UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CHALLENGES FACING ACCOUNTING STUDENTTEACHERS DURING OFF- CAMPUS TEACING PRACTICE: A
STUDY OF B.ED. ACCOUNTING STUDENTS, UNIVERSITY
OF CAPE COAST
BY
PRISCILLA MENSAH
TIMOTHY JOBSON MITCHUAL
ERNEST AHIAMENYO
PATRICK OBENG
Project submitted to the Department of Business and Social Sciences
Education of the College of Education Studies, University of Cape
Coast, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
Bachelor of Education Degree in Accounting
JUNE 2019
DECLARATIONS
Candidates’ Declaration
We hereby declare that this project work is the result of our own original
research and that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this
university or elsewhere.
Candidate’s Signature ……………………. Date ………………
Name: Priscilla Mensah
Candidate’s Signature ……………………. Date ………………
Name: Timothy Jobson Mitchual
Candidate’s Signature ……………………. Date ………………
Name: Ernest Ahiamanyo
Candidate’s Signature ……………………. Date ………………
Name: Patrick Obeng
Supervisor’s Declaration
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the project work were
supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of project work
laid down by the University of Cape Coast.
Supervisor’s Signature ………………………. Date…………………
Mr. Daniel K. Anhwere
ii
ABSTRACT
The study sought to assess the challenges faced by the B.Ed. (Accounting)
student-teacher during the off-campus teaching practice. The descriptive survey
method was used. A sample of 146 out of a total population of 192 was selected
using the proportionate random sampling technique. We adopted a quantitative
approach to the study with the use of questionnaires as the main means for
collecting data. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics such as
frequencies, percentages, mean, and standard deviations. It was revealed from
the study that teaching and learning resources such as textbooks, stationery,
desks, and photocopier machines were not available in the various schools of
practice. Again, it was revealed from the study that the support that the mentors
gave to the student-teachers during their practicum was minimal. Finally,
findings from the study revealed that the student-teachers found it difficult to
prepare lesson plan during off campus teaching practice. In view of this, it is
recommended that Head Teachers and the Parent Teachers Associations of
Senior High Schools should ensure that there are adequate teaching and learning
resources available in their Schools to enhance the performance of the studentteachers. The Teaching Practice Unit (TPU) of the University of Cape Coast
must intensify its efforts of motivating the mentors in various practicing
schools. This could be achieved by giving the mentors monetary rewards and
workshops from time to time. Also, the lecturers who handle “Methods of
Teaching Accounting” must give prospective student-teachers numerous
opportunities to prepare lesson plan. This would enable the student to realize
their shortcomings in that regard and make improvements before they go out to
the field.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor, Mr.
Daniel K. Anhwere of the Department of Business and Social Sciences
Education, for his professional guidance and encouragement with which he
guided this work. We are also grateful to Mr. Christopher Amoasi for his
generous contributions to make this work successful.
