
thinness
• BMI < 18.5 indicates underweight
• BMI 18.5–24.9 indicates normal weight
• BMI ≥ 25.0 indicates overweight
• BMI ≥ 30.0 indicates obesity (grade 2 obesity)
BMI >40 =Very obese (morbid or grade 3 obesity)
150
The Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI)
 The Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI) ranks
governments on their political commitment to tackling hunger and
under nutrition
 HRCI compares and ranks the performance of 45 developing
countries based on 22 indicators of political commitment.
Indicators under three themes
 Laws (Legal frameworks – for example the level of
constitutional protection of the right to food)
 Policies (government programs and policies – for example
the extent to which nutrition features in national development
policies/strategies)
 Spending (public expenditures – for example the percentage
of government budgets spent on agriculture)
151
Ethiopia: Existing rates of:
Stunting: 40.4%
Wasting: 8.7% Proportion of population
Underweight: 25.2%.
As a result, it is ranked 22 out of 45 developing
countries and still considered as a country of
low commitment
152
The head-count ratio (HC)
• The headcount ratio (HC) is the simplest way
of measuring poverty. It gives the percentage
of population which is not above the poverty
line. It can be formally defined as : P/N :
where P is the number of poor people (those
below a poverty line z) and n is total
population.
153
The Poverty Gap (PG)
• For any individual, the poverty gap may be defined as the
distance between the poverty line z and his/her own
income y.
• Aggregating individual poverty gaps for all poor
individuals, gives the aggregate poverty gap:
PG= Σ=(z-yi)
• where P is the number of poor individuals (and not the size
of total population!). A refined version of the poverty gap
normalizes expression over the maximum amount of money
that would be needed to wipe out poverty.
• The intuition is simple. As z represents the minimum
individual income for which an individual is not considered
poor, the product of this income with the number of poor
individuals P gives the amount of money that is necessary
to eradicate poverty.
154
Class activity
Compare and contrast the different
measurements of food security
155
Food security analysis for decision-making
What can, and should, be done?
Decision-makers at all levels need accurate information on:
• who is food insecure,
• how many,
• where they live,
• why they are food insecure.
They also need to understand the nature of the food insecurity:
the duration and severity of the problem, and the vulnerability to
future food insecurity.
156
FOOD SECUTIRY ANALYSIS
In practice, measuring and analyzing food security is technically
challenging. Data on various food security dimensions is still
scarce and poorly integrated.
Food security is a complex concept: no one indicator can
adequately describe who is food secure and who is not.
Hence, decision makers will need complementary and
multiple methods to assess the incidence of food insecurity
in different contexts.
157
FOOD SECUTIRY ANALYSIS
Example of method
Prevalence of undernourishment
A widely-used indicator for food insecurity is the head
count of persons undernourished or deprived of food
used by FAO.
This estimate is made at the national level and is most
useful for inter-country comparisons and measuring
progress towards global hunger targets. However, it is
less useful for developing detailed national food
security policies and programs.
It is a measure of energy deficiency (not enough food)
and does not say anything about food quality
158
FOOD SECUTIRY ANALYSIS
Example of method:
Household Food Economy
The household food economy approach uses a
model to estimate who is at risk of future food
insecurity.
The HFE method has mainly been used to assess
food crises, where temporary shocks have left
large numbers of people food insecure.
It has not been widely applied to assess chronic
food insecurity.
159
FOOD SECUTIRY ANALYSIS
The results of food security assessments are often
presented geographically.
Maps are useful to summarize:
• The number and location of food insecure
people;
• The duration and severity of the problem;
and
• The estimated incidence of food insecurity.
160
FOOD SECUTIRY ANALYSIS
Maps are useful to summarize contd.
•advocate and raise awareness of the need for action;
• gauge the severity of the problem and the urgency
of response required;
• determine the
assessments;
need
for
further
detailed
• target the available resources to those most in need;
• monitor changes over time and adjust interventions
accordingly; and
• evaluate the impact of interventions.
161
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
In order to plan appropriate
interventions decision makers need to
appreciate why people are food
insecure, by understanding underlying
causes.
Example
For example, we may know that a certain population is malnourished.
However, this information alone would not help to guide a decision on
whether it is appropriate to improve:
• food availability (e.g. by a food fortification/re- enforcement campaign),
• food access (e.g. by providing cash transfers),
• care practices (e.g. by nutritional education), or
• the health environment (e.g. through a vaccination campaign).
162
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
Frameworks are tools to improve our
understanding of complex realities,
processes and linkages, often through an
illustration of these complexities in a
simplified diagram.
Different frameworks have been produced to help understand links
among various food security dimensions, while also explaining
linkages with underlying causes and outcomes, as well as related
concepts and terms.
A food security conceptual framework also presents itself as a useful
tool for conducting food security analysis.
