Running head: YOUNG SOULS
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Medaille College
Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) Program
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YOUNG SOULS: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE TRANSPERSONAL
EXPERIENCES OF YOUNG CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
A clinical dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Psychology
by Stacy Salamone
May 1, 2022
Dissertation Committee Chairperson: Lynn Horne-Moyer, Ph.D.
Dissertation Committee Member: Kathleen Shanahan, Ph.D.
Dissertation Committee Member: William Reynolds, Psy.D.
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Dissertation Committee Member: Jack Anchin, Ph.D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
Chapter 1: Overview of Spirituality within Psychotherapy
Differentiating Spirituality from Religiosity
Exemplar Studies
The Roots of Spiritual Development
Transpersonal Psychology
States of Consciousness
Spiritual Emergencies and Spiritual Awakening
Spiritual Bypassing
Transpersonal Spiritual Development
Purpose and Significance
Chapter 2: Method
Identification of Source Material
Key Search Terms
Inclusion Criteria
Exclusion Criteria
Selection Process
Organization, Analysis, and Discussion
Chapter 3: Results
Summary of Results
0-2 Years-of-age
3-6 Years-of-age
7-12 Years-of-age
13-17 Years-of-age
Chapter 4: Discussion
Role of the Therapist
Ethical Considerations
Chapter 5: Conclusion
REFERENCES
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Abstract
This clinical dissertation will research the transpersonal spiritual development of young children
and adolescents in an attempt to identify a critical age or period in development when this
specific type of spiritual development is most salient. A systematic literature review of the
theoretical and empirical literature regarding the transpersonal spiritual experiences of young
children and adolescents will be conducted. The data obtained will be categorized and organized
based on the age of the child at the time of the experience and mapped onto a chronological
trajectory of transpersonal spiritual development. The hypothesis of this dissertation is that
transpersonal spiritual experiences are most prevalent in early adolescence when children are still
prone to emotions such as awe and wonder, and more cognitively equipped to process those
experiences. This literature review is intended to provide empirical data that mental health care
workers can use to promote healthy psychospiritual development in children and adolescents
through the lens of transpersonal psychology. Ideally, the data provided by this research will
facilitate the engagement of the spiritual dimension of human existence within children and
adolescents in the therapy setting. Considering the psychological implications of spiritual beliefs
and experiences will allow for more holistic conceptualizations of functioning and well-being,
thereby enhancing clinical, and ethical competencies and treatment outcomes.
Keywords: spiritual development, spirituality, psychospiritual, model of spiritual
development, transpersonal psychology, transpersonal spiritual development
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Chapter 1
Overview of Spirituality within Psychotherapy
Since the time of its inception, the discipline of psychology has grappled with the extent
to which concepts of a spiritual nature should be incorporated into the practice of psychotherapy,
or whether these concepts were within the scope of this particular science at all. Leaders in the
field have argued that human behavior can be explained naturalistically, without resorting to
spiritual or supernatural explanations (Freud, 1907; Ellis, 1970). They believed that religion and
neurosis were similar products of the human mind, and credited religion as primarily responsible
for mental illness because of its facilitation of irrational beliefs (Jung and Benko, 1971). Some
believed that as society continued to advance, there would no longer be a need for religion, and
that rational and secular thinking would be the driving forces of more complex societies
(Durkheim & Swain, 1916). As evidence-based practice became increasingly more supported in
the realms of science and academia, the term “psyche” came to replace the word soul, and the
processes of the psyche a replacement for the processes of spirituality (Watson & Evans, 1991).
Incorporeal, supernatural, or metaphysical concepts that were difficult to measure scientifically
struggled for favor and a place within a clinical world that, with increasing intensity, has favored
empiricism.
The rigidity of this viewpoint has persisted into contemporary times and has staunched
the integration of religious and spiritual concepts into mainstream psychology. In their
prominent work, The Handbook of Spiritual Development in Childhood and Adolescence,
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authors Roehlkepartain, Ebstyne-King, Wagener, and Benson (2006) posit that “Lack of full
engagement within the domain of spirituality by the mainstream social sciences has limited the
clinician’s capacity to fully understand the person in their entirety at all points in the lifespan and
within their multiple contexts” (p. 2). This is particularly evident for researchers and
practitioners interested in how experiences and expressions of this vital dimension of existence
changes throughout the course of human development. Although empirical research on the
interaction of spirituality and mental health is becoming more readily available to psychological
healthcare providers, many contemporary academic programs are still lacking specific training
utilizing this body of research, leaving practitioners without evidenced-based methods of
addressing spirituality within the therapy setting. Concerns of a spiritual nature that present
within the context of psychotherapy are often ignored or misunderstood due to the lack of
training and education regarding these types of concerns, or because of a fear of imposing
personal values. These concerns become even more compounded when working with children
and adolescents. However, preliminary scientific and academic research has shown that even
young children have experiences that are spiritual in nature (Augustyn, et al., 2017; Cervantes
and Arczynski, 2015; Dale, 2014; Fowler, 1995; King, et al., 2014; Roehlkepartain, et al., 2006).
Contemporary scholars and practitioners are faced with the task of establishing valid and reliable
methods that can be used to study how spiritual experiences affect human development, and how
human development can change an individual’s perception of a spiritual experience. Spiritual
experiences are often powerful, and they can influence long-term, positive change when given
the opportunity to be processed in a healthy manner.
Differentiating Spirituality from Religiosity
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Individuals who identify as spiritual or religious experience spirituality differently and
incorporate it into their lives in various ways and to varying degrees. Many researchers studying
spirituality and religion (S/R) view religion as a specific and concrete expression of spirituality.
It serves as a means of organization for the formal practice of spirituality, bringing together those
with similar values, belief systems, and ideologies. For the purposes of this literature review, the
definition of the concept of religion will be provided by Reich et al. (1998), who conceptualize
religiosity as involving a relationship with a particular institutionalized doctrine about a
supernatural power, which occurs through affiliation with an organized faith and participation in
its prescribed rituals.
Most contemporary practitioners of spiritual psychotherapy envision spirituality as a
concept broader than religion, concerned with matters such as meaning-making, as well as
human and community connections that may involve a sense of God or the sacred (need more
contemporary references). Most definitions of spirituality are intertwined with religious
concepts such as belief in a divine being or power, and often involve active attempts by the
individual to obtain a mindset of interconnectedness with the universe (Telfener, 2017).