iv
DEDICATION
To our families
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION
ii
ABSTRACT
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
DEDICATION
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vi
LIST OF TABLES
ix
CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION
Introduction
1
Background to the Study
1
Statement of the Problem
6
Purpose of the Study
7
Research Questions
8
Significance of the Study
8
Delimitations
9
Limitations
9
Definition of Terms
10
Organisation of the Study
10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
12
Conceptual Review
13
Concept of Teaching
13
Concept of Teacher Education
15
Concept of Teaching Practice
18
vi
Theoretical Review
20
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory
20
The Operant Conditioning Theory
21
Empirical Review
22
Teaching and Learning Resources Available in the School of
22
Practice
Level of Support Mentors Give to Student-Teachers
25
Lesson Plan Preparation Challenges Faced by Student-Teachers
27
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
30
Research Design
30
Population
32
Sampling Procedure
32
Data Collection Instrument
33
Data Collection Procedure
35
Data Processing and Analysis
36
Chapter Summary
37
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
39
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
39
Discussion of Main Results
40
Research Question 1
40
Research Question 2
43
Research Question 3
45
vii
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
48
Summary of Study
48
Key Findings
49
Conclusions
49
Recommendations
50
Suggestions for Further Research
51
REFERENCES
52
APPENDICES
A: Questionnaire for Student-Teachers
62
B: Introductory Letter
66
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1
Summary of Data Analysis
37
2
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
39
3
Teaching and Learning Resources Available in the School
of Practice
41
4
Level of Support that Mentors Give to Student-Teachers
44
5
Challenges Faced by the Student-Teacher in Preparation of
46
Lesson Plan
ix
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The quality of the human resource of any nation is largely dependent on
how good its education system is. The quality of an educational system is also
impacted by the level of competence of the teachers in the various educational
institutions. These competencies of teachers as well as their general attitude
toward the teaching profession are significantly influenced by the kind of
training they receive. Due to this, some researchers have concluded that teacher
education is key in producing the right caliber of personnel to provide
professional education services. Still, during the off-campus teaching practice
(OFCTP), which is a period meant to give prospective teachers their first taste
of what it takes to be a teacher, it is observed that many of these student-teachers
do not have a smooth run. But what is the situation regarding University of Cape
Coast (UCC) student-teachers? This study therefore seeks to examine the
challenges that the student-teachers of UCC (2018/19 year group) faced in their
various schools of practice.
Background to the Study
In many countries around the globe, most teachers enter teaching
through a 4-year undergraduate programme that combines academic courses
and professional studies or a 5-year programme that focuses exclusively on
professional studies. Professional preparation for teacher training often includes
courses in educational foundations and general and/or specific methods of
teaching (Ankuma, 2007).
Promoting teacher quality is thought of as a key element in improving
education at all levels. Graduating from teacher education and starting to work
1
as a teacher can be understood as a transfer or shift in professional identity
where the interplay between the individual and their social environment is
central for the development of the individual within the profession (McNally,
Blake, Corbin & Gray, 2008).
Teacher education programmes continue to serve as a means of kindling
the teacher’s initiative for the purpose of keeping it alive to minimize the evils
associated with the “hit and miss” process that often accompanies teaching,
ultimately to save time, money and the trouble of the teacher and the taught
(Aggarwal, 2003). The importance of scientific knowledge in teacher education
and its understanding may need to be emphasized because the professional
teacher is not only viewed today as a ‘doer’ but also as ‘a reflective practitioner’.
Thus, teaching practice gives glorious opportunities to prospective
teachers to develop the reflective aspect of their teaching even before they enter
the main field of the teaching profession. Consequently, in the education of new
teachers, teaching is expected to be seen as an outcome of a scientific approach
and scientifically-grounded working methods. Ankuma (2007) also suggests
that the teacher is the vehicle on which education thrives, and is therefore
indispensable. This means that the vehicle (teacher), if not properly built up,
could result in serious problems for the educational system of a nation.
In current times, the requirements for teachers’ work and competences
have changed profoundly because teaching as a profession has had to face new
challenges often related to new developments such as, ethical dilemmas, new
technologies, social tensions in society, and the development of entire schools
as “learning communities” within the local community and the outside world
(Swennen & Klink, 2008). In this changing context, the teacher’s own
2
professional development has become more significant. As a consequence,
there is a growing need for teachers in training to develop their professional and
related skills necessary for effective practice as teachers. Pre-service teacher
training involves the provision of the best possible training to help prepare and
usher students into professional teaching practice. And what other period, aside
from the teaching practice period could be best for testing how prepared the
prospective teachers are for the modern demands of the teaching profession.
In this light, it is important that teacher training institutions and other
stakeholders such as the ministry of education pay attention to the challenges
faced by students. In that way new teachers could be better equipped to deal
with their tasks as professionals. Formal teacher education has been identified
as one which is crucial and has been interpreted as support for strengthening
existing teacher preparation programmes in universities and increased
expenditures on post-college training (Ebrahimi, 2014). Teachers’ competence,
confidence, dedication, and general predisposition towards the profession are
often informed by the kind of education or training they receive. (Boadu, 2014).