163
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
Causality model of malnutrition
(originally developed by UNICEF in 1990)
164
Undernutrition
Immediate
causes
Underlying
causes
Basic causes
Inadequate food
Disease
intake
Household
food
insecurity
Poor social
and care
practices
Poor Public
Health
Formal and informal infrastructure/
political ideology/resources
165
Source: UNICEF conceptual framework
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
FAO- framework
NATIONAL, SUBNATIONAL AND COMMUNITY LEVEL
Socio-economic, Political,
Institutional, Cultural and
Natural Environment
Food Economy
(vulnerability context)
Population
Education
Macro-economy including
foreign trade
import capacity
Basic services
Market conditions
Technology
Household Food
Access
food stocks, food aid
Care Practices
Stability
weather variability
price fluctuations
political factors
economic factors
Climate
Child care
Feeding practices
Nutritional knowledge
Food preparation
Eating habits
Intra-household food
distribution
Civil strife
Household characteristics
Livelihoods systems
Social institutions
Cultural attitudes and gender
Access to Food
poverty
purchasing power, income,
transport and market
infrastructure
INDIVIDUALS
Household
Livelihood
Strategies, Assets
& Activities
Food Availability
domestic production
Policies and laws
Natural resources endowment
HOUSEHOLDS
Health and Sanitation
Health care practices
Hygiene, Sanitation
Water quality
Food safety & quality
Food
Consumption
Energy intake
Nutrient intake
Consumption
Status
Nutritional
Status
Food
Utilisation
by the
Body
Health
status
166
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
Any conceptual framework is a simplification of reality.
Each framework brings important and differing aspects of food
security analysis to the fore.
The frameworks vary in what they highlight. They also vary in their
complexity.
Despite the differences these frameworks have much in common: they
recognize the many causes of the problem, the multiple ways that these
may interact in specific circumstances and the heterogeneity of the
problem.
167
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
Issues which lead to food security of households and
individuals in countries are numerous and span a
range of sectors. Each factor impacts on household
and individual food security in different ways.
The relative importance of these factors in
determining food security varies across households,
locations and over time.
A well defined conceptual framework is critical for:
• identifying appropriate entry points for the
design of interventions; and
• assisting in the interpretation of food security
indicators.
168
Achieving food security for all at all times remains a major global challenge.
Where food insecurity problems remain, there may be severe consequences.
Concerns over food insecurity and hunger have generated global debate and have
resulted in well-defined political commitment to reduce food insecurity through
agreed-upon targets. However, progress has been disappointing.
Improved food security information and analysis can accelerate progress:
Firstly, it is important to measure the incidence and nature of food insecurity; this
information helps prioritize action to address food insecurity, target interventions
and monitor progress; however, measurement is technically challenging and great
care is needed in selecting and interpreting indicators.
Secondly, it is important to understand the causes of food insecurity; you should
now understand how various conceptual frameworks – specifically the food
security, malnutrition and sustainable livelihoods frameworks – can help with this
analysis; an understanding of the underlying problems is a first step in selecting
appropriate interventions.
169
Situations affects availability/access/utilisation
of food
• A severe drought can reduce a harvest or kill livestock.
• Pipeline break in food assistance
• High market prices of important food products
• Shortage of seeds or fertilisers
• Lack of nutritional knowledge causes people to have an inadequate diet or
cause extensive vitamin loss during preparation.
• A broken bridge can hamper access to food or trade markets.
• Some strong cultural beliefs prevent people from eating certain healthy food
products
170
• High
medical fees can reduce household budget for
food.
• Unsafe drinking water can cause chronic diarrhoea and
result in decreased absorption of nutrients.
• Conflict can ruin a social welfare system or reduce
charity
• A locust infestation can diminish food stocks or ruin
harvests
• High number of people unemployed
171
Overview on theories of food security
• Many theories have been advanced on the
explanations of food shortages that can happen at
various geographical scales ranging from global to
individual levels.
• The Food Availability Decline (FAD) theory is the
earliest model that argues food insecurity
happens when something wrong happens to food
supply (Millman & Kates 1990, Devereux 1993).
172
…..theories of food security
• The ‘Food Entitlement Decline’ (FED) being
advanced by Sen (1981) with the central
argument that, food shortage becomes a matter
of ‘lack of access’, that is, the inability to produce
or purchase food due to entitlement failure.
173
…..theories of food security
• Disaster Theory - A theory that considers food
shortage as a disaster (Blaikie et al. 1994) has two
variants: Pressure and Release Model and Access
Model.
• Pressure and Release Model aims at showing how
vulnerable people are affected by natural hazards.
• The model consists of two main components.
‘Vulnerability’ on the human/social side, and the
other is a natural event, which is termed ‘hazard’
(Blaikie et al. 1994).
• A hazard is a situation where there is a threat to life,
health, environment or property.
• A disaster is an event that completely disrupts the
normal ways of a community.
174
…..theories of food security
• Access model examines detailed processes and
events involved in household livelihoods.
• Access to resources, and some factors that make
households vulnerable to famine/food shortage.
175
…..theories of food security
• The ‘Sustainable Livelihood Framework’ (SLF)
looks at food insecurity as an outcome of
undesirable/vulnerable livelihoods (Davies 1996,
Carney 1998, Pretty 1998, Scoones 1998, Ellis
2000).
176
…..theories of food security
• According to SLF, the interactions among
vulnerability context, access to various forms of
assets, the institutions and organizational
framework in place and the livelihood activities
and strategies households/individuals peruse
affect livelihood outcomes whether it is desirable
(attaining food security) or undesirable (failure to
attain food security/becoming food insecure).
177
Livelihoods and Food and nutrition
security programs
step 1
situation
analysis
step 5 Monitoring
and evaluation
Step 4 Institutional
arrangements,
partnerships and
coordination
Step 2 Defining
project objectives
and impact
indicators
Step 3 Selection of
target areas and
beneficiaries
178
Step 1. Situation analysis
Questions:
• What is the prevalence of malnutrition/ food
security
• Chronic malnutrition/stunting.