However, individuals that endorse spirituality may not believe in a divine being at all. Cervantes
and Arczynski (2015) offer a working definition of children’s spirituality as an increasing
awareness, subjective inner experience of wonder and curiosity, striving for something greater
than oneself, believability in unseen forces, and playful transcendence. The primary purpose of
this literature review is to explore these first experiences of transcendence as they have been
studied within the child and adolescent population.
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The vast majority of researchers in the field agree that spirituality has multiple domains
that includes religiosity, experiences of connectedness, behavioral responses to stimuli
considered as sacred, systems of thoughts or beliefs, experiences of transcendence, personality,
and existential questions (Benson, et al., 2003, Roehlkepartain, et al. 2006, Augustyn et al.,
2016). Despite discrepancies in defining spirituality, the overarching assumptions of
spiritually-integrated treatments are congruent. These assumptions posit that by living in
harmony with universal principles, people can grow and develop in a healthy manner and fulfill
their divine potential. (Richards & Bergin, 1999, p.17).
Exemplar Studies
When researching concepts of a developmental nature, exemplar methods are often used
as they allow researchers to collect data on what that construct looks like in a highly developed
manner. Exemplar methodology involves a sample selection technique that intentionally selects
individuals who exemplify the specific construct of interest and exhibit it intensely in their lives
(King, Clardy, & Ramos, 2014).
In a study conducted with adolescent spiritual exemplars, King, Clardy, and Ramos
(2014) hypothesized that when spirituality and religiousness are operationalized as isolated and
decontextualized constructs, their ability to function within their unique roles as a developmental
resource is lost. In other words, they function better together than apart. This study was based
on a relational developmental systems model of Positive Youth Development (Lerner, et al.,
2006) which emphasizes that human development occurs through the ongoing interactions of an
individual and the many systems in which they are embedded. The purpose of the study was to
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identify the psychological concepts that may represent adolescent spiritual development as it is
experienced both within and outside the context of religion (King, et al., 2014).
Participants for the study were initially nominated by members of the International
Advisory Board of the Search Institute’s Center for Spiritual Development based on 15 criteria
created by the researchers to select for spirituality, such as beliefs, passions, virtues, the sacred,
purpose, suffering, service, and influence on others. The final sample was composed of 30
highly spiritual males (17) and females (13), aged 12–21 (M=17.73), and ranging in education
level from the first year of high school up through the second year in university. The sample was
geographically and culturally diverse with between two and six examples each from the
countries of India, Jordan, Kenya, Peru, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The sample
was also religiously diverse with one atheist, one Buddist, four Catholics, three Hindus, six
Muslims, ten Protestants, one Jew, one Sikh, and one who self-identified as being of mixed
religion. Data were collected and analyzed using consensual qualitative research (CQR), an
inductive method of research which uses open-ended interview questions, small samples, a
reliance on words over numbers, the importance of context, an integration of multiple
viewpoints, and consensus of a research team to conduct a qualitative study (Hill, 2005).
The semi-structured interview that was used in the King study (2014) allowed the
participants to reflect on their own personal experience of spiritual development and its related
constructs. The interview began with structured questions regarding the individual’s identity, in
order to explore and understand how central spirituality was to each participant’s
self-understanding, and to avoid priming the participants to respond solely from a spiritual
perspective. The five major areas of inquiry included self-understanding, spirituality, pathways
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of spiritual development, future orientation, and purpose in life. The interview then moved to
discussion on related issues such as morality, service, and justice. The impact of potential
influences on their spiritual development were discussed, such as the role of suffering, social
influences, and key events in the individual’s life. The interview ended with an exploration of
the exemplars’ thoughts and aspirations for the future, and regarding their purpose and goals in
life.
The final data set in the analysis identified three broad categories which King and
associates (2014) felt accurately captured the participant’s descriptions of core experiences of
their spirituality. One of the main themes identified upon analysis of the interviews was a strong
sense of awareness of something beyond the mundaneness of life, such as God or an absolute
truth. The participants used words and phrases that described a sense of connection to humanity,
to nature, and to the divine or absolute. Descriptions of this type were categorized as
“transcendence” as many of the words and phrases they used are congruent with those used in
the current research on the concept (King, et al., 2014).
Another theme identified within the interviews involved a strong sense of commitment to
beliefs, worldviews, values and morals, and using those convictions to make sense of the world.
The examples described having a sense of purpose, and being devoted to their belief and value
systems, while still remaining open to the ideas and opinions of others. Descriptions of this type
were categorized as “fidelity” in order to capture the certainty of and commitment to the
adolescent’s beliefs and values (King, et al., 2014).
A third category to emerge was behavior, as most of the examples described a behavioral
response to their spiritual experiences. They reported intentional efforts to engage in
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contribution through acts of service or leadership, or by caring for others less fortunate than
themselves. Some were involved in mentoring or held roles during religious services. The
majority of the participants remarked on the importance of living a moral life and their desire to
live a life of “obedience” or “righteousness”.
Based on the themes identified by the adolescent spiritual exemplars in this study, the
researchers posited that adolescent spiritual development involves transcendence, or a feeling a
part of something bigger than oneself, a growing sense of fidelity, or commitment and devotion
to stated beliefs and values, and it involves specific behaviors, such as acts of service or
leadership. The researchers noted that these experiences do not solely occur within the context
of religious practices or traditions. They concluded that religious development specifically
involves the systemic changes in how one understands and uses the doctrines, practices, and
rituals of a religion, and that spiritual development involves changes in how one experiences
transcendence, commits to an ideology, and lives it out in the world (King, et al., 2014).
King, Abo-Zena, and Weber (2017) conducted a follow-up study several years later using
a similar research method in order to gain insight into how an adolescent’s sense of
transcendence, their beliefs, and their behaviors are informed by their broader social, religious,
and cultural environments. The adolescent exemplars identified parents, friends, religious
leaders, and groups and organizations such as camps, retreats, and bible study, as having the most
impact on the development of their spirituality. They credited encouragement and support,
teaching and advice, spiritual modeling, conversations, spiritual practices, volunteering and
leadership, and social channeling as the most influential sources of positive impact on spiritual
development (King, et al., 2017). Future studies might involve additional research on the
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experiences or influences that negatively impact spiritual development, such as threats to
physical safety, significant loss, or traumatic experience. These occurrences can potentially
arrest, setback, or skew spiritual development resulting in unhealthy spiritual practices, beliefs,
or conceptions, and fuel psychopathology.