Ankuma (2007) points out that education is key in producing the right caliber
of teachers to provide professional teaching services.
The first recorded organized teaching practice as part of a teacher
training programme is dated as far back as 1439 when William Byngham
established Godshouse College in England (Baidoo, 2016). Ever since, teaching
practice has become a popular instrument for the professional preparation of
neophyte teachers in training. Teaching practice in the University of Cape Coast
is not only an important exercise but also a crucial component of its teacher
education programme. It is concerned with equipping student-teachers with
3
relevant skills, knowledge and competencies needed for successful assimilation
into the teaching profession.
Teaching practice has three major connotations, namely the practice of
teaching skills and acquisition of the role of a teacher, the whole range of
experiences that a student-teacher goes through in school and the practical
aspect of the course as distinct from theoretical studies (Nwanekezi, Okoli &
Mezieobi, 2011). Therefore, teaching practice offers student-teachers the
opportunity to learn and develop as professional teachers along the dimensions
of pedagogic knowledge, inquiry knowledge, subject matter knowledge,
pastoral knowledge, ecological knowledge and personal knowledge (Mtetwa &
Dyanda, 2003). Tillema, Smith and Leshem (2010) are of the view that during
the teaching, student-teachers experience learning situations that are unique and
different from campus-based learning as they are called upon to respond to new
circumstances. Student-teachers, when faced with these new circumstances,
could begin to develop negative emotions toward the teaching profession. These
negative emotions, if not properly dealt with, could lead to problems during, not
only the internship period, but also throughout their professional teaching
career.
In the same vein, Kumba and Kira (2013) note that during teaching
practice, student-teachers observe subject teachers at work so as to learn about
teachers’ skills, strategies and classroom achievements. It is also the time when
they evaluate their own teaching experiences through interactions with teachers
and lecturers and, through self-reflection, implementing a variety of approaches,
strategies and skills with a view to bringing about meaningful learning (Kumba
&Kira, 2013). However, some student-teachers who do not get this opportunity
4
are likely to learn through the hard way that certain teaching strategies they
employ are not suitable for their specific environments and crop of students.
Thus, the underlying aim of teaching practice is to introduce students to, and
prepare them for, the teaching profession (Ntsaluba & Chireshe, 2013).
In Ghana, the major institutions that collaborate to provide teacher
education are Ghana Education Service (GES), University of Education,
Winneba (UEW), and the university of Cape Coast (UCC). The Ghana
Education Service provides initial teacher education through 41 Colleges of
Education located in various parts of the country. UCC and UEW on the other
hand were set up to provide teacher education to supplement the efforts of the
Ghana Education Service. The University of Cape Coast, for example, is the
pioneer in teacher education and was established to train teachers for the
education sector of Ghana. The College of Education Studies (CES) in the
university of Cape Coast is charged with the sole responsibility of training
teachers and works mainly by coordinating teaching practice among pre-service
teachers. Teaching practice (TP) sessions are essentially practical and student
centered exercises that provide pre-service teachers with the skills, knowledge
and competencies required to enable students to become professional teachers.
This exercise is a requirement for all students enrolled on any education
program for successful completion of their study.
In the University of Cape Coast, Teaching Practice (TP) sessions are
carried out in two main phases; Micro teaching (On-Campus Teaching Practice
- ONCTP) and field experiences (Off-Campus Teaching Practice - OFCTP).
On-Campus Teaching Practice (ONCTP) sessions are carried out in the
presence of a supervisor(s) who scores the teaching performance of the student-
5
teachers. After each teaching session for the ONCTP, peers are invited to assess
the performance of their colleagues in a feedback discussion which serves as an
objective and systematic appraisal of the students’ performance together with
the observations and score of the supervisor. The Off-Campus Teaching
Practice (OFCTP) is therefore used to provide such real teaching experiences.
The OFTCP sessions are supervised teaching practice sessions that involve the
student-teacher in teaching activities that require the demonstration of skills and
knowledge acquired from ONCTP (micro teaching) sessions and adapting such
skills and knowledge to real classroom situations under the supervision of a
trained professional(s). After every teaching session for the OFCTP, studentteachers get the opportunity to have a discussion with their supervisor(s). This
helps the student-teachers to realize both their strengths and weaknesses during
those teaching sessions.