• Micronutrient deficiencies
• Overweight among children and adults.
• Underweight among women.
• Are there any seasonal or gender patterns
• Are certain geographical areas more affected than
others?
179
Situation ….Food consumption
patterns and dietary needs
– What are the most commonly eaten foods in the local
diet?
– Are breastfeeding and complementary feeding
practices for children under two years of age
adequate?
– Are pregnant and lactating women able to meet their
heightened dietary needs?
– Do any cultural practices and food taboos limit
consumption of certain foods by particular groups or
individuals?
• Are food consumption patterns changing?
180
Situation ….Food availability and
seasonality
Questions:
• What foods are produced in the area, and during which
season?
• Are there times of food scarcity; if so, for which foods
and for how long?
• What foods are most commonly available in the
markets, stores and from street vendors? How does
availability vary by season?
• What foods are typically purchased and what are the
main constraints?
• Are foods stored and/or processed to increase
availability throughout the year?
181
Situation ….
• Household access to food
• Gender and care practices
• Access to productive assets and marketing
opportunities: equity issues
• Policy frameworks and regulations
182
Step 2 Defining project objectives
and impact indicators
Questions:
• What is/are the programme’s main objective(s)?
• What specific nutrition objectives are relevant to
the nutrition problems that have been identified
during the situation appraisal
– What nutrition indicators can be used to measure the
achievement of these objectives? Are baselines
available that allow you to set realistic targets?
– Which factors, if measured, would help to attribute
any changes in nutrition to project activities SMART
183
Step 3 Selection of target areas and
beneficiaries
Questions:
• Who will benefit from the programme?- women, children,
community?
• If vulnerable households are not the main beneficiaries, are there
possibilities for them to benefit indirectly from the programme?
• How is the project or investment expected to reach women of child
bearing age and young children?
• Is it possible that the intervention may benefit one group while
harming another?
• Are there special considerations for indigenous peoples? Tribal
communities? Peoples who live on the borders.
• Are target groups also part of other programmes or interventions in
the area? Could group meetings be combined or synergized in any
way? The problem of equity-184
Step 4 Institutional arrangements,
partnerships and coordination
• Have the partners/stakeholders/change agents,
been identified?
• Have existing or proposed mechanisms to
facilitate coordination and communication
among stakeholders been discussed?
• Have any opportunities for public-private
partnerships to address food and nutrition
security been discussed?
• How could these partnerships be improved?
Agreement between stakeholders
185
Step
5
Monitoring
and
evaluation
5. 2. M&E in livelihoods and FNS programs
5.2.1. Concepts of Monitoring & Evaluation
• What is monitoring? It is the continuous or
periodic
review
of
information
by
management at every level of implementation
of an activity to ensure that input deliveries,
work schedules, expected outputs and other
required actions are proceeding according to
the plan.
186
Concepts of…
What is evaluation?
•
It is the process for determining
systematically and objectively the relevance
and effectiveness in the direction of resource
utilization as well as impact of activities in the
light of the stated objectives.
187
5.2.2.The aim of monitoring
and Evaluation
Monitoring
• to document progress and results of project
• to provide the necessary information to
Management for timely decision taking and
corrective action (if necessary)
• to promote accountability to all stakeholders
of a project (to beneficiaries, donors, etc)
188
The aim of EVALUATION
The aim is
• to determine relevance and fulfilment of
objectives, as well as efficiency, effectiveness,
impact and sustainability of a project.
– To improve performance
– To make choice and decisions
– To learn lessons -> learning tool
– Promote accountability
Evaluation check the effectiveness of the program
189
5.3. Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluation
FNS programs
• Input- indicators - are variables that reflect the amount and
type of resources (inputs) used in the implementation
process of the program. We consider resource we use, efficiency of
resource utilized
• Output-indicators - are variables that indicate the
amount of output obtained from a given amount of
inputs. Focus on amount of product effectiveness
• Impact- indicators - are variables that indicate the
extent of changes that resulted from using of the
outcome of the program.
190
5.4. Principles of M& E in FNS
• Utilization focused, influence and consequence
aware:-- users of resource, time, input, program
• Stakes, stakeholder engagement and learning:
Which stakeholders can or cannot engage in the
evaluation?
• Situational responsiveness: the information should
best fit to the situation and flexibility is required --info should be flexible
• Multiple evaluator and evaluation roles : allow
different perspectives and views to be aired while
evaluating .
191
5.5. Steps in designing monitoring and evaluations
• Step 1: Define the scope and purpose: identifying the
evaluation audience and the purpose of the M&E system
• Step 2: Define the monitoring and evaluation questions
192
• Theory of Change is essentially a comprehensive
description and illustration of how and why a
desired change is expected to happen in a
particular context.
• It is focused in particular on mapping out or
“filling in” what has been described as the
“missing middle” between what a program or
change initiative does (its activities or
interventions) and how these lead to desired
goals being achieved
193
Steps in designing…
• Step 3: Determine M& E methodology:
Identify the indicators and data sources
– data and any types of research design
– Source of data
– Who is responsible to collect data
• Step 4. Identify who will conduct M&E
• Step 5. Disseminate the M& E result/ report
194
5.6 International policy responses to food and
nutrition security
• 5..3.1 The right to adequate food
• Right to adequate food is a human right
• 153 States have ratified the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (ICESCR)
195
5.7. Global facts about Food and nutrition
security
• Close to a billion people are chronically
undernourished.