Although the integration of spiritual concepts into psychotherapy is growing in popularity
(consistent sources), spiritual interventions often lack sufficient research to be considered when
choosing developmentally appropriate treatments. As a highly contested topic within the
psychological world, clinical training of spiritually oriented assessment and intervention
techniques have been largely neglected (Hyman & Handal, 2006; Plante, 2007;Vieten, et al.,
2013, Miller, 2014). Although over 90% of Americans believe in some sort of Divine Power,
and cite this power as a source of emotional and psychological relief (Gallup Poll, 2020),
training amongst mental health professionals in the domain of spirituality is lacking. The result
of this lapse of training is a body of clinicians who are unsure of how to handle matters of a
spiritual nature when they arise, how these matters positively or negatively influence an
individual’s psychological well-being, and how to use matters of a spiritual nature to promote
holistic well-being (consistent references).
The Roots of Spiritual Development
Spirituality is as much a part of everyday experiences, expressed in music, art, or sport,
as it is a part of meditative and other mystical states of consciousness (Dale, 2014). The research
on spirituality as a developmental concept is growing rapidly as evidenced by the establishment
of scientific journals such as the International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, first published
in 1996, and educational institutions with a specific interest in the developmental aspects of
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spiritual change, such as the Institute of Spiritual Formation at Biola University California and
the Institute for Spiritual Development in Washington, DC (Augustyn, et al., 2016). Prominent
researchers of children’s spirituality Roehlkepartain, King, Wagener, and Benson define spiritual
development in their text, Handbook of Spiritual Development of Children and Adolescents
(2006), as “the process of growing the intrinsic human capacity for self-transcendence, in which
the self is embedded in something greater than the self ”(pgs. 4-5 ). These researchers
conceptualize spirituality as the developmental “engine” that propels the search for
connectedness, meaning, purpose, and contribution, and describe spiritual development as being
shaped both within and outside of religious traditions.
A large body of research regarding spiritual development is informed by James Fowler’s
Faith Development Model (Fowler, 1995), which focuses on Faith as the driving force during
development of an individual’s spirituality. In this model, Fowler identifies 6 stages of faith or
spiritual development which are congruent with Piaget’s stages of cognitive development,
Erickson’s model of psychosocial development, and Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
Fowler delineates the time from birth to about 18 months of age as a time of Undifferentiated
Faith, during which the infant bonds with the primary caregiver, and relies on that individual to
meet basic needs. Undifferentiated seeds of trust, courage, hope, love, and mutuality are
developed through positive and caring interactions with caregivers and manipulation of the
environment (Mueller, 2010).
Entrance into Stage 1, the Intuitive-Projective Faith stage, occurs at about 2 years of age
while the child is developing independent mobility and learning to produce specific and
purposeful behaviors. Children in this stage are learning language and show evidence of internal
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representation of objects and people. They are having their first experiences of autonomy,
problem-solving, and self-confidence. These skills, enhanced by the rise of imagination, are
foundational to understanding religious symbolism and theological concepts such as free will
(citation). Development within this stage continues until school age, or until about 6 years of
age.
Once the child is capable of concrete mental operations and organized, logical thought,
they enter Stage 2, the Mythic-Literal Faith stage. The development of more complex cognitive
functions allows the child to more fully experience the affective aspect of religious or spiritual
celebrations and rituals. An increase of social interactions in the school and community settings
provide the child with their first experiences of justice and reciprocity, and their thinking
becomes less egocentric and transductive (Mueller, 2010). This qualitative change represents the
first experiences of transcendence. As the ego is transcended, the child’s thinking shifts from
self-directed to other-directed, facilitating emotions such as empathy and compassion.
Stage 3, the Synthetic-Conventional Faith stage is entered around the time of adolescence
and lasts until young adulthood. In this stage, the child’s thinking becomes less dependent on
concrete realities and they are better able to conceptualize abstract concepts. Children in this
stage of faith development are attuned to the expectations and judgements of significant others
and are learning to develop an independent perspective through self-examination (Fowler, 1981).
They are better able to determine what they truly believe, separate and beyond what they have
adopted from their parents (Mueller, 2010). These advances in abstract thinking allow the child
to form a more personalized faith identity. The child is then more inclined to seek and better
able to process spiritual experiences.
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The next stage of faith development is the Individuative-Reflective Faith stage, which
spans from an individual’s mid-20s until late 30s. This stage represents a period of angst and
struggle, per Fowler (1981), as individuals take personal responsibility for their beliefs and
feelings. Previous unchallenged symbols or symbolic acts may become demystified and lose
transcendent meaning.
Stage 6, the Conjunctive Faith stage, is typically entered late in adulthood. This stage of
faith acknowledges concepts such as paradoxes and transcendence, and the individual discovers
reality behind the symbols of “inherited” systems (Mueller, 2010).
The last and most developed stage of faith is the “Universalizing Faith” stage, and is
exceedingly rare, per Fowler (1981). It may also be called “enlightenment'', which Mueller
(2010) describes as “a felt sense that the ultimate environment is inclusive of all beings”. A
person at this stage is limited by differences in religious or spiritual beliefs among people in the
world, but regards all beings as worthy of compassion and deep understanding.
Transpersonal Psychology Identifying and treating spiritual concerns has garnered new
attention by contemporary psychotherapists. Inspired by humanistic, existential, and positive
psychology theories, and encouraged by a renewed societal interest in spiritual phenomenon,
clinicians today are conceptualizing pathologies in a more holistic and comprehensive way.
These “third force” schools of thought argue that human behavior cannot be reduced to simple
biological drives or environmental stimuli. They posit that “human beings can transcend their
circumstances, thus actualizing their innate human potential through positive choices” (Richard
and Bergin, 1999, pg 43). Transpersonal concepts include themes such as spiritual
self-development, self beyond the ego, peak experiences, mystical experiences, systemic trance,
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spiritual emergencies, spiritual evolution, religious conversion, altered states of consciousness,
spiritual practices, and other sublime and/or unusually expanded experiences of living
(Davidson, et al., 2003; Grof, 2008; Hartelius et al., 2007; LaJoie and Shapiro, 1992; Kasprow
and Scottan, 1999). Transpersonal theory highlights the uniqueness of these transcendent
experiences.