Teaching practice period is one of the most important components of
every teacher-training program (Brown, 1990). For the teacher-training
program to succeed, the stakeholders should be informed of the challenges
encountered by student-teachers during the practice. Therefore, this research
work sought to assess the challenges facing accounting student-teachers during
the off-campus teaching practice.
Statement of the Problem
Student-teachers face certain problems during teaching practice in
various schools (Saricoban, 2010). For many pre-service teachers, field
experiences often represent a wide disparity between what was expected and
what the real situation turns out to be (Ebrahimi, 2014). This is because the
theory and training in college prior to first practice cannot possibly provide
6
answers for all the problems and contingencies a future teacher is likely to
encounter in the school. The realness of such teaching experiences can however
be grounds for a candidate to either affirm or reevaluate their decision to pursue
teaching as a career (Darling-Hammond, 2005). That is to say the extent to
which the OFCTP becomes real and authentic to the pre-service teacher may
influence his decision to pursue teaching as a career or not.
On the international scene, researchers (Cohen and Manion, 1983;
Ebrahimi, 2014; Hamaidi, Al Shara, Arouri, & Awwad, 2014; Harrow, Dziuban
& Rothberg, 2003; Mtika, 2011; Saricoban, 2010) have conducted a number of
studies to investigate the problems student-teachers encounter during their
practicum and suggested ways they could cope with them. In Ghana, most
studies (Baidoo, 2016; Boadu, 2014; Hormenu, Adjei & Ogum, 2014) focused
on challenges faced by student-teachers in other fields such as Physical
Education, Economics, Business Management, during teaching practice. It
appears that little work has been done to assess the challenges facing accounting
student-teachers during OFCTP. Therefore it is essential to conduct a study to
assess the challenges accounting student-teachers face during OFCTP.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to assess the problems faced by studentteachers during their field experiences. Specifically the study sought to:
1.
determine the teaching and learning resources available in the school of
practice of B.Ed. (Accounting) student-teachers in UCC.
2. ascertain the level of support that the mentors give to the studentteachers during off campus teaching practice.
7
3. examine the challenges faced by the student-teachers in preparation of
lesson plan during off campus teaching practice.
Research Questions
This study was guided by the following research questions
1. What are the teaching and learning resources available in the school of
practice of B.Ed. (Accounting) student-teachers in UCC?
2. What is the level of support that mentors give to the student-teachers
during off campus teaching practice?
3. What are the challenges faced by the student-teachers in the preparation
of lesson plan during off campus teaching practice?
Significance of the Study
The study would contribute immensely toward improving the standard
of teaching practice exercise to the government and the school administrators.
The findings from this study would be of great value to the government, students
and school administrators. Anytime a representative of the government (perhaps
a minister of state) visits the university, he could take note of this study and the
findings therein. It would thereby help the government become aware of the
problems faced by student-teachers whenever they go on teaching practice, and
enable the government to provide adequate facilities to schools. It would also
contribute a great deal towards student-teachers’ realization of some problems
they are likely to face during the teaching practice exercise and prepare
themselves against the problems before they go out for the task. This work
would also enable the supervisors and teaching practice organizers to appreciate
the problems student-teachers face during teaching practice to try to eliminate
or reduce such problems. The study would serve as a guide to educational
8
institutions in the formulation and implementation of policies for pre-service
teacher training within such institutions.
Delimitations
In terms of coverage, the study was limited to level 400 accounting
student-teachers pursuing Bachelor of Education (Accounting). The level 400
students will be the best subject to our study because, unlike the students in the
levels 100,200,300, the final year B.Ed. (Accounting) students have had a
firsthand experience regarding the Off Campus Teaching Practice (OFCTP).
