CRITICAL THINKING Critical vs. Non-critical Thinking Non-critical Thinking - happens when you simply accept the things you are told without examining them. It also happens when you construct thoughts based on emotions. Critical Thinking - on the other hand, involves a series of complex thought processes which allows you to make reasoned judgments, assess the way you think, and solve problems effectively. To differentiate these more easily, see the following example: Levels of Thinking Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain Benjamin Bloom, an American educational psychologist, published this system that classifies the levels of thinking important for learning. It is composed of six levels which follow a successive pattern. This simply means that to proceed to the next level, the current one must be mastered first. The six levels are: o o o o o o Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Later on in 2001, Bloom’s former student, Lorin Anderson, and a group of cognitive psychologists published a revision to the original taxonomy to make it more relevant to 21st-century students and teachers. They used verbs instead of nouns to denote an active process of thinking. The six levels are: o o o o o o Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating Comparison of the Original and the Revised Taxonomy First Three Levels of Thinking Asking intelligent questions leads to a better understanding of events of ideas. Note that this is a key factor in thinking critically. Acquiring this skill already starts with the first three levels of the revised taxonomy. To learn more about them, read the following situation. What did Pia do during the summer? Answering the question requires you to recall the information you just read. This is remembering; it involves the retrieval, recognition, and recalling of information. Remember by asking questions which aim to define, memorize, or state information. What can you say about the situation of the street child? To answer this question, you have to draw your own interpretation based on what you read. This is called understanding; It refers to the construction of meaning from verbal and nonverbal messages. Understand by asking questions which discuss, describe, paraphrase, or explain information. If you were Pia, how would you approach the incident of seeing one of the children? You have to draw on the knowledge you learned to use it on the situation; this is applying. Applying refers to the use and implementation of knowledge in various situations. Apply knowledge by asking questions which demonstrate, solve, or use information. Higher-Order Thinking Skills Critical Thinking does not stop at remembering, understanding, and applying; it also involves analyzing, evaluating, and creating. These three cognitive processes are considered as higher-order thinking skills. For clear illustration, read the following text. Pia reported the incident regarding the street child to her volunteer organization. They contacted the proper authorities to help the child and to apprehend his father. However, they were told that this was already reported months before, and that the authorities will look into the issue once they have the time, as they have other priorities. Based on the response of the authorities, what inference can you make regarding their treatment of the case? In answering, you have to examine the causes and make inferences based on them. This is called analyzing; it focuses on breaking down ideas into parts and relating these parts to one another. Analyze by asking questions which compare, integrate, or structure information. Is the reaction of the authorities justified? When thinking of your answer, weigh the pros and cons to judge the action. This is called evaluating. It refers to making judgments on the value and validity of ideas and events. Evaluate by asking things which judge and test an idea based on certain rules and standards. How would you illustrate the highlights of the events, including the first part, through a four-panel comic strip? While making the comic strip, you have to synthesize the parts to turn them into one output. This is known as creating. It involves combining parts to form a well-designed whole. Creating does not only mean making something concrete. You can also ask questions which aims to produce, design, or construct new information or ideas. Qualities of a Critical Thinker Someone who thinks critically is: o o o o o o o inquisitive does not pretend to know more than what he/she actually knows does not settle for a superficial level of interpretation knows that critical thinking does not necessarily mean looking for faults examines and evaluates information does not accept information until it is verified Lastly, does not let irrational emotions affect his/her thinking; his/her actions are guided by the application of different levels of thinking. Importance of Critical Thinking o o In the area of reading, critical thinking makes you recognize different texts and react to them intelligently. It enables you to analyze written works, comprehend the message they convey, and apply the message in real life. Evaluating texts critically also allows you to maximize the learning experience that reading provides. This also leads to a better understanding and enjoyment of the texts you read. In terms of writing, critical approach provides you with the skills to create well-written texts. By knowing how to analyze and evaluate, you can write with a clear purpose and position. Through critical thinking, you can distinguish good and bad sources and know which information to use. This leads to the production of good texts with reliable and insightful content. Fundamental Reading Skills Reading Process As a complex process, reading consists of the following