One of the most well-known of the founders and contributors of transpersonal
psychology was Abraham Maslow. His studies focused on the ultimate and self-actualizing
potential in human nature. His research involved naturalistic studies of persons he considered to
be self-actualized (Anderson, 2019). He found remarkably consistent descriptions of enlightened
people across cultures and concluded that human beings have an instinctive, biologically based
drive towards spiritual self-actualization (Kasprow and Sutton, 1999). Maslow developed a
theory of personality and development which proposed a hierarchy of needs and motivations
beginning with the most basic physiological drives for food, water, and oxygen and advancing
toward self-actualization and the dissolution of preoccupation with the concerns of the ego
(Kasprow and Sutton, 1999). Maslow later refined his theory into a three-phase model of
development which included a deficiency-motivated stage, a humanistically motivated stage, and
a transcendentally motivated stage.
In 1968 Maslow was among the people who announced transpersonal psychology as a
"fourth force" in psychology, in order to distinguish it from the three other forces of psychology:
psychoanalysis, behaviorism and humanistic psychology. In 1969 the Journal Of Transpersonal
Psychology began publication, and in 1971 the Association for Transpersonal Psychology was
established. Proponents of psychology’s fourth force such as Greg Hartelius (2007) and Stephen
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Grof (2008) criticized “person-centered” approaches as ignoring the cosmic perspective, and for
supporting materialistic and definitive descriptions of reality.
In 1992, researchers LaJoie and Shapiro reviewed forty definitions of transpersonal
psychology appearing in academic literature from 1968 to 1991, and suggested that there are
several key factors that encompass most explanations of this field. These factors included
spirituality, higher potential, transcendence and other states of consciousness. Based on a
collection of 40 definitions, LaJoie and Shapiro (1992) described transpersonal psychology as
being concerned with the study of humanity’s highest potential, and with the recognition,
understanding, and realization of unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness.
In 2007, researchers Hartelius, Caplan, and Rardin conducted a retrospective analysis on
definitions of transpersonal psychology that had appeared in publications over the previous 35
years and found support for three overarching themes: beyond-ego psychology,
integrative/holistic psychology, and psychology of transformation. Beyond (trans) ego
psychology research the activities, practices or substances (such as psychedelics and entheogens)
which contribute to the expansion of self beyond the bounded ego, the development of
compassion, altruism and our highest potential (Hartelius, et al., 2007). The researchers
considered the topics that fall under this theme to be related to the content of a transpersonal
experience. These topics include out-of-the-ordinary states of consciousness, stages of
development beyond the ego, paths that lead us beyond the ego such as meditation and
mysticism, and aspirations to obtain ultimate values, meaning, or purpose.
Proponents of holistic/integrative psychology posit that well-being and optimal health
require a balance of nurturing the body, mind, heart and spirit. Hartelius and associates (2007)
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identified the topics included within this theme to be related to the context of transpersonal
experiences. Topics studied within this theme consider the social, ecological, or cultural context
of the transpersonal experience.
Researchers studying the psychology of transformation posit that personal and spiritual
growth is about transformation of the self, the person, towards higher and more optimal ways of
experiencing, perceiving and living in the world (Hartelius, et al., 2007). The transpersonal
experiences investigated within this theme are considered the catalysts of transpersonal human
change. Such changes are often observed via behaviors such as increased engagement of
prosocial actions and advanced ethical thinking. This theme acknowledges both personal and
societal change. Hartelius, Caplan, and Rardin (2007) compiled the following definition of
transpersonal psychology based on this thematic analysis: An approach to psychology that 1)
studies human phenomena beyond the ego as context for 2) an integrative/holistic psychology;
this provides a framework 3) understanding and cultivating human transformation.
In 2007, the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology and the International Journal of
Transpersonal Studies were accepted for indexing in PsychINFO, the journal database of the
American Psychological Association.
States of Consciousness
Altered states of consciousness (ASC) is one theme central to transpersonal psychology.
This concept was first introduced to the field of psychology as early as 1902 by William James,
but was not studied extensively until the 1960’s. Prominent researchers Charles Tart and
Stanislov Grof made significant contributions to this line of study, highlighting the benefits of
reaching higher states of consciousness, allowing for the first ASC-based clinical interventions.
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When considering states of consciousness, Tart (1972) suggested the definition of ASC involves
a change in the basic state of consciousness, the common waking state. Changes in states of
consciousness can be accomplished through pharmacological means, such as through the use of
hallucinogens like LSD or psilocybin, or through non pharmacological means such as meditation
or sensory deprivation. Modern-day technology has furthered our understanding of the
neurological underpinnings of a wide range of ASC’s such as hypnosis, trances, dreams,
meditation, substance-use intoxication, out-of-body experiences, and near-death experiences.
The common characteristic among ASC’s such as these and others is the subjective experience of
a qualitative change from the individual’s normal waking consciousness. Hartelius et al. (2015)
argue that reaching higher states of consciousness allows for the permanent life changes that help
human beings overcome the ego and reach their highest potential.
Ken Wilber is also regarded as a leading theorist and pioneer of the transpersonal
movement whose studies focused on various states of consciousness. Early in his career, Wilber
criticized proponents of transpersonal psychology for not considering the transpersonal
experiences of all of humanity, as opposed to only the Western experience. He later developed a
theory of consciousness which synthesized both eastern and western psychologies and models of
human development. He established the field of integral psychology encouraging a more holistic
view of human existence (Wilber, 2004). Contemporary proponents of transpersonal psychology
continue to aspire towards a more fully integrative human psychology, advocating for research
on transpersonal experiences from cultures worldwide (references).
Wilber's model of consciousness consists of three broad developmental categories: the
prepersonal or pre-egoic, the personal or egoic, and the transpersonal or trans-egoic. The
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transpersonal stages, or the upper levels of the model, are where spiritual events and
developments occur. The framework proposed by Wilber suggests that human development is a
progressive movement through these stages of consciousness. Each level also represents
developmental tasks that must be properly met, or they might lead to developmental arrest.