The study could be extended to other departments and programs within the
College of Education Studies (CES) as well as other collaborators of teacher
education in Ghana specifically the training colleges and UEW. However , the
scope was limited to level 400 Accounting education students within the
department of Business and Social Science Education because the study sought
to assess the challenges of student-teachers in the area of accounting and for
which final year Accounting education student provide adequate representation.
Limitations
The questionnaires that were used for the study were such that
respondents were allowed to report on their own experiences during their
internship, therefore respondents could give responses that may not reflect the
actual situation on the field. However, we did our best to mitigate the effect that
these limitations would have on the validity and reliability of the results that
were obtained for the study. To reduce such limitations, during the
administration of the questionnaires, we provided exhaustive explanations
concerning the variables in the questionnaires and stressed the relevance of
honest responses by respondents. The research design (descriptive survey
9
research design) that was used for the study was easily influenced by distortions
through the introduction of biases in the measuring instrument. The instrument
was shown to an expert to remove any biases.
Definition of Terms
In the context of this study, the following terms which are used
pervasively in this research work have been defined:
Student - Teachers: final year education student who have gone out of campus
for a specified period of time to undertake their teaching practice in various
schools. This term has been used interchangeably with other terms such as preservice teachers, prospective teachers, teacher trainees, etc.
B.Ed. (Accounting): it is a programme offered at the department of business
and social sciences education under the faculty of humanities and social
sciences education which is also under the college of education studies in UCC.
Organisation of the Study
This study was organized into five main chapters. Chapter One dealt
with the introduction which comprises the background of the study, the
statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions,
significance of the study, delimitations of the study, limitations of the study, and
the organization of the study. Chapter Two also covered the review of relevant
and related literature, which comprises conceptual review, theoretical review,
and empirical review. Chapter Three focused on the research methods adopted
for the study, namely research design, study area, population, sample and
sampling procedures, data collection instruments, data collection procedures,
data processing and analysis. Chapter Four also considered the results that were
obtained and discussion of the results, and Chapter Five, comprise summary,
10
conclusions, and recommendations based on the findings of the study and areas
for further research.
11
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter reviews studies conducted by other researchers that were
considered significant to the study. The chapter is divided into the following
main parts:
1. conceptual review,
2. conceptual framework,
3. theoretical review, and
4. empirical review
The conceptual review has been further divided in the following manner:
a. concept of teaching,
b. concept of teacher education, and
c. concept of teaching practice.
Under the theoretical review, the following are discussed:
a. the experiential learning theory and
b. the operant conditioning theory.
Finally, the empirical perspective also reviewed related works conducted by
other researchers in the area of teaching practice.
12
Conceptual Review
Concept of Teaching
It is an accepted fact that teachers are usually not born but made (Melby,
2005). Good teachers nurture their knowledge and skills through constant and
deliberate efforts. One of the pre-requisite to be a good teacher is to understand
the teaching learning process in more depth. This facilitates better appreciation
of the teaching profession as well as the process of imparting education. The
concept of teaching in its broadest sense may be viewed as the process where a
teacher guides a learner or a group of learners to a higher level of knowledge or
skills (Nilsen & Albertalli, 2002). Desforges (1995) also defines teaching as the
management of pupils’ experience, largely in classrooms with the deliberate
intention of promoting their learning. Teaching has often been described as a
science or an art. As a ‘science’, teaching is believed to incorporate body of
systematized knowledge on teaching methodology, human development and
human learning or educational psychology (Tamakloe, Amadahe &Atta, 2005).
Teaching as an ‘art’ on the other hand involves inducing students to
behave in ways that are assumed will lead to learning, including an attempt to
induce students to behave (Schlechty, 2004). Schlechty reiterate this by saying
that as an ‘art’ the teacher is expected to create situations to facilitate learning
and then motivate learner to have interest in what is being transmitted to them.
Teaching should therefore not be seen as merely dispensing a subject or lesson
but an art which involves the student in the teaching and learning process where
the student is given the chance to participate fully in the process and where the
teacher accepts each pupil and has a favorable attitude towards individual
13
differences (Melby, 1994). It must be a relationship in which the teacher
eschews sarcastic statements, ridicule and fault finding (Ababio, 2013).