stages: Before you read the excerpt, you have to draw on your background knowledge by looking at the title. This is the pre-reading stage. It aims to induce the readers’ motivation to read and to activate their schema or background knowledge. Activities done during this stage include: previewing, freewriting, surveying, questioning, making assumptions about the author, identifying the purpose, and selecting a reading system such as SQ3R(survey, question, read, recite, review) In the while-reading stage, you may reread the text until you fully understand its meaning. The specific skills in this stage include: getting the meaning of words through context clues, predicting, inferencing, monitoring comprehension, annotating a text, and reflecting. In the post-reading stage, the skills include reflecting, summarizing, paraphrasing, drawing conclusions, making graphic organizers, and journal writing. Basic Reading Skills 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Rapid Reading Previewing Literal Reading Inferential Reading Critical Reading 1. Rapid Reading Aims to locate specific information or main ideas in a very short span of time. Examples of this include skimming and scanning, which are both pre-reading skills. a. Skimming - When you try to get the general idea by reading through the text quickly. It is a type of quick reading which aims to get the main idea and to get an overview of the material. It is usually done when reading newspapers, magazines, books, and letters. b. Locating the main idea - It involves the identification of the central message of a reading selection. The main idea is usually found in either or both first and the last sentences and not explicitly stated in the text. c. Scanning - It is a quick reading strategy which aims to get specific information from a given text. Scanning is useful in locating the specific name of a board passer, looking for an old email in your inbox, or checking specific information in a graph. 2. Previewing Is a skill wherein a reader looks over a material and focuses on the information he/she finds relevant. Previewing also allows readers to set the purpose and link the content of the material to their background knowledge. It is conducted during the prereading stage. 3. Literal Reading Involves the understanding of ideas and facts that are directly stated in the printed material. Skills under this category include note-taking, paraphrasing, and summarizing. a. Summarizing - It is a reading skill that involves condensing a lengthy text into a shorter passage which is usually 15 to 30 percent of the source material. b. Paraphrasing Involves - restating ideas from the original text. Unlike a summary, the length of a paraphrased text is almost similar to the length of the original text because it focuses on the details and not the main idea. A paraphrased text also cites and preserves the tone of the original text. 4. Inferential Reading Refers to the process of deducing acts and ideas not directly expressed in the text. It is also known as “reading between the lines.” This skill includes making generalizations, inferences, and conclusions. This is applied during the while-reading stage. 5. Critical Reading Refers to the close and thorough evaluation of the claims in the text in terms of relevance, validity, and logic. This skill includes distinguishing facts from opinions and detecting logical fallacies. As with inferential reading, critical reading happens in the while-reading stage. Types of Reading People have different reasons why they read, but most of these reasons, if not all, fall under three general purposes: to be informed, to be entertained and to be inspired. Some of the various types of reading are defined and classified according to purpose: 1. Developmental Reading A systematic instruction which aims to develop the students’ reading skills. Ex. Ryan reads a long text to improve his reading comprehension skills. 2. Pleasure Reading A more passive type of reading that primarily aims to provide enjoyment and entertainment. Ex. Karen reads her favorite book, To Kill a Mockingbird, to relax after a long day. 3. Functional Reading Designed to help students learn basic functional reading ability. Ex. Felipe reads a college application form to understand how to fill it out. 4. Remedial Reading Aims to correct the effects of poor teaching and poor learning. Ex. Francis reads a pronunciation chart with his teacher to help him correct his pronunciation of diphthongs. Selecting and Organizing Information One important ingredient to successful reading and writing is our ability to generate, select and organize ideas. These can be done through: o o Brainstorming Outline o Graphic Organizers Brainstorming The most popular tool in generating creative and rich ideas. It helps people establish patterns of ideas, develop new ways of thinking, activate background knowledge, and overcome mental block. Methods of Brainstorming: o o Idea List Idea Map Idea List Simply involves listing ideas about a particular topic. It also helps you find the main idea and supporting details from the numerous ideas listed. How to make an idea list: This strategy is especially appropriate to textual people, or those who are comfortable in processing words than visuals. It simply requires you to write the main topic and then write down all related concepts below it. Topic – Unemployment 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Jobs Poverty Salary Lack of Education Lack of Jobs Low salary Lack of money Fresh graduates Idea Map It is a visual representation of ideas and their connections with one another. Unlike the idea list, an idea map is more structured; thus, it is able to show how one idea subordinates the other idea. How to make an idea map: Put the big idea or question at the