Lesson Proper for Week 13 CONSERVATION EFFORTS ON BIODIVERSITY Direct Quote: “Biodiversity is being lost at alarming rates - between 1,000 and 10,000 times faster than the natural extinction rate, owing to problems such as habitat destruction and climate change. A broad range of ecosystem services are degraded as a result. The loss of biodiversity has devastating effects on local and indigenous communities around the world who depend on it for their livelihoods. We have to respect and regenerate biodiversity, and this means respecting flora and fauna, and also respecting people.” (The Union for Ethical BioTrade, n.d.) Consider that: 7,000 plants species are consumed by humans as food 17% of plant species are used for medicinal purposes 70% of the world's poor live in rural areas and depend on biodiversity for their survival Some drivers of biodiversity loss are localized, such as overexploitation. Others are global, such as climate change, while many operate at a variety of scales, such as the local impacts of invasive species through global trade. Most of the responses assessed here were designed to address the direct drivers of biodiversity loss. However, these drivers are better seen as symptoms of the indirect drivers, such as unsustainable patterns of consumption, demographic change, and globalization. What is Biodiversity Conservation? Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of biodiversity to obtain resources for sustainable development. Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives: To preserve the diversity of species. Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem. To maintain life-supporting systems and essential ecological processes. Biodiversity and its Conservation Methods Direct Quote: “Biodiversity refers to the variability of life on earth. It can be conserved in the following ways: In-situ Conservation Ex-situ Conservation In-situ Conservation In-situ conservation of biodiversity is the conservation of species within their natural habitat. In this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained and protected. The in-situ conservation has several advantages. Following are the important advantages of in-situ conservation: 1. It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity. 2. A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously. 3. Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve better and can easily adjust to different environmental conditions. Certain protected areas where in-situ conservation takes place include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.” (Biodiversity Conservation Definition, n.d.) Direct Quote: “National Parks These are small reserves maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well-demarcated, and human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat, and cultivation are prohibited. For e.g.., Kanha National Park, Bandipur National Park. Wildlife Sanctuaries These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities such as timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods, and other forest products are allowed here as long as they do not interfere with the conservation project. Also, tourists visit these places for recreation. Biosphere Reserves Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose, protected areas where the wildlife, traditional lifestyle of the inhabitants, and domesticated plants and animals are protected. Tourist and research activities are permitted here. Ex-situ Conservation Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less competition for food, water, and space among the organisms. Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages: 1. The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity. 2. The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild. 3. Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species. Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation Following are the important strategies for biodiversity conservation: 1. All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes, and agricultural animals should be conserved. 2. All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved. 3. Unique ecosystems should be preserved first. 4. The resources should be utilized efficiently. 5. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented. 6. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully. 7. The levels of pollutants should be reduced in the environment. 8. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited. 9. Environmental laws should be followed strictly. 10. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be conserved in their nature as well as artificial habitats. 11. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity conservation and its importance.” (What is Biodiversity Conservation?) Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity? Direct Quote: “It is believed that an area with higher species abundance has a more stable environment compared to an area with lower species abundance. We can further claim the necessity of biodiversity by considering our degree of dependency on the environment. We depend directly on various species of plants for our various needs. Similarly, we depend on various species of animals and microbes for different reasons. Biodiversity is being lost due to the loss of habitat, over-exploitation of resources, climatic changes, pollution, invasive exotic species, diseases, hunting, etc. Since it provides us with several economic and ethical benefits and adds aesthetic value, it is very important to conserve biodiversity.” (Biodiversity Conservation Definition, n.d.) Direct Quote: “10 Ways to Protect Biodiversity 1. Help the bees! Bees pollinate nearly 90% of plant species, and they contribute to more than 35% of the world’s food supply, but they’re under threat from varroa mites. Plant scientists are developing cutting-edge crop protection products to help farmers control the mites and protect precious bee populations. Give pollinators an extra boost in your backyard by planting a variety of wildflowers and native plants to provide nectar that will bloom throughout the season. You can also build bee boxes for native bees to make their home. 2. Plant local flowers, fruit, and vegetables Research the plants and vegetables that are local to your area and grow a variety. Each plant and vegetable helps to protect biodiversity and supports the wider ecosystem of your local area. 3. Protect natural habitats Human impact on the earth can have a devastating impact on biodiversity. Small steps like keeping to walking paths and not stepping through flowers or crops can help protect what is growing there. 4. Take a walk Climate change can have devastating consequences for biodiversity. Reducing your carbon footprint by taking the bus or walking can help protect it. Plant scientists are also working to combat climate change every day. One example is through innovative developments in conservation tillage, which uses less fuel and therefore reduces the emission of greenhouse gases. 5. Conserve your water use Fresh bodies of water are essential to biodiversity. Reducing the amount of water you use by having a 5minute shower or not running the water when washing up the dishes can help protect vital wetlands. Plant scientists are also working to help conserve by developing crop varieties that use less water. 6. Reduce, reuse and recycle Recycling lessens pollution by decreasing energy, electricity, and water consumption and the need for landfills. Not only can you recycle bottles and cans, but your local recycling center will usually allow you to recycle clothes, electrical goods, and batteries. Programs around the world have collected and recycled almost 800,000 metric tons of empty pesticide containers and agricultural plastics in the last thirteen years. That is more than the weight of 100 Eiffel Towers. 7. Support farmers Farmers play a key role in conserving biodiversity. With the help of biotechnology and plant science, farmers can grow more food on the same amount of land. This takes the pressure off the need to convert natural habitats into farmland. 8. Buy local foods when you can Buying from your local farmer at a farmers’ market or through a farm stand gives you the ability to find out how your food was grown and learn what they are doing on the farm to help conserve biodiversity. 9. Visit your local botanical garden Botanical gardens are great for biodiversity conservation, as scientists can store, study and grow plants in their native habitats. Visiting and donating to your local botanical garden will help them continue to protect and promote biodiversity. 10. Educate yourself and those around you Educating people about the importance of biodiversity conservation increases public awareness of the issue. As public awareness increases, people become more involved in caring about their environment.” (CropLife International, 2019) Lesson Proper for Week 14 THE NANO WORLD Direct Quote: "Nano comes from the Greek word for dwarf. The prefix nano means a factor of one billionth (10-9) in the metric system and can be applied, e.g., to time (nanosecond), volume (nanoliter), weight (nanogram) or length (nanometer or nm). In its popular use nano refers to length, and the nanoscale usually refers to a length from the atomic level of around 0.1 nm up to 100 nm. Nanostructures or naanomaterials are forms if matter at the nanoscale." (Ten things you should know about nanotechnology, n.d.) The nanoscale, 10 hydrogen atoms laid side by side measure a nanometre across, a strand of DNA is 2.5 nm in diameter, while a red blood cell is about 7000 nm wide. Direct Quote: "A piece of paper is about 100,000 nm thick. human hair is about 70,000 to 80,000 nm. A red blood cell is about 7,000 nm. A virus is about 10 to 100 nm. While the exact definition of nano technology may vary, most research and studies have concentrated on particles with at least one dimension of less than 100 nm." (Canadian Centre for Occupational Health & Safety, 2018) Article: Government Funding for Nano Technology in Different Countries The main reason for government interest in nanotechnology is strategic: to achieve an advantageous position so that when nanotech applications begin to have a significant effect in the world economy, countires are able to exploit these new opportunities to the full. The main reason for government interest in nano technology is strategic: to achieve an advantageous position so that when nanotech applications begin to have a significant effect in the world economy, countires are able to exploit these new opportunities to the full. Harper, who describes the current situation as a global 'arms race', puts these ideas into perspective: Similiraties between Information Technology and Nanotechnology Evolutions "You only have to look at how IT made a huge difference to both US economy and US military strength to see how crucial technology is Nano technology is an even more fundamental technology than IT. Not only has it the ability to shift the balance of military power but also affect the global balance of power in the energy