Thring (2001) affirms this in his assertion that the pouring out of
knowledge is not teaching. The mere act of speaking and listening to lessons
cannot be thought of as teaching. Teaching involves all the means adopted to
appeal to the heart and mind of the learner so that the learner values learning
and believes that learning is possible in his/her own unique case. Teaching may
thus simply be thought of as the process of carrying out activities that experience
has shown to effectively get students to learn. In this light, Smith (2004) views
teaching as that which results in learning. Farrant (1980) also supports Smith’s
assertion in his definition of teaching to be any process that facilitates learning.
Teaching is therefore as any set of events, outside the student, often intended to
support the internal process of learning (Sequeira, 2012)
All the above definitions of teaching reveal that teaching is expected to
guide students not to string them along, it should not suppress them but open
the way making sure not to take them there but help them get there. If his
students are encouraged to think for themselves, we may call the man a good
teacher (Knott & Mutunga, 2003). The major goal of teaching is therefore to
ensure that students learn what has been taught. Against this backdrop, the
purpose of teaching is not the time for teachers to air their knowledge but to
help children to learn (Colin, 2009). Effective teaching therefore involves that
which leads to improved student achievement using outcomes that matter to
their future success.
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Concept of Teacher Education
In his call for action for American education in the 21st century, Clinton
(1996) indicated that: ‘Every community should have a talented and educated
teacher in every classroom. We have enormous opportunity for ensuring teacher
quality well into the 21st century if we recruit promising people into teaching
and give them the highest quality preparation and training.’ (Clinton, 1996, p.
5) Along these lines, the American Commission on Teacher Education (2002)
rightly observes; “The quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its
citizens. The quality of its citizens depends, not exclusively, but in critical
measure upon the quality of their education. The quality of their education
depends more than upon any single factor, upon the quality of their teachers”
(American Commission on Teacher Education, 2002, p.10).
The core mandate of educational institutions is to provide learning
experiences to lead their students from the darkness of ignorance to the light of
knowledge. The key personnel in the institutions who play an important role to
bring about this transformation are teachers (National Council for Teacher
Education, 2008). It is well known that the quality and extent of learner
achievement are determined primarily by teacher competence, sensitivity and
motivation (Kanyo, 2012). The National Council for Teacher Education (2008)
defined teacher education as ‘a programme of education, research and training
of persons to teach from pre-primary level to higher education level. According
to Goods dictionary of education, teacher education means ‘all formal and nonformal activities and experiences that help to qualify a person to assume the
responsibilities of a member of the educational profession or to discharge his
responsibilities more effectively. Teacher education encompasses teaching
15
skills, sound pedagogical theory and professional skills (Kanyo, 2012). These
three aspects of teacher education could be explained in the following manner:
Teaching Skills: They include providing training and practice in the different
techniques, approaches and strategies that would help teachers to plan and
impart instruction, provide appropriate reinforcement and conduct effective
assessment.
Pedagogical
Theory:
They include
philosophical,
sociological
and
psychological considerations that would enable the teachers to have a sound
basis for practicing the teaching skills in the classroom.
Professional Skills: They include the techniques, strategies, and approaches
that would help teachers grow in the profession and also work toward the growth
of the profession.
An amalgamation of teaching skills pedagogical theory and professional
skills would serve to create the right knowledge, attitude and skills in teachers,
thus promoting their holistic development
Reflective Teacher Education
The term ‘reflection’ has often appeared in descriptions of approaches
to teacher education. Reflection is a natural process that facilitates the
development of future action from the contemplation of past and/or current
behaviour. Reflection refers to the ongoing process of critically examining and
refining practice, taking into consideration the personal, pedagogical, societal
(including social, political, historical, and economical) and ethical contexts
associated with schools, classrooms, and multiple roles of teachers. (Knowles,
Cole, & Presswood, 2004). Much of the writing on reflection in teacher
education is derived from Dewey (1933). He believed that reflectivity involves
16
active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or practice in the light
of its supporting grounds and its eventual consequences. Dewey implies that
two distinct components are involved in reflective thinking: the process and the
content. Process elements of reflection emphasize how teachers make decisions.