center. Then, add a related idea by writing it down in a circle near the big idea, and drawing a line between the two to show how the ideas are connected. Continue this process of connecting ideas until you have generated enough concepts. Graphic Organizers Are visual representations of concepts that help us structure information into organizational patterns. They present essential information into a coherent framework. They are helpful tools for brainstorming, facilitating reading and writing, promoting active learning, and accessing previous knowledge and experiences. Types of Graphic Organizers: o o o o o o o o o o Venn Diagram Plot Diagram Network Tree Series of Events Chain Spider Map Fishbone Map Problem-Solution Map Cycle Timeline Persuasion Map Venn Diagram Is used to compare and contrast ideas and events. This diagram uses two or more overlapping circles to show similar and different attributes. Network Tree Is used to present hierarchy, classification, and branching. It is useful in showing relationships of scientific categories, family trees, and even lineages. Spider Map (also known as semantic map) Is used to investigate and enumerate various aspects of a central idea, which could be a concept, topic, or theme. This central idea is placed at the center of the map. The main idea is placed along its diagonal line, while details of the main idea are placed on the sides of the diagonals. Problem – Solution Map Displays the nature of the problem and how it can be solved. This map usually contains the problem’s description, its causes and effects, and logical solutions. Problem – Solution Map Displays the nature of the problem and how it can be solved. This map usually contains the problem’s description, its causes and effects, and logical solutions. Timeline Is used to show how events occurred chronologically through a long bar labeled with dates and specific events. Timelines can be linear or comparative. Linear timeline shows how events happened within one period. Comparative timeline shows two sets of events that happened within the same period. Plot Diagram Is a tool used to map events in a story. It is used to analyze the major parts of a plot. The major events to be placed in the plot diagram are: a. b. c. d. e. f. Exposition the initial part where the characters, settings, and relationships are established. Inciting moment the part which brings about the change or conflict. Rising Action the section where the conflict and the characters are developed. Climax the highest point of the story where the major events are confronted Falling action the events immediately following the climax which lead to the closure of the conflict. Resolution the conclusion of the story. Fishbone map Is used to better understand the causal relationship of a complex phenomenon. It shows the factors that cause a specific event or problem, as well as details of each cause. Cycle Describes how a series of events interact to produce a set of results repeatedly. Some examples of events that require a cycle are water cycle, metamorphosis, and poverty cycle. Persuasion Map Is used to map out arguments and evidence that prove a viewpoint. This map is especially useful when processing persuasive or argumentative texts. Outline An outline is a tool for organizing ideas. You can either use a decimal outline or an alphanumeric outline. decimal outline only uses numbers as labels alphanumeric outline uses both letters and numbers as labels. 4 Principles in making an effective outline: 1. Coordination Requires ideas of the same relevance to be labeled in the same way. 2. Subordination Shows that minor details have to be placed under their respective major details. 3. Division Requires that no cluster should contain only one item. In short, if you have subheading1, there should be subheading 2. 4. Parallel Construction Requires all entries in each cluster to use the same structure and format. Kinds of Outline According to Structure: Topic Outline uses words and phrases as its entries. Generally, a topic outline is used if the ideas being discussed can be arranged in a number of ways. Sentence Outline uses complete sentences as its entries. You use a sentence outline when the topic being discussed is complicated and requires details. PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING Paragraph and Essay Paragraph Is a group of interrelated sentences that talk about one main idea. Essay Is a group of paragraphs that talk about one central idea. Paragraph Is composed of three major parts: the topic sentence, the body and the closing sentence. Topic Sentence: the central idea of the paragraph; it can be a stand or a comment, an objective statement, or a question. Supporting Details: sentences that clarify and prove the main idea. Closing Sentence: concludes the details that have been presented. Essay Is composed of three general parts: introduction, body and conclusion. Specific Parts of an Essay I. Introduction A. Lead or Attention-getter B. Transitional Statement C. Thesis Statement II. Body A. Major Point 1 1. Minor Detail 1 2. Minor Detail 2 B. Major Point 2 1. Minor Detail 1 2. Minor Detail 2 C. Major Point 3 1. Minor Detail 1 2. Minor Detail 2 III. Conclusion A. Reiteration of Thesis Statement B. Transitional Statement/Reiteration of purpose, benefit, and recommendation C. Closing Statement Introduction A lead or attention-getter is first statement in the essay which aims to hook the readers. A composition can have an affective lead through the use of provocative rhetorical question, statistics, startling statement, anecdote, quotation, humor or analogy. This is followed by a transitional statement or the sentence which links the lead to the thesis statement. Generally, a transitional statement provides a background on the topic. In an argumentative