markets" Main Areas of Nanotechnology Spending This emphasis on military power is well founded: Smith echoes this sentiment when he speculates that is entirely possible that much, or even most, US government research in the field is concentrated in the hands of military planners. Levels of public investment in nanotechnology are reminiscent of a growing strategic interest: this is an area that attracts both large and small countries. Global R&D spending is currently around US$4 billion, with public investment increasing rapidly (503% between 1997 and 2002 across the 'lead' countries). Table 1 summarizes these rises. Table 1. World-wide government funding for nanotechnology research and development (US$million). Area 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 US* 116 190 255 270 422 604 710 Western Europe 126 151 179 200 225 400 NA Japan 120 135 157 245 465 NA Others** 70 83 96 110 380 520 NA Total 432 559 687 825 1502 2174 NA % of 1997 100 129 159 191 348 503 NA Excluding non-federal spending e.g., California. Others include Australia, Canada, China, Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, Singapore, Taiwan and other countries with nanotechnology R&D. For example, in Mexico, there are 20 research groups working independently on nanotechnology. Korea, already a world player in electronics, has an ambitious 10-year programme to attain a world-class position in nanotechnology. (Commodore Kulshrestha, 2006) (AZoNano, 2004) Philippine Priorities for Nanotechnology A hopeful scenario for the Philippines Nanotechnology can provide solutions for Filipinos' basic needs. Cheaper and accessible solar cells based on quantum dots, graphene nanosheets, etc. Clean water may be possible with the use of nanocatalysts and nanofilters. Agricultural activity can be enhanced by improved pest control using nanoencapsulation Medical diagnosis with nanotechnology-based portable medical diagnostics kits Wider education through advances in nano-ICT. We should take advantage of our indigenous resources - from our diverse marine, forest, and agricultural resources to our abundant sunshine. We should apply nanotechnology to address our national priorities: ICT, energy, health, environment, food, and agricultural productivity. The Philippines' 5-year Nanotechnology Roadmap 1. Nano-based Technologies/Materials Nano-based technologies/materials for Environment: Water and Waste Water Purification, and Nano-based Engineering/Industrial materials 2. Nanosensors and Nanodiagnostics Food(detection of contaminants), Agriculture and Forestry (detection of diseases), and health (Filipino ethnicity-based nanodiagnostics) 3. Nanosensors and Nanodiagnostics Fully operational metrology and FA and materials testing laboratory 4. Nanostructured Soalr Energy Devices and Storage National Solar Cell R&D Testing Facility, new design and new methodologies for energy storage devices, and scaling up processes of nanostructured solar and energy storage devices. Application of Nanotechnology Direct Quote: "Though nanotechnology is a relatively new science, it already has numerous applications in everyday life, ranging from consumer goods to medicine to improving the environment." Here are a few examples: a. Medicine One application of nanotechnology in medicine currently being developed involves employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs, heat, light or other substance too specific types of cells, such as cancer cells. Particles are engineered so that they are attracted to diseased cells, which allow direct treatment of those cells. This technique reduces damage to healthy cells in the body and allows for earlier detection of disease. For example, nanoparticles that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells are under development. b. Electronics Nanoelectronics holds some answers on expanding the capabilities of electronics devices can be expanded while reducing their weight and power consumption. These include improving display screens on electronics devices and increasing the density of memory chips. Nanotechnology can also reduce their size of transistors used in integrated circuits. One researcher believes it may be possible to put the power of all of today's present computers in the palm of your hand. c. Environment Nanotechnology is being used in several applications to improve the environment. This includes cleaning up existing pollution, improving manufacturing methods to reduce the generation of new pollution, and making alternative energy sources more cost effective. Potential applications include: 1. Cleaning up organic chemicals polluting groundwater. Researchers have shown that iron nanoparticles can be effective in cleaning up organic solvents that are polluting groundwater. The iron nanoparticles disperse throughout the body of water and decompose the organic solvent in place. This method can be more effective and cost significantly less than treatment methods that require the water to be pumped out of the ground. 2. Cleaning less pollution during the manufacture of materials. Researchers have demonstrated that the use of silver nanoclusters as catalyst can significantly reduce the polluting byproducts generated in the process used to manufacture propylene oxide. Propylene oxide is used to produce common materials such as plastics, paint, detergents and brake fluid. 3. Increasing the electricity generated by windmills. Epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being used used to make windmill blades. The resulting blades are stronger and lower weight and therefore the amount of electricity generated by each windmill is greater. 