Content elements stress the substance that drives the thinking.
Approaches to Reflection
According to Knowles (2016), the following principles need to be
considered while deciding the approaches to reflective practices:
1. Concern with the development in students teachers of a professional
style and philosophy of teaching
2. Use of action research or enquiry-based approaches to investigate and
improve teaching in a supportive environment
3. Recognition of the problematic nature of schooling, including
classroom and curriculum decision-making
4. Sensitivity to contexts for teaching and, in particular, to the range of
students’ backgrounds, abilities and characteristics
5. Use of techniques such as microteaching to build a repertoire of skills,
encouraging recording, thinking, and self-evaluation and regular
dialogues with peers and other staff members to clarify issues
The quality of teacher development practices has become a major concern in
recent educational discourse. There is a great emphasis on collaborative and
reflective approaches for teacher empowerment. This section has elaborated
upon these approaches that would serve to make teacher development practices
more holistic.
17
Concept of Teaching Practice
Teaching practice occupies a key position in the programme of teacher
education. It provides an opportunity for student-teachers to become socialized
into the profession (Furlong, Hirst, & Pocklington, 2008). Gujjar, Naoreen, Saif,
and Bajwa (2010) posited that performance during practice teaching provides
some basis for predicting the future success of the teacher. From the above, it
could be argued that any challenges, whether great or small, faced by student
teachers could negatively impact the teachers’ future performance. Therefore
these challenges must be brought to light in order for them to be addressed
before they soar to regrettable levels.
Rational for Teaching Practice
Ngara (2013) opines that teaching practice offers pre-service teachers
with an opportunity to relate knowledge and theories learned on campus to
actual classroom environment. During school experience, teachers are expected
to fuse theoretical knowledge gained in university lectures with the practical
experience they gain schools. (Ntsaluba & Chireshe, 2013). Furthermore the
rational for school practice is to help pre-service teachers to cultivate the
numerous capabilities in teacher training which include: relational,
instructional, intercultural, and mental proficiencies. (Guijar, 2009).
In
attestation the teaching practice period offers student teachers an opportunity to
develop their own personal and professional identity, develop their mission,
forge relationships with other staff, and identify with the educational ethos of
the school and the national education imperatives (Frick, 2010).
All of these imply that during school experience, student teachers
become initiated into the rigors of the multifaceted teaching profession. For
18
example, during teaching practice, student teachers are prepared for their roles
in the usage of various teaching approaches, teaching strategies, teaching
principles, teaching techniques, and the general school life. They are given the
chance to practice teaching in an actual school environment. (Ntsaluba &
Chirese, 2013). One wonders if the student teachers who find themselves in such
novel situations do not face anxieties and challenges that could dampen their
initial zeal for teaching practice and, by extension, the teaching profession. It is
thus a worthwhile endeavor to ascertain the challenges that student teachers face
during the practicum.
Akbar (2002) opined that one purpose of teaching practice is to develop
personal relationships with others: administrators, teachers, parents, and
students. In relation to this opinion, it can be said that teaching in the classroom
is not the only objective of teaching practice, but it also provides training in all
activities which student teachers are going to perform in the future during the
execution of their jobs as professional teachers.
Off-Campus Teaching Practice in the University of Cape Coast
The off-campus teaching practice is a critical aspect of every teacher
training programme because it is a period which provides teacher trainees with
firsthand experience in working with a particular group of students in a school
setting (Perry, 2003). In UCC, during OFCTP, host schools work in concert
with the University to provide quality practical experiences for student-teachers.
It is structured as an integral component of the teacher education programme to
provide practical experiences to final year students. The programme which lasts
for one semester is part of the teacher preparation programme within the
19
University. Trainees are provided guidance and assistance from professors,
supervisors and co-operating school teachers (Al-Mahrooqi, 2011).
The University of Cape Coast holds that teaching practice is