90% from SSA, and more in
Ethiopia
• More than 2 billion people are suffering from various
forms of micronutrient deficiency.( iron ,vitamin,
mineral deficiency)
• According to WHO, 1.5 billion adults are overweight
• Agricultural supply growth is not enough to bring
hunger down (FAO, 2009). Constrain of supply chain,
the problem of transporting to /from ( rice from china,
wheat from Europe to-196
5.7.1. Global challenges to achieve food and nutrition
security
•
•
•
•
Population growth
Low level of agricultural technology use
Climate change and related risks
Lack of pro-poor policy (social protection, safety nets
etc )
• Poorly functioning market infrastructure (food price
inflation, high transaction costs etc)
• Low post harvest technology and food processing (high
food loss at different supply chains)
• Natural resource degradation and depletion of
biodiversity
197
5.7.2.
Actions to achieve food and nutrition
security
• Improve the access to income earning
opportunities for today’s hungry
• Ensure social protection, including immediate
access to food for the neediest.
• Investment
in sustainable, longer-term
agricultural growth and development. ( in Ethiopia
up to 2050 work more on agriculture)
• Action and behavioral change
• Enabling conditions for effective and sustainable
improvements
• Promoting Good governance
198
Getting the Priorities
Right
• Rapid pro-poor
economic growth
• Effective provision of
public goods(defence,
information, software--• Empowerment of poor
people
Seven High-Priority Policy
Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Invest in human resources
Improve access to productive
resources and remunerative
employment
Improve markets,
infrastructure, and institutions
Expand appropriate research,
knowledge, and technology
Improve natural resource
management
Promote good governance
Support sound national and
international trade and
macroeconomic policies
199
DIFFERENCE AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOOD SECURITY AND
NUTRITION SECURITY
• Difference between (FS) and (NS): It was agreed that there is a
big difference but close linkages between FS and NS. FS is a
necessary but not sufficient condition of NS.
• NS is part and parcel of FS
• FS is part of NS
Relationship between FS and NS:
• NS requires simultaneously ‘food’, ‘health’ and ‘care’. So, there is
no way to achieve nutrition security without FS at household
level. FS must include ‘food safety’
• Nutrition insecurity may increase the risk of food insecurity.
FS and NS are closely interrelated and may appear in a vicious cycle,
but at a different magnitude, according to the context
200
Concepts and historical perspectives
of livelihood
• The livelihoods approach is a way of thinking
about the objectives, scope and priorities for
development, particularly poverty elimination
• Poor people’s ability to make a living in an
economically, ecologically, and socially
sustainable manner
201
• Poverty is complex and multi-faceted and so
requires a holistic approach
• Livelihood approaches seek to address
poverty issues through a participatory process
with all stakeholders,
• SL approaches focus on peoples’ inherent
strengths rather than their weaknesses
• Peoples’ livelihoods are dynamic: constantly
changing overtime
202
• Livelihood is the way in which people satisfy
their needs or gain living
• A livelihood should be sufficient to avoid
poverty, and preferably, increase wellbeing for
a family
• A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets
(including both material and social resources)
and activities required for a means of living
(Chambers and Conway, 1992)
203
• A livelihood is sustainable when it can: Cope with, and
recover from stress and shocks (drought, flood, war,
etc.), Maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets,
while not undermining the natural resource base”
• Sustainable livelihoods are derived from people's
capacity to make a living by surviving shocks and stress
and improve their material condition without
jeopardizing the livelihood options of other people's,
either now or in the future
• Sustainable development as "development which
meets the needs of current generations without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs".
204
Why rural livelihoods?
• The large number of rural people and their involvement in
agriculture
• Poverty is predominantly a rural phenomenon
• Many of the rural poor depend directly or indirectly upon
farmers livelihoods
• Agriculture is important for both national and world
economy
• Poor rural people’s livelihoods are significant in national
economies and the world economy in terms of
– the potential market for increased demand for consumer
goods and services if rural people become more wealthy
– their potential contribution to national economies
generating employment, tax revenues, and so on
205
Dimension of livelihoods
• Capability: ability of doing & being
• Assets: tangible and intangible (brand
recognition, copyrights, patents, trademarks,
trade names etc)
• Activities: combination of activities/ strategies
206
Key elements of livelihoods
• Creation of working days/ gainful employment
• Poverty reduction
• Wellbeing and capabilities
• Livelihood adaptation and resilience
• Natural resource sustainability
207
Characteristics of rural livelihoods
• The majority of poor rural people are
agricultural, or their livelihoods have many of
the characteristics of farmers/ pastoralists’
livelihoods.
• Agriculture is the main occupation
• Close contact with nature
• Social solidarity
• Joint family
208
Characteristics of rural livelihoods
contd.
• Partial integration
incomplete markets
into
imperfect
and
• Partial integration refers to households only
acquiring some of their resources through
markets, and only disposing of some of their
produce in markets
209
Characteristics of rural livelihoods
contd.