In 2017 researchers Nardini-Bubols, Silva da Silva, dos Santos-Silva, Stagnaro, Irigaray,
and Alminhana conducted a systematic review of journal articles investigating ASCs within the
previous 20 years (1997-2017). The researchers used the search terms: [“Altered states of
consciousness” AND “Psychotherapy”] and [“Transpersonal” AND “Psychotherapy”] and
analyzed 14 empirical studies from the 629 articles found. The objectives of their study were to
identify: the “state of the art” empirical research regarding ASCs, the possible psychotherapeutic
benefits of ASCs, the indications and contraindications of the use of ASC techniques used in the
empirical studies, the attributions of the transpersonal psychotherapeutic relationship, and the
transpersonal/methodological limitations of the studies (Nardini-Bubols, 2019).
Most of the studies within the results were carried out in the United States, which the
authors accredited to counterculture movements opposed to pathologization and the biomedical
view of psychology, and the movement of the humanistic/existential school of psychology
(Nardini-Bubols, 2019). Additionally, there are several Transpersonal Psychology professional
associations and PhD programs established in the United States which facilitate scientific
research and publications along this line of study.
Among their results, Nardini-Bubols et. al (2019) identified the following as
empirically-based transpersonal interventions: regression to alleged past lives; guided
imagination; hypnosis; holotropic breathing; ritual of body postures; psychosynthesis; dialog of
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voices; spiritual resonance; empathic engagement therapy; and symbolic reorganization,
interactive dynamics and active imagination as part of Transpersonal Brief Psychotherapy. Many
of these interventions are meant to facilitate objectives such as meaning-making and
self-exploration via the emergence of unconscious material. Some of the empirically supported
outcomes that presented multiple times with the dataset included increased self-awareness,
improvement in the treatment of substance disorder, an increased sense of connection
contributing to interpersonal effectiveness, and the development of qualities such as peace and
acceptance (Nardini-Bubols et. al, 2019). Contraindications for the induction of ASC in the
transpersonal approach were identified for individuals with certain personality disorders, such as
Borderline Personality Disorder; Schizophrenia and psychotic disorders; acute suicidal
tendencies; pregnancy; convulsive disorders; and complaints about nervous system
hyperstimulation, such as hypertension and cardiovascular impairment (Nardini-Bubols et. al,
2019). Contraindications were typically related to difficulty managing the emotionally charged
content that can emerge during the induction of ASC.
Transcendence
Another central theme of transpersonal psychology is transcendence. This word derives
from the latin words for “climb” and “beyond”, and refers to the act of going beyond the
ordinary (Peteet, 2018). Transcendence involves identification with a reality larger than just the
physical world and an experience of another way of existing in the world (Taylor, 2019).
Through his research on the experience of transcendence, Peteet (2018) identifies four core
elements of the phenomenon: suspending disbelief, being inspired or moved, surrendering
oneself, and identifying one’s place within a larger context.
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Through the process of transcendence, the material world is transcended and complex
interactions beyond the material world are exposed (Taylor, 2019). There is a visible change in
aspects of the persona that are perceived by others. The aspects impacted can be sexual,
emotional, mental, or spiritual in nature (Taylor, 2019).
Spiritual Emergency
One mode of transcendence is via spiritual emergency. Stanislav Grof began researching
this phenomenon in 1985 and has since published several journal articles describing his studies.
Grof considers spiritual emergencies to be episodes of non ordinary states of consciousness
accompanied by various emotional, perceptual, and psychosomatic manifestations (Grof and
Grof, 2017). Grof (2017) views spiritual emergencies as a natural part of the developmental
process and as having the potential to result in emotional or psychosomatic healing, personality
transformation, consciousness evolution, and ascension to a higher state of being.
Based on his early studies and on Ken Wilber’s Integral Theory (Wilber, 2000), Grof
(2016) identified four major types of experiences which he described as corresponding to levels
in the human unconscious: (1) Abstract and aesthetic experiences; (2) Psychodynamic
experiences; (3) Perinatal experiences; (4) Transpersonal experiences.
Abstract and aesthetic experiences are perceived by the physiological senses.
Psychodynamic experiences involve biographical memories, emotional problems, unresolved
conflicts, and fantasies. Perinatal levels, which correspond to the theories of Otto Rank (cite),
include physical pain and agony, dying and death, biological birth, aging, disease and
decrepitude. Transpersonal levels include a number of spiritual, paranormal and transcendental
experiences, such as ESP phenomena, ego transcendence, and other states of expanded
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consciousness. In order to bring structure to the psychodynamic and perinatal levels Grof (2004)
introduces two governing systems, or organizing principles: The COEX-system, which is the
governing system for the psychodynamic level, and the Basic Perinatal Matrices, which represent
the birthing stages and is the governing system for the perinatal level. According to this view
proper engagement with the first two levels sets the stage for an ascent to the third, transpersonal
level.
Transpersonal Spiritual Development
The movement towards more eclectic approaches, especially in the attempt to practice in
a more culturally sensitive manner, has provided new opportunities to integrate spirituality with
mainstream psychology. Today, Transpersonal Psychology is considered a sub-field or school of
psychology that integrates the spiritual and transcendent aspects of the human experience with
the framework of modern psychology. A main concern of transpersonal psychology is the
human potential to reach higher states of consciousness that allow for changes in the lives of the
subjects (Nardini-Bubols, et al., 2019). There is a large degree of variability in the nature of
transpersonal phenomena and how these experiences vary both culturally and across the life
cycle (Dale, 2014). The field of transpersonal psychology early recognized that suffering in all
its forms is a significant precursor to transformation. There is a large body of literature regarding
transpersonal issues arising at the end of life, such as life after death or concerns of whether or
not a desired level of potential was achieved. There is less literature available regarding the
transpersonal issues that are experienced during childhood. The intended goal of this literature
review is to identify empirically documented childhood experiences of transcendence in order to
clinically foster this aspect of human development.