4. Producing solar cells that generate electricity at a competitive cost. Researchers have demonstrated that an array silicon nanowires embedded in a polymer results in low-cost but highefficiency solar cells. This may result in solar cells that generate electricity as cost effectively as coal or oil. d. Consumer Products Nanotechnology has already found its way into numerous consumer products you use every day, from clothing to skin lotion. They include: 1. Silver nanoparticles in fabric that kill bacteria making clothing odor-resistant. 2. Skin care products that use nanoparticles to deliver vitamins deeper into the skin. 3. Lithium ion batteries that use nanoparticle-based electodes powering plug-in electric cars. 4. Flame retardent formed by coating the foam used in furniture with carbon nanofibers. e. Sporting Goods Even sporting goods have been improved by nanotechnology. Current nanotechnology applications in the sports arena include: 1. Increasing the strength of tennis rackets by adding nanotubes to the frames which increases control and power when you hit the ball. 2. Filling any imperfections in golf club shaft materials with nanoparticles; this improves the uniformity of the material that makes up the shaft and thereby improving your swing. 3. Reducing the rate at which air leaks from tennis balls so they keep their bounce longer." (Chaurasia, 2007) Article: The Risk Factor In order to discuss the risks of nanotechnology, we need to take a closer look at these nanostructures. The mere presence of nanomaterials is not in itself a threat; as a matter of fact, nanoparticles exist in nature. it is only certain aspects that can make them risky in particular their mobility and their increased reactivity. Only if certain properties of certain nanoparticles were proven harmful to living beings or the environment would we be faced with a genuine hazard. Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Nanoparticles (<100nm) Natural Anthropogenic Unintentional Internal combustion Gas-to-provide conversions engines Forest fires Power plants Volcanoes (hot lava) Incinerators Viruses Jet engines Ferritin Polymer fumes Heated surfaces Metal fumes (Smelting, welding etc.) Frying, broiling, grilling Electronic motors Biogenic magnetite Microparticles(<100nm; activated cells) Intentional Controlled size and shape, designed for functionality Metals, semiconductors, metal oxides, carbon, polymers Nanosphere, -wires, needles, -tubes, -shells, rings, -platelets Untreated, coated (applied to many products: cosmetics, medical, fabrics, electronics, optics, displays etc.) Potential for Release and Exposure to Nanoscale Substances The environment, health, and safety (EHS) risks of a nanomaterial may differ by characteristics such as size, shape, and surface chemistry, among others. Characteristics of a nanomaterial that could affect risk Characteristics of a nanomaterial that could affect risk include its particles: 1. size, 2. distribution of sizes in a group of particles, 3. shape, 4. surface area, 5. likelihood of forming agglomerates (clumps of particles bound together), and 6. surface chemistry including surface composition, shape, or chemical reactivity. In addressing the EHS impact of nanotechechnology we need to differentiate two types of nanostructures: 1. Nanocomposites, nanostructured surfaces and nanocomponents (electronic, optical, sensors, etc.), where nanoscale particles are incorporated into a substance, material or device ("fixed" nano-particles); and 2. "Free" nanoparticles, where at some stage in production or use individual nanoparticles of a substance are present. These free nanoparticles could be nanoscale species of elements, or simple compounds, but also complex compounds where for instance a nanoparticle of a particular element is coated with an other substance. These seems to be consensus that, although one should be aware of materials containing fixed nanoparticles, the immediate concern is with free nanoparticles. Particle Diameter Number of Particles Particle Surface Area (nm) (per cm3) (um3/cm3) 5 153,000,000 12,000 20 2,400,000 3,016 250 1,200 240 5000 0.15 12 The extraordinary high numbers of nanoparticles per given mass will likely be of toxicological significance when these particles interact with cells and subcellular components. Likewise, their increased surface area per unit mass can be toxicologically important. (Source: Reproduced with permission from Environm. Health Pesp.) Because nanoparticles are very different from their everyday counterparts - thanks to surface and quantum effects - their adverse effects cannot be derived from the known toxicity of the macro-sized material. This poses significant issues for addressing the health and environmental impact of free nanoparticles. To complicate things further, in talking about nanoparticles it is important that a power or liquid containing nanoparticles is almost never monodisperse but will contain a range of particle sizes. This complicates the experimental analysis as larger nanoparticles might have different properties than smaller ones. Also, nanoaprticles show a tendency to aggregate, and such aggregates often behave differently from individual nanoparticles. Potential for Release and Exposure to Nanoscale Substances Health Issues There are four entry routes for nanoparticles into the body: then can be inhaled, swallowed, absorbed through the skin, or be deliberately injected during medical procedures. Once within the body, they are highly