• Multi-activity livelihoods
• Non-farm activities frequently play a
significant, and sometimes dominant, role in
peasant livelihoods
• Heterogeneity
• There is much differentiation within and
between peasant communities
210
Principles and Objectives of SL
• People-centered: starting with people and their livelihood choices
• Holistic: non-sectoral, multiplicity
• Linking the micro with the macro
• Dynamic: understand and learn from change
• Building on the strengths of the poor: strengths, rather than needs
• Sustainability-focused: resilience, NR, future generation
211
Sustainable livelihoods fundamentals:
• Capability being able to perform certain basic
functioning's, to what a person is capable of
doing and being
• to be adequately nourished, to be comfortably
clothed, to avoid escapable morbidity/diseased
and preventable mortality, to lead a life without
shame, to be able to visit and entertain one's
friends
212
Sustainable livelihoods fundamentals
contd.
Equity
Equal access to assets, opportunities and benefits
 an end to discrimination against women, &
minorities
• an end to urban and rural poverty and
deprivation
Sustainability: meeting needs of present
generation without compromising that of future
generation
213
Sustainable livelihoods fundamentals
contd.
• Why sustainability?
• Progress in poverty reduction is lasting, rather
than fleeting/temporary.
• This need has arisen for the increase in
environmental problem
• We must meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations
214
Objectives of SLAs
• increase the sustainability of poor people’s livelihoods
through promoting:
– Improved access to high-quality education, information,
technologies and training and better nutrition and health;
– A more supportive and cohesive social environment; More
secure access to, and better management of, natural
resources;
– Better access to basic and facilitating infrastructure;
– More secure access to financial resources; and
A policy and institutional environment that supports
multiple livelihood strategies and promotes equitable
access to competitive markets for all
215
Framework
for Livelihood Analysis
• The livelihoods framework provides a comprehensive, and
complex, approach to understanding how people make a living
• It can be used as a loose guide to a range of issues which are
important for livelihoods or it can be rigorously investigated in
all its aspects (Kanji et al, 2005)
• Livelihood Approaches (LA) emphasizes understanding of the
context within which people live, the assets available for them,
livelihood strategies they follow in the face of existing policies
and institutions, and livelihood outcomes they intend to
achieve (DFID, 2000)
216
• The key question to be addressed in any
analysis of livelihood is given a particular
context (of policy setting, politics, history, agro
ecology and socio-economic conditions), what
combination of livelihood resources (different
types of ‘capital’) result in the ability to follow
what combination of livelihood strategies
(agricultural intensification/ extensification,
livelihood diversification and migration) with
what outcomes? (Scoones, 1998).
217
Key
capital
H-Human capital
N-Natural capital
Livelihood
assets
Vulnerability
context
•Shocks
•Trends
•Seasonality
H
F
S
N
P
F- Finantial
P- physical capital
S- Social capital
Levels of
Government
Private
Sector
laws
Culture
Livelihood
Strategies
Policies
Institutions
Livelihood
out puts
More
income
Improved
food security
Reduced
vulnerability
Increased
welfare
Sustainable
use of NR
Sustainable livelihoods framework
Source: Adapted from DFID, 2000
218
Vulnerability context
• refers to seasonality, trends, and shocks that
affect people’s livelihoods
• The key attribute of these factors is that they are
not susceptible to control by local people
themselves, at least in the short and medium
term (DFID, 2000)
219
• Shocks: Floods, droughts, cyclones, war,
Deaths in the family, Violence or civil unrest
and loss of job
• Seasonality: seasonal fluctuations between
harvests, diseases/health risks linked to
season and availability of casual work,
seasonality of prices
• Trends
and
changes:
Population,
Environmental change, Technology, Markets
and trade, Globalisation, HIV
220
• Livelihoods vulnerability analysis is a method
of assessing the impact of hazards on
livelihood resources.
• There are two core considerations when
thinking about the Vulnerability Context.
These are:
Exposure: The extent to which different groups
are
exposed
to
particular
trends/shocks/seasonality; and
Sensitivity: The sensitivity of their livelihoods to
these factors (this relates directly to resilience)
221
Objectives of Vulnerability context
• Identifying the hazards that have the most
serious impact on important livelihoods
resources.
• Determining which livelihoods resources are
most vulnerable.
• Identifying current coping strategies and
beginning to identify opportunities for
adaptation.
• Identifying which sections of the community are
exposed and sensitive to hazards (men, women,
children, disabled etc )
222
Tools of vulnerability analysis
• Hazard Mapping: To identify areas and resources
at risk from hazards and to analyze changes in
hazards and planning for risk reduction.
• Seasonal Calendars: To identify periods of stress,
hazards, diseases, hunger, debt, vulnerability, etc.
• Historical timeline: To get an insight into past
hazards, changes in their nature, intensity and
behavior.
• Vulnerability matrix: To determine the hazards
that have the most serious impact on important
livelihood resources.
• Venn diagram: to understand which institutions
are most important to communities.
223
Hazard/ vulnerability mapping
• Hazard/ vulnerability mapping
Hazard (or risk)
mapping is a visual method of showing local
perceptions of areas or people in a community (such as
settlements, infrastructure, and resources) that face
different levels and types of hazard or risk
• It gives the precise location of sites where people, the
natural environment or property are at risk due to a
potentially catastrophic event that could result in
death, injury, pollution or other destruction.
224
Why it is useful?