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The general consensus amongst contemporary psychologists is that there is more than
one path to spiritual development. Transpersonal psychologists have suggested that
transpersonal development can be considered as an atypical developmental pathway, as powerful
and sustained mystical experiences are not the norm for all members of society at large (Dale,
2014). The above cited study conducted with adolescent spiritual exemplars can serve to
evidence that “spiritual awakening” can occur even at a young age. While studying the
phenomenon of spiritual awakening, Dale (2014) notes that anything that changes the
homeostasis of the system can potentially send development down another path. He argues that
how we process and respond to transpersonal experiences varies so much because of the severity
of the impact those experiences have on internal homeostasis. When new thoughts, emotions,
and behaviors are observed long-term, new developmental pathways are considered “canalized”
and we can expect that these changes will be permanent. Dale (2014) suggests that spiritual
awakening can occur not only after a singular spiritual experience, but can also be attained
through training such as meditation or through natural psychodynamic maturation.
When spiritual development is congruent with cognitive development, the individual has
more psychological resources available when faced with adversity. These resources contribute to
the child’s resilience, indicating a positive interaction between appropriate spiritual development
and resilience. This idea has been supported by many researchers in the past (Cervantes and
Arczynski, 2015; Mueller, 2010; Roehlkepartain, et al., 2006). However, despite the growing
body of literature showing empirical support for a positive correlation between youth spirituality
and positive well-being (Augustyn et al., 2017; Fowler, 1995; Lerner, et al., 2008), there is little
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research investigating the specific mechanisms of spiritual development and how to foster
spiritual growth, particularly within the clinical setting.
Purpose and Significance
The role and involvement of spirituality throughout the course of human development has
been a long-contested topic within the field of psychology. The subjective nature of spiritual
experiences has limited researchers and clinicians ability to reliably study concepts spiritual in
nature. As a result, contemporary clinicians lack empirically evidenced means of engaging and
positively influencing the spiritual dimension of well-being.
Experiences of transcendence can vary widely across the course of human development.
Preliminary research suggests that there are qualitative differences occurring at specific stages of
development depending on factors such as the cultural environment and cognitive capacities of
the child. Available empirical and theoretical studies regarding spiritual development indicate
that transpersonal experiences can positively impact spiritual development in young children and
adolescents as these experiences typically involve a shift in focus from self to other (Foster,
1995; Dale, 2014; Augustyn, et al., 2017; King, et al., 2014; Lerner, et al., 2008). This clinical
dissertation will conduct a comprehensive literature review on the transpersonal spiritual
experiences of young children and adolescents in an attempt to identify the time in development
when these experiences are most salient. The data obtained will be categorized and organized
based on the age of the child at the time of the experience, and mapped on a chronological
trajectory of transpersonal spiritual development. The hypothesis of this dissertation is that
transpersonal spiritual experiences are most prevalent in early adolescence when children are still
prone to emotions such as awe and wonder, and more cognitively equipped to process those
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experiences. This literature review is intended to provide empirical data that mental health care
workers can use to promote healthy psychospiritual development in children and adolescents
through the lens of transpersonal psychology. Ideally, the data provided by this research will
facilitate the engagement of the spiritual dimension of human existence within children and
adolescents in the therapy setting, providing clinicians with a means to positively impact this
potentially powerful resource for human development.
Chapter 2
Method
A comprehensive systematic literature review will be conducted on existing theories,
models, and empirical evidence of the transpersonal experiences of young children and
adolescents. Convergent or highly supported findings will be organized based on the typical age
of the child at the time of experience, from 2 through 17 years-of-age. Divergent results, such as
atypical experiences of transpersonal experiences in young children and adolescents, will also be
analyzed and discussed.
Identification of Source Material
Eligible documents were identified through an extensive search of the following online
databases: Academic Search Elite, eBook Academic Collection– EBSCOhost, eBook
Collection–EBSCOhost, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Google Scholar,
Health Business Elite, Health Source: Nursing/Academic Edition, JSTOR, Library &
Information Science Source, MAS Ultra – School Edition, MEDLINE, Newspaper Source,
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Professional Development Collection, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, PubMed, Sage Premier
Journals, and Taylor & Francis Social Science and Humanities.
Key Search Terms
The literature review database search included some or all of the terms empiric*, model,
theor*, theor* of, spiritual*, and development* be included in the subject of the article, and
transpersonal*, mentioned in any other field of the article.
Inclusion Criteria
Within the aforementioned databases, searches were limited to peer reviewed empirical
and theoretical articles (i.e., journal articles). Secondary sources were only included if they
presented meta-analyses or other authoritative literature reviews (e.g. Roehlkepartain, et al.,
2006, Lerner, et al., 2008). Reference lists from eligible sources were also reviewed to identify
supplementary sources. As transpersonal spiritual development is a relatively recent topic of
interest amongst researchers, there was no limit set on the date of article publication. In an effort
to enhance cross-cultural reliability of concept interpretation, searches were not limited to the
English language as many electronic sources offer language translation. Only articles that
mentioned spirituality or spiritual development within the context of transpersonal psychology
were considered for inclusion. Results that identified a specific theory or model, or that
described a quantitative empirical study were prioritized.
Exclusion Criteria
Sources were excluded from the current review if the focus did not meet the
aforementioned inclusion criteria. Articles that did not identify a transpersonal concept or
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perspective of spiritual development in relation to young children or adolescents were excluded
from the dataset.
Selection Process
As of 5/01/21, a search for peer-reviewed journal articles on the subject of spiritual*
development yielded 2,187 results. A search for peer-reviewed journal articles on the subject of
spiritual development with the term “transpersonal” contained in any field narrowed these results
to 197.
Article titles and abstracts were screened to eliminate duplicate articles and to further
limit results to articles specifically discussing childhood or adolescent transpersonal experiences,
or a transpersonal theory, model, or empirical study of spiritual development. If a transpersonal
theory, model, or empirical study on spiritual development was not mentioned in the abstract, the
full body of the article was reviewed in order to obtain this information. A final dataset of 127
articles meeting inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted.
Organization, Analysis, and Discussion.
The empirically and theoretically evidenced transpersonal experiences in young children
and adolescents identified within the dataset were organized into the following age groups based
on Fowler’s 6 Stages of Faith Development (1995): 0-2 years old, 3-6 years old, 7-12 years old,
13-17 years old. The following chapter will identify and summarize the specific transpersonal
experiences typically occurring during these specific times of development. Any factors
precipitating or perpetuating these experiences will be summarized. The highly supported or
convergent elements obtained from these results will be used in the design of a contemporary,
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theoretically sound framework that maps out the developmental trajectory of transpersonal
spiritual development in young children and adolescents.