mobile and, in some instances, can even cross the blood-brain barrier. How these nanoparticles behave inside the organism is one of the big issues that need to be resolved. Basically, the behavior of nanoparticles is a function of their size, shape, and surface reactivity with the surrounding tissue. They could cause "overload" on phagocytes, cells that ingest and destroy foreign matter, thereby triggering stress reactions that lead to inflammation and weaken the body's defense against other pathogens. Apart from what happens if non- or slowly degradable nanoparticles accumulate in organs, another concern is their potential interaction with biological processes inside the body: because of their large surface, nanoparticles on exposure to tissue and fluids will immediately absorb onto their large their surface some of the macromolecules they encounter. Can this, for instance, affect the regulatory mechanisms of enzymes and other proteins? For instance, there are ongoing studies that are investigating whether the amount of free radicals formed on the surface of nanoparticles is sufficient to induce cellular effects. Read more about nanoparticles, free radicals, and oxidative stress here with an overview about what free radicals are, how they originate, why organisms need them, how they are neutralized, and what we know about the connection between nanoparticles and free radical production. Environmental Issues Not enough data exists to know for sure if nanoparticles could have undesirable effects on the environment. Two areas are relevant here: 1. In free form, nanoparticles can be released in the air or water during production (or production accidents) or as waste byproduct of production and ultimately accumulate in the soil, water, or plant life. 2. In fixed form, where they are part of a manufactured substance or product, they will ultimately have to be recycled or disposed of as waste. We don't know yet if certain nanoparticles will constitute a completely new class of non-biodegradable pollutants. In case they do, we also don't know yet how such pollutants could be removed from air or water because most traditional filters are not suitable for such tasks (their pores are too big to catch nanoparticles). To properly assess the health hazards of engineered nano-particles, the whole life cycle of these particles needs to be evaluated, including their fabrication, storage and distribution, application and potential abuse, and disposal. The impact on humans or the environment may vary at different stages of the life cycle. One term you hear quite in discussion about the potential risks of nanotechnology is the precautionary principle. This moral and political principle, as commonly defined, states that if an action or policy might cause severe or irreversible harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of a scientific consensus that harm would not ensue, the burden of proof falls on those who would advocate taking the action. The principle aims to provide guidance for protecting public health and the environment in the face of uncertain risks, stating that the absence of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason to postpone measures where there is a risk of serious or irreversible harm to public health of the environment. (Ten things you should know about nanotechnology, n.d.) Last modified: Sunday, 22 May 2022, 2:14 PM Lesson Proper for Week 15 Gene Therapy (scielo.br, n.d.) “The first scientific work involving gene transfer was described in 1944 and involved two strains of Pneumococcus, one pathogenic and the other non-pathogenic. However, only in the 1950s, the threedimensional structure of DNA was elucidated, allowing the emergence of what we now know as genetic engineering. Since then, the possibility of using the genes or gene fragments for different scientific purposes emerged.” (scielo.br, n.d.) “About ten years later, in 1963, the idea of anticipating the in vitro culture of germ cells genetically engineered to obtain direct control of these cells by selecting and integrating specific genes in human chromosomes arises. Since then, numerous experimental designs to establish safe methodologies to insert healthy genes into defective cells were initiated.” (scielo.br, n.d.) “However, the first successful in vitro gene correction in mammalian cells occurred in 1977, using a viral vector as a vehicle to transport the genetic material. The first clinical trial of human gene therapy was performed in 1989 using a viral vector in five patients with metastatic melanoma. This pioneering study in humans established some important experimental designs for future clinical interventions using gene transfer.” (scielo.br, n.d.) “The method stimulated intense research in subsequent decades to optimize viral vectors for the insertion of therapeutic DNA, leading to the possibility of clinical applications in humans. The choice of viral vectors for the purpose occurred because these beings can recognize and infiltrate naturally in the cell nucleus and thus transfer the therapeutic DNA into the host cell. “ (scielo.br, n.d.) “Moreover, with the advent of human genome sequencing and the development of new software tools for comparing genes, the diagnosis of almost all human diseases related to genetic defects became possible. Thus, gene therapy is currently the most efficient and promising clinical tool available, capable of predicting with a high level of accuracy if someone will develop a disease and cure it.” (scielo.br, n.d.) “In general, gene therapy can be organized according