• Identifying hazards and risks (such as likelihood
of flooding, drought, landslides, or humanwildlife conflict) and the effects of these
• Identifying areas, resources or people that face
different types and levels of risk
• Planning for risk reduction and adaptation
• Identifying the likely impact of a proposed
intervention on risks and the people most
vulnerable to them
225
Livelihood assets:
• are the resources on which people draw in order to carry out
their livelihood strategies (Farrington et al., 2002).
• The members of a household combine their capabilities, skills
and knowledge with the different resources at their disposal
to create activities that will enable them to achieve the best
possible livelihood for themselves.
• Everything that goes towards creating that livelihood can be
thought of as a livelihood asset (Messer and Townsley, 2003).
The major livelihood assets are
Human capital :
• the Capacity to work and adapt, skills, aptitudes, experience,
knowledge, ability to labor and good health and physical
capability important for the successful pursuit of different
livelihood strategies.
226
• Physical capital comprises the basic
infrastructure and producer goods needed to
support livelihoods (DFID, 1999);
• produced investment goods that increase
efficiency and effectiveness like transport,
shelter, water, energy, technology
and
communications
227
Social capital :
• refers to networks and connectedness,
• the social resources (networks, social claims,
social relations, affiliations, associations) upon
which people draw when pursuing different
livelihood strategies requiring coordinated
actions.
• It is lubricant for others
• Networks, groups, trust, mutual understanding,
shared values, and access to institutions
228
Natural capital :
• The natural resource stocks (soil, water, air, genetic
resources etc.) and environmental services
(hydrological cycle, pollution sinks etc.) from which
resource flows and services useful for livelihoods
are derived.
Economic or financial capital :
• The capital base (cash, credit/debt, savings,
remittances from family members working outside
the home and other economic assets, including
basic infrastructure and production equipment and
technologies) which are essential for the pursuit of
any livelihood strategy.
229
• Policies and institutions which influence rural
household’s access to livelihood assets are also
important aspects of livelihood framework
(DFID, 2000).
• Institutions are the social cement which link
stakeholders to access to capital of different
kinds to the means of exercising power and so
define the gateways through which they pass on
the route to positive or negative [livelihood]
adaptation (Scoones, 1998).
230
Livelihood strategies
• According to DFID (1999) the term livelihood
strategies are defined as the range and combination
of activities and choices that people make in order
to achieve their livelihood goals, including
productive
activities,
investment
strategies,
reproductive choices, etc.
• Livelihood strategies are composed of activities that
generate the means of household survival and are
the planned activities that men and women
undertake to build their livelihoods (Ellis, 2000).
231
• Livelihood strategies are composed of
activities that generate the means of
household survival and are the planned
activities that men and women undertake to
build their livelihoods
232
Livelihood outcomes
• Livelihood outcomes are the achievements of
livelihood strategies, such as
more income (e.g. cash),
increased well-being (e.g. non material goods, like selfesteem, health status, access to services, sense of
inclusion),
reduced vulnerability (e.g. better resilience through
increase in asset status),
improved food security (e.g. increase in financial
capital in order to buy food)
a more sustainable use of natural resources (e.g.
appropriate property rights) (Scoones, 1998)
233
• Livelihood
strategies
include
agricultural
extensification (increasing farm size) and
intensification (raising farm yields), income
diversification (off-farm economic activities), and
migration
• There are different ways of categorizing household
livelihood strategies and income sources
• Income sources can be categorized as those
activities that are ‘natural resource based activities’
and ‘non-natural resource based activities
• Others categorize household income sources as
farm, off-farm, non-farm income sources and
remittance income from migratory labour
234
• Farm income: this refers to income generated from ownaccount farming, whether on owner- occupied land or on
land accessed via cash or share tenancy.
• Farm income broadly defined, includes livestock as well
as crop income.
• Off-farm income: refers to wage or exchange labour on
other farms (i.e. within agriculture). It may also include
income obtained from local environmental resources such
as firewood charcoal, house building materials, wild
plants and so on.
• Non-farm income: refers to non-agricultural income
sources. Several sub-categories of non- farm income are
commonly identified. These are: non-farm rural wage,
non-farm rural self- employment, and rental income
obtained from leasing land or property, urban-to-rural
remittance.
235
Livelihoods diversification
• Rural livelihood diversification refers to the
phenomenon where rural households engage in
multiple activities in order to survive and to
improve their standard of living (Ellis, 2000b;
Ellis, 2000a).
236
Push factors:
• negative factors that force households to
seek additional livelihood activities within
or outside the farm.
• dominate in high-risk and low-potential
agricultural environments, subject to
drought, flooding and environmental
degradation.
237
• As a result of declining farm productivity,
Due to:
 a small landholding (Ghimire, 1992);
decline in crop production and animal
husbandry (Tegene 2000 & Shylendra
2002);
population growth
238
Pull factors:
• positive and these may attract farm
households to pursue additional livelihood
activities to improve their living standards.
239
Diversification in Ethiopia and SSA
• Agriculture is the main stay and predominant
activity of Developing countries by providing
basic needs and income for more than 90% of
the rural poor (Seleshi et al., 2010) .
• FOA(2010) reported that 70 % of the African
rural household income is from farming
activities, which is characterized by small
holder and subsistence farming and highly
dependent on rainfall.