Chapter 3
Summary of Results
0-2 Years-of-age
3-6 Years-of-age
7-12 Years-of-age
13-17 Years-of-age
Chapter 4
Discussion
What may make religion different from mundane thoughts about one’s parents are
contemplative traditions, such as meditation and prayer, which have the potential to change how
the brain is wired among regular practitioners, says University of Wisconsin psychologist
Richard Davidson, PhD (2003). His work using both fMRI and EEG to measure brain activity of
long-term Buddhist meditation practitioners during meditation shows that they have a stronger
and better organized attention system than people who are just learning how to meditate. In
essence, meditation — and perhaps any contemplative spiritual practice — enhances attention
and turns off the areas of the brain that focus on the self. With less focus on the self, the needs of
the self become less important, and the needs of others become more salient.
An active dissatisfaction with the self influences progression along the spectrum of
acceptance as the individual strives for self-actualization, and in some religions, absolute
perfection (Rogers et al., 2013). This active sense of self-dissatisfaction is an essential
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component for spiritual growth. Together with the therapist, the client determines which
elements of the self are in need of change, the first steps to begin the change the client seeks, and
which elements to accept as necessary for growth and not amenable to change. As the child
matures developmentally, they are able to develop a more accurate representation of the self.
Their skills for determining which parts of the self are unacceptable and integrating both good
and bad traits improve as development progresses.
Individuals whose spiritual development is congruent with their cognitive development
would likely be more efficient in processes such as identity formation as key personal values are
more readily identified during moral and ethical decision-making (Fowler, 1995). Identifying
and utilizing key personal values in this manner is pivotal to self-actualization.
As a child progresses through the course of development, particular psychospiritual
processes present. At lower levels of spiritual development, basic virtues such as temperance,
wisdom, and courage are often valued and their development encouraged by primary caregivers.
At higher levels, more complex and more socially relevant virtues such as honor, justice, and
compassion are valued. The development of these virtues is often encouraged by the social
institutions with which the child is involved. As the child’s cognitive capacities develop, so do
their spiritual capacities. If the individual has difficulty with cognitive abilities such as abstract
thought processes, then discerning concepts spiritual in nature will also be difficult. This holds
particular relevance for individuals on the autism spectrum who tend to have more concrete
thought processes and lack the ability to make the interpersonal shift from self to other. The
capacity for spiritual development will also be contingent on the capacity to experience and
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process more complex emotions. Effective assessment and intervention should focus on the
strengths of the individual, not his or her limitations.
Those at the lowest levels of spiritual existence will regard only the beliefs that they have
evidenced or experienced themselves to be true and of the highest importance and give little to
no consideration for how the goals they set and the decisions they make will affect others. Those
at higher levels of spiritual existence will consider important others in their lives while engaging
in these processes because of that interpersonal shift from self to other. They will consider
which beliefs significant others have found to be true. They will hold the value of human life in
high regard. Those in the upper levels of spiritual existence will value the opinions of others
with whom they have not yet had the opportunity to validate any sort of credibility.
At the highest level of the vertical axis of spiritual development can be found spiritual
exemplars. When making decisions and setting goals they look at “the big picture.” They will
hold the existence of all living creatures in high regard. Existential consequences are considered
in their day-to-day decision making and goal setting, whether or not their actions are serving the
sacred and its purpose, life and good, or death and evil.
It should not be assumed that spiritual concerns do not arise or should not be addressed
in the early stages of treatment. In actuality, spiritual concerns are more likely to present during
times when an individual’s needs are not getting met and we are struggling physically,
psychologically, and/or socially. Clinicians may find it helpful to remind clients of this hierarchy
when goals are being established or changed.
Role of the Therapist.
While conducting an assessment of a child’s spiritual state or needs, the clinician may find that
the child lacks the vocabulary to verbalize experiences of a spiritual nature. Starting with the
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initial meeting, clinicians can begin a spiritually sensitive assessment by identifying and actively
discussing spiritual language used by the family. At times, the therapist may need to take the
lead when engaging the client in discussions regarding spiritual matters, as many clients feel this
topic is off-limits within the therapy setting (citation?). This may be especially salient when
working with children. The clinician should be cognizant and make use of phrases or concepts
of a spiritual nature that are used directly by the child and other family members.
Spiritual development, and accordingly the goals of VP, are relational in nature. It begins
with development and maintenance of a healthy relationship with the self, and then with others,
and then with the divine or sacred. Throughout this process the client is learning about
transcendence, a sense of existence beyond themselves and others. “Experiences become
spiritual or transcendent when they are imbued with meaning that goes beyond provincialism or
materialism, and authentic concerns about the world and beyond are expressed” (Reich, 1998).
The cognitive and emotional focus on the self is transcended and the individual becomes aware
of and motivated to seek out ways in which to contribute to the world in important and
potentially noble ways (Warren et al., 2011). An important role of the spiritually-minded
clinician is to model the use of transcendent reflection and meaning-making during the process
of identity formation. This will help the child negotiate an identity with fidelity to family and
spirit, and to assist in the navigation of general cultural relationships (Miller in Hathaway). This
results in the creation of an identity beyond what the child alone could have preconceived.
In their chapter on acceptance as a spiritual intervention, Rogers, Steen, and McGregor
(2013) discuss how the therapist can create opportunities for a corrective experience of
acceptance of self and others within the therapy setting. The therapist should demonstrate that
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any and all aspects of the client are worthy of acceptance. This practice helps to strengthen
rapport as the therapist communicates to the child that they can accept and tolerate whatever the
client brings to therapy. This practice can also help the child with the theme of good versus evil,
and a splitting of the self into good and bad components. In time, modeled acceptance is
internalized resulting in an expanded sense of self and feelings of peace. Rogers and associates
(2013) advise that client and therapist should be aware of new consequences that can arise when
the undesired elements of self are experienced.
The spiritually-minded psychotherapist is not just a passive observer of the client’s belief
system, but instead opens themselves up to the universe for direction on setting the client onto
his or her path. Since the clinician cannot be sure where this path will go, treatment plans should
incorporate an element of flexibility. The clinician is likened more to a guide who is
accompanying the individual on his or her journey up the mountain, not to the sage who awaits
their arrival at the mountain peak, an image that is often invoked in Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy. The therapist should seek to empower the individual to accept the world
and the unknown, and then to make a positive impact with and beyond the physical world. This
will foster resilience against existential hopelessness and identity stagnation as their actions and
behaviors are guided by a sense of meaning and purpose.