essay, it includes the statement of the case and the arguments that will be refuted. The last part of the introduction is the thesis statement which states the main idea or argument of the essay. Transitional Paragraph In some cases, a paragraph that does not directly provide support to a thesis statement is included in an essay. It is called a transitional paragraph. Its major function is to bridge one paragraph to another. Body The body is the meat of the essay. It discusses the thesis statement in detail through its paragraphs. This is where the topic is developed and where the arguments are laid out and discussed. Conclusion The concluding paragraph begins with the restatement of the thesis statement using a different structure and wording to uphold language style. This part is followed by a transitional statement that talks about the recommendations, benefits of ideas presented, or purpose of writing the essay. Finally, a closing statement is used to wrap up the essay. One strategy used for ending an essay with a bang is to link it to the attention-getter in the introduction. Properties of a Well-Written Text: o o o o o Unity Coherence and Cohesion Organization Language Use Mechanics Unity Is achieved when a composition contains one focused idea. In a unified text, all the supporting ideas are relevant to the main thought. Without unity, the text will be confusing. Coherence and Cohesion Coherence and cohesion are achieved when ideas are logically, clearly and smoothly linked to one another; without it, reader may not be able to comprehend your composition. Although these two concepts are interrelated, they are distinct. Coherence occurs when ideas are connected at the conceptual or idea level. It can be seen through well-defended arguments and organized points. Cohesion is the connection of ideas at the sentence level. It can be readily seen in a text through the smooth flow of the sentences and the connection of the ideas. Cohesion can be applied using three techniques. The first one is through the use of pronouns to refrain from using a specific word repeatedly. The second technique is through the use of transitional devices to connect sentences with linked ideas. The last technique employs a repetition of keywords to tie up the paragraphs subtly. Organization Organization is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged. Knowledge of the parts of a composition is a great help in adhering to the correct organization of ideas. The sentences within a paragraph must also be organized logically. Language Use The way language is used is one of the clearest indicators of a well-written text. It enables the writer to effectively communicate ideas without confusing the reader. Effective language use is achieved by observing the following time-tested principles in writing. 1. Use clear and concise sentences. On average, a sentence is 18 words long. Note that this does not require every sentence to be composed of exactly 18 words. 2. Avoid redundancies, wordiness, cliches, and high falutin language. 3. Avoid excessive use “there” and “it” structures. These sentences can be revised by dropping the “there” and “it” phrase and transforming the sentences appropriately. 4. Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate and condense lengthy phrases into fewer words. 5. Be consistent with your pronoun’s point of view. 6. Avoid sexist language. This can be addressed by using articles (a, an, and the), using plural pronouns, using his or her instead of his, writing through a second person point of view, or using gender-neutral nouns (e.g. chairperson instead of chairman). Make sure not to overuse the his o her technique as it breaks up the flow of your composition. 7. Use the appropriate level of formality. The more formal texts use an academic tone while the less formal ones usually use a personal or colloquial tone. Mechanics The technical aspect of writing, also known as mechanics, should not be overlooked when writing. It is characterized as a set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize a composition. In academic and more formal texts, the following should be observed: o o o o o o Always use Standard English. Avoid contractions (e.g. shouldn’t) Avoid exclamation marks unless they are part of a direct quotation. Mention the full name of an institution or organization with the abbreviation in parenthesis, in first mention. Thereafter, use the abbreviation. Numbers from zero to ten should be spelled out while numbers higher than ten should be written in figures. Generally, citations are used in academic and formal texts. However, they are sparingly use in business texts. Thesis Statement, Topic Sentence, and Supporting Details Thesis Statement A thesis statement is the central idea of a multiple-paragraph composition. It is a one-sentence summary that guides, controls, and unifies ideas when writing a paper. In simple terms, all the other ideas present in an essay revolve around the thesis statement. Topic Sentence A topic sentence guides, controls, and unifies ideas in a paragraph. It develops one argument of the thesis statement. A topic sentence can either be explicitly or implicitly stated. An explicitly stated topic can be placed in four different locations: at the beginning, at the middle, at the end of a paragraph, or at the start and end of a paragraph Supporting Details A composition is incomplete without supporting details. These details are pieces of information necessary to better understand the main idea. They can be facts, reasons, testimonies, statistics, and experiments that support the topic sentence. Supporting details are divided into two levels: major details and minor details. Major details directly support the topic sentence. Minor details directly support the major details.