240
• Similarly, in Ethiopia agriculture accounts
more than 80 % of employment and 50%
of the GDP and 90% of foreign exchange
(MoFED, 2006; MoA, 2010)
• However, In Ethiopia, the agricultural
sector has been unable to produce
sufficient quantities to feed the rapidly
growing population.
241
• The challenges in agricultural productivity
remain the big problem in the country
• There has been a reduction in farming as a
source of livelihood in rural areas
• Rural livelihood diversification in Ethiopia
has become important in reducing risk and
poverty and enhancing the well-being of
rural
households
(Caswell,
2000;
Gebrehiwot and Fekadu, 2012)
242
• Farm income alone cannot sustain rural
households in Ethiopia
• Smallholder rural farm households need of
looking for alternative income sources to
supplement their small scale agricultural
activities.
• Search strategy for survival or coping with
risk, especially where agriculture fails to
offer sufficient means of livelihood (Barrett,
et al., 2001)
243
• The ability to pursue different livelihood
strategies is dependent on the basic
material, social, tangible and intangible
assets that people have in their possession
(Schoones, 1998).
•
– Studies(e.g. Ellis, F., 2000b) reported that
mostly, rural livelihood diversification is a
necessity in SSA as a risk spreading
mechanism
244
• The goal of reducing poverty only by
increasing agricultural productivity by
–Intensification and
– extensification
could not be successful in the sub-Sahara
African countries (Emanuel, 2011).
• Non agricultural rural activities(e.g. rural
tourism, weaving, cottage industries,
traditional medicines) has been neglected
245
• Farming as a primary source of income has
become failed to guarantee sufficient livelihood
for most farming households in Sub-Sahara African
countries (Amare & Belaineh, 2013).
• This is b/c of
• Decline in soil productivity
• Land scarcity
• Climate change
• Thus, there is concern on the incidence of deep
rooting of poverty amongst the households
depending on single income from farm activities
(Jirstrom et al., 2011).
246
• There has been a reduction in farming as a source
of livelihood in rural areas
• Thus, it is critically important to seek alternative
ways to bring about the intended economic and
social development, and to improve the
livelihoods of the people.
• As a result an increase in search of alternatives
e.g. migration, non-farm and off-farm activities or
a combination of both to sustain
247
• The components of rural livelihood
diversification are commonly classified by
sector (farm or non-farm), by function (wage
employment or self-employment) or by
location (on-farm or off-farm).
• The classification by sector follows
standard national accounting systems.
• Classification by function depends on how
labor is compensated, while that by location
depends on where the activity takes place.
248
• By sector
– Farm (agricultural):
–Nonfarm (non-agricultural):
• By function
–Wage employment:
–Self-employment:
• By location
– On-farm:
–Off-farm:
249
• Following the problems of agricultural production
and productivity, the concept of livelihood
diversification has rapidly gained ground as an
approach to rural poverty reduction in poor
countries (Ellis, 2000b)
• It is an important feature of survival in rural
areas(Ellis, 2000b; Khatun & Roy, 2012)
– agriculture is unable to produce sufficient quantity
to feed the rapidly growing population
– To improve household livelihood
250
Analysis in Sub Saharan Africa
• Sub-Saharan African communities are suffering
with the impacts of droughts, floods, rising
temperatures and erratic rainfall, which are
threats for the livelihoods of
the poorest
households in rural areas.
• In SSA, many rural smallholder farmers have
increasingly diversified their livelihoods through
nonfarm activities and migration.
• Rural households in SSA are subsistence
farmers who produced most of the farm and
nonfarm goods and services they required.
251
• Because agriculture was mainly for subsistence,
trade and commerce remained marginal. Due to
high population pressure, farm sizes in SSA are
generally becoming smaller.
• The already declining farm sizes coupled with the
high population growth could have a potentially
negative impact on rural welfare and food
security in SSA.
• The increasing population density has already
encouraged more intensive use of land in high
density areas of SSA, albeit in the absence of
modern input use (fertilizer or irrigation),
indicating unsustainable intensification.
252
• Increase in food production in SSA has so far
been mainly based on the expansion of
cultivated areas, which is now limited by
declining farm sizes and the expansion of urban
areas.
• Shrinking farm sizes and growing landlessness
are by default pushing unskilled farm labor into
mainly low-return nonfarm sectors.
• Urbanization in SSA is taking place without
industrialization.
• In the absence of manufacturing industries and
high-return service sectors to provide skilled
nonfarm opportunities, prospects for increased
employment and rising incomes in urban areas
of SSA remain limited.
253
• This leaves smallholder farming as the primary
option for gainful employment for SSA’s growing
young labor force. Persistent low agricultural
productivity coupled with chronic food
insecurity and severe poverty characterizes the
smallholder rural economy in SSA.
• In SSA low agricultural productivity is mainly
linked to low fertilizer use, low responsiveness
to fertilizer use due to overexploitation of land
leading to nutrient mining and loss of organic
matter, low use of irrigation, insecure land
tenure, environmental degradation and
underinvestment in crop research.
254
• As a consequence of poverty and food insecurity,
a large proportion of smallholders remain deeply
engaged in subsistence staple crop production,
but at the same time seasonally rely on the
market for their staple food needs.
• With better functioning markets and improved
transport and communications infrastructure in
rural areas, farm households diversified to
include nonfarm activities as a way to increase
their incomes.