Caregiver Component
Differences in caregiver and child spiritual views can be a source of conflict, especially when the
goals of each diverge. Competing cultural values may contribute to this conflict, for example, a
culture of origin may value familial similitude, while the child’s environmental or societal
culture emphasizes independence. Other sources of conflict can include parental perfection and
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rigidity, and religiously based physical and psychological abuse of children. More common
conflicting spiritual topics arising within the parent-adolescent relationship include issues
regarding sexuality, gender and sexual identity, identity individuation, and traditional vs.
non-traditional family relationships.
A child’s primary caregivers are the first to have influence over the initiation and
development of a child’s spiritual thinking. The parent-child relationship might also be
considered due to the properties of things sacred that can be experienced within this relationship
such as reverence and a search for guidance and comfort. These qualities are especially salient
in children of younger age. Parenting is a spiritual absolute; parents model charity, mercy,
wisdom, forgiveness, and sacrifice (reference).
Often children adopt the spiritual identities of their parents, but occasionally
children lead parents to their spiritual paths (reference?).
Ethics. The standard ethical concerns as applied to the niche of spiritual or existential
psychotherapy as established by the APA (2013) would apply to any of the aforementioned
interventions. 2021-APA Division 36 task force to present new guidelines on Religion &
Spirituality. At the forefront of those concerns is to do no harm. A clinician who is dismissive
of spiritual issues may unintentionally cause harm if that issue is directly related to the
individual’s symptomology. Prejudice and bias should also be avoided; there should be no
assumption of hierarchy amongst religions. Respect for the client’s autonomy should be
maintained. The client’s readiness to discuss matters of a spiritual nature should be considered.
Clinicians should make active efforts to not impose personal values or beliefs onto the client.
Value imposition is a psychotherapist’s attempts to influence a client to adopt the therapist’s
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values, attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors (Richards and Bergin, 2005). In this same vein, the
clinician should actively maintain awareness of the client-therapist power differential. Care
should be taken to avoid conflictual dual relationships, i.e., the therapist cannot act as priest or
other religious officer. The clinician should practice within the bounds of his or her competence.
When the bounds of confidence are in question, steps towards consultation and/or collaboration
should be made. When referral to a spiritual expert occurs, adequate attempts should be made to
assure the professional is non offensive, and of good fit for the client’s needs and goals. These
requirements for an ethical practice make therapy the ideal setting for the exploration of spiritual
hopes, doubts, and concerns.
Ethical issues salient to the spiritual treatment of children and families include attention
to cognitive capacity of the individual, especially those with special vulnerabilities, and the
systematic complexities of the legal status and rights of a minor. Children and adolescents often
have reduced self-determination and are less able developmentally to protect their own interests.
This makes it vital that clinicians utilizing spiritual interventions take special care to protect the
child’s well-being (Hathaway, 2013, pg. 20). Clinicians should also consider obtaining caregiver
consent for spiritual interventions used with a minor. This might occur within the initial consent
for treatment, or may occur as a verbal consent once evidence of the therapeutic benefit of such
interventions presents during the course of treatment.
When considering treating an individual in a more holistic manner, the spiritual and
existential concerns of that person should not be neglected. As treatment goals include active
improvement and positive change in the realms of physical, psychological, and social well-being,
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the same attention and vigor should be paid to improvement and positive change within the
spiritual well-being of the individual.
Chapter 5
Conclusion
A holistic approach to mental health care is emerging, necessitating new ways of conceptualizing
and treating all of the dimensions of human existence that contribute to an individual’s health
and well-being. This means considering the interactive nature of all dimensions of well-being:
biological, psychological, social, and spiritual. Implications include deliberate training in the
conceptualization, assessment, and treatment of the spiritual dimension to be used by a wide
variety of health care providers. This is especially relevant for those involved in mental health
care as psychotherapy provides an ideal environment for the recognition, processing, and
adjustment of spiritual concerns.
The therapeutic environment is designed to be a safe place, where clients of any age
should feel free to discuss their concerns without fear of judgment or disbelief. Donald
Winnicott (1971) conceptualized the safe space that is created during the process of
psychotherapy as a “transitional space,” where people are nurtured into opening up emotionally
and psychologically in order to work through their conflicts. Like a child who moves from
attachment to independence by slowly exploring their environment while still keeping sight of
their secure base, working in this transitional space allows the individual to gain insight into
significant life experiences, so that they are eventually able to negotiate more challenging
predicatments on their own. When conflicts involve matters spiritual in nature, a degree of
reverence, faith, and a search for meaning are implicated, which are elements of things sacred.
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The sacred space that is created during the process of psychotherapy provides the ideal
environment for the fostering of transcendence. During psychotherapy children and adolescents
can voice thoughts of uncertainty without fear of judgment or admonishment, and so worthy
ground for discussions of a spiritual or sacred nature. This therapeutic space is fertile ground for
discussion of transcendental experiences and the development of a healthy spirituality.
Treatment plans integrating empirical spiritual interventions should be developed in an
effort to maximize positive clinical outcomes within all dimensions of human existence, and
across the lifespan. The active neglect of the spiritual dimension during psychotherapy may
potentially cause more harm than good, obstructing the identification of deeper issues
contributing to an individual’s mental difficulties, and the interventions that could be used to
relieve those difficulties.
Developmentally appropriate treatment of spiritual concerns can require special care and
consideration, but a skilled clinician can readily foster positive change using tools often already
in the client’s possession. Spiritual interventions can provide the strong emotional response
needed to change neurological physiology. Psychotherapeutic interventions of this nature can be
especially influential during early stages of development, due to the neuroplastic nature of the
brain. The end goal of spiritual development is the conquest of the soul. We hope to obtain
something that will substantially surpass mortality, for instance, in having contributed something
valuable to humankind. The purpose of this project is to provide therapists with a means with
which to engage psychotherapy clients of a wide range of developmental stages in the
exploration of matters related to the development of spirituality. This approach will enable
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clinicians to identify the spiritual concerns of a variety of psychological presentations across the
lifespan, and to facilitate multidimensional psychological treatment.
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