to its cellular target, being called somatic gene therapy when the target is limited to somatic cells. This therapeutic method can also be considered an ex vivo system since tissue samples or cells from the patient must be collected for biopsy with subsequent re-implantation after the cells are reprogrammed genetically, allowing the correct synthesis of desired gene products. Another widely used method involves germ cell lineages generated after collection; the genes of interest are reprogrammed. The new features will be perpetuated for future generations of cells from the patient.” (scielo.br, n.d.) Stem Cell and Gene Therapy According to primaryimmune.org (n.d.), “A “stem cell” is a type of cell that can divide over and over and produce more stem cells and descendant cells that turn into different types of cells. Embryonic stem cells, for instance, can make descendants that turn into any tissue in the body, like skin cells, brain cells, heart cells etc. For each organ in the mature body, specific stem cells can make all the different kinds of cells in that organ.” “For example, in the blood system, hematopoietic (“blood-forming”) stem cells (HSC) give rise to each of the different types of blood cells such as red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC) and platelets (SciTechNol.com, n.d.).” “Gene therapy can be targeted to somatic or germ cells; the most common vectors are viruses. Scientists manipulate the viral genome and thus introduce therapeutic genes to the target organ. Viruses, in this context, can cause adverse events such as toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. Alternative modalities being considered are complexes of DNA with lipids and proteins” (Alenzi et al., 2010). “Stem cells are primitive cells that can self-renew and differentiate into one or more mature cell types. Pluripotent embryonic stem cells derived from the inner cell mass can develop into more than 200 different cells and differentiate into the three germ cell layers. Because of their capacity for unlimited expansion and pluripotency, they are useful in regenerative medicine. Tissue or adult stem cells produce cells specific to the tissue in which they are found. They are relatively unspecialized and predetermined to give rise to specific cell types when they differentiate” (Alenzi et al., 2010). “Both stem cell and gene therapy research are currently the focus of intense research in institutions and companies worldwide. Both approaches hold great promise by offering radical new and successful ways of treating debilitating and incurable diseases effectively. Gene therapy is an approach to treat, cure, or ultimately prevent disease by changing gene expression patterns. It is primarily experimental, but several clinical human trials have already been conducted“ (Alenzi et al., 2010). Ethical Aspects of Gene Therapy (Mauron, 2017) “Gene therapy consists of a wilful modification of the genetic material in a patient's cells to bring about a therapeutic effect. This modification usually occurs by introducing exogenous DNA using viral vectors or other means. Although gene therapy is still in its infancy as a clinically useful therapeutic modality, discussing the ethical issues is useful in several respects because it involves ethical principles of broad applicability in clinical medicine. Furthermore, many current applications of genetic engineering in medicine (DNA vaccines, therapeutic use of encapsulated genetically modified cells) are conceptually close to gene therapy. So the border between gene therapy and other gene-based therapies is getting fuzzier as time goes by (Mauron, 2017).” “Two conceptual distinctions are central to an understanding of the ethical issues of gene therapy: 1 - Therapy vs. enhancement. “There is a consensus that gene therapy should be “therapy” (the correction of bona fide disease conditions), rather than enhancement or "improving the human species". Therefore, it would entail the introduction in human subjects of novel characteristics going beyond the usual, medical understanding of health (i.e. health as an absence of serious disease) (Mauron, 2017).” 2 - Somatic vs. germline gene therapy. “All current research on humans deals with somatic gene therapy. In these projects, somatic cells such as bone marrow, liver, lung or vascular epithelium etc., are genetically modified. Since the germline is not affected, all effects of therapy end with the patient's life, at the very latest. Most somatic therapies will probably require repeated applications, much like common pharmacological treatments (Mauron, 2017).” “Initially, gene therapy was conceptualised mainly to correct recessive monogenic defects by bringing a healthy copy of the deficient gene in the relevant cells. Somatic gene therapy has a much broader potential if one thinks of it as a sophisticated means of bringing a therapeutic gene product to the right place in the body. The field has moved increasingly from a "gene correction" model to a "DNA as drug" model (ADN médicament, A. Kahn). This evolution towards an understanding of gene therapy as "DNA-based chemotherapy" underscores why the ethical considerations for somatic gene therapy are not different from the well-known ethical principles that apply in trials of any new experimental therapy (Mauron, 2017).” “Favourable risk-benefit balance (principle of beneficence/non-maleficence); (Mauron, 2017) Informed consent (principle of respect for persons); (Mauron, 2017) Fairness in selecting research subjects (principle of justice)”. (Mauron, 2017)