• In the later stages, with rising incomes and
higher standards of living, they either specialized
in farming on larger consolidated farms or
moved into high-return nonfarm sectors.
255
Migration
• It means that one or more family members leave the
resident household for varying periods of time
There are different types:
• seasonal migration (temporary migration according to
agricultural seasons),
• circular migration: refers to temporary migration that is
not necessarily tied to seasonal factors in agriculture, and
that may be for varying duration,
• permanent migration: implies that the family member
makes a long-duration move to a different location and
sets up domicile/home at destination,
• international migration: a family member moves either
temporarily or permanently abroad.
256
Agriculture Intensification
• Agricultural intensification has been defined
as ‘increased average inputs of labor or capital
on a small holding, either cultivated land
alone, or on cultivated and grazing land, for
the purpose of increasing the value of output
per hectare’
257
• Agricultural intensification may occur as a result of; an
increase in the gross output in fixed proportions due to
inputs expanding proportionately without technological
changes, a shift towards more valuable outputs or
technical progress that raises land productivity.
• In practice, the intensification process may occur a
combination of these, but the relative feasibility of the
three components is likely to vary greatly in different
areas.
• For intensification to occur an increased demand for
output is usually necessary.
• Alternatively, a fall in the availability of a key factor such
as land, water or labor may also necessitate
intensification even if demand does not rise
258
Livelihood diversification Strategies for rural
households
• According to sustainable livelihoods research,
diversity (that is, the exploitation of multiple
assets and sources of revenue) is an
intrinsic/basic attribute of many rural livelihood
strategies
• Defines livelihood diversification as the process
by which rural families construct adverse
portfolio of activities and social support
capabilities in their struggle for survival and in
order to improve their standards of living.
259
• Livelihood diversification strategies include:
how people combine their income generating
activities; the way in which they use their
assets; which assets they chose to invest in;
and how they manage to preserve existing
assets and income.
• Livelihoods are diverse at every level, for
example, members of a household may live
and work in different places engaging in
various activities, either temporarily or
permanently.
260
• The adoption of livelihood diversification by a
household may signify two things:
– One reason may be linked to “increased
vulnerability”,
– The other reason being a deliberate effort by
households to broaden income streams for the
purposes of “accumulation and investment in the
future
261
Roles of Livelihood Diversification
• The participation of rural farm households in
different livelihood strategies could improve the
total incomes of smallholder farm households
• Addition to agriculture, growth of non-farm rural
income generating activities offers important
opportunities to reduce rural poverty
• Income diversification is the key for risk
management and it could help vulnerable
households to meet and smoothing their
consumption needs, social and labor needs and
improve households’ income
262
Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is one of the most susceptible counties to
vulnerability; Due to:
– rain fed agriculture deepened economy,
– food insecurity,
– low water resources utilization;
– low health service coverage,
– high population growth,
– low economic development,
– poor infrastructure and institutions are common
problems in the country.
263
• Vulnerability is a situation where an individual
feel insecure that something harmful happens in
the future; something likely to be harmed or
wound; the utility loss caused by poverty and
uncertainty of future consumption.
• ‘Vulnerability to poverty’ is the probability that a
household will be poor next period.
• It is the likelihood of adverse events occurring,
and the impact of an event on wellbeing.
264
• Vulnerable households are those with probability
of consumption falling below the poverty line.
• Households in Ethiopia, as many households in
sub-Saharan Africa, face significant uncertainty
with regards to their future consumption.
• In particular, vulnerability to weather risk has
historically been very high among agricultural
subsistence farmers, which describes the majority
of Ethiopian rural households.
265
• Many Ethiopians are unable to protect
their consumption against large covariate/
changing with another variable shocks, in
particular drought and food prices.
• Illness or death of a household member,
drought, livestock loss, or death, crop
damage, flooding, price shock, job loss or
food shortage are among the common
problems in the country.
266
• The moisture reliable lowlands are the most
vulnerable places in Ethiopian followed by the
Enset-growing lowlands and the drought-prone
highlands
• Vulnerability is high in these lowlands not
because residents are more subject to climate
shocks that will drive them into poverty, but
because residents are already poor.
• Lower levels of education and asset ownership
cause to higher vulnerability in these areas.
267
Read also on the following topics
1)
Poverty and inequality and movement
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
Poverty, famine, hunger and deprivation
Migration, poverty and inequalities
Migration, risk and vulnerability
Migration, social identity and social network
Poverty reduction strategies in Ethiopia
Theory and approach on food security
Food security and development
Impacts of climate change on food security
Policies and strategies on food security
Sustainable livelihood approach to current thinking
Power, governance, right and broader institutional issues in livelihood;
The institutional, professional and personal challenge of well-being and
livelihoods: implications for policy and practice;
Urban and rural livelihoods development;
Rural livelihoods and natural resource management;
Rural livelihoods and rural infrastructure development.
14)
15)
16)
268
Read also on the following topics
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Current poverty, food security situation in Ethiopia
Effect of poverty on economic development
Effect of poverty on urban development
Poverty persistent and poverty dynamics
Poverty, migration and inequality situations
Effectiveness of poverty reduction strategy Ethiopia
Poverty analysis for urban development
Intergenerational transmission of poverty
Poverty situation during the imperial, military
government and EPRDF : Trend analysis
10) Food security situation among the household
members
269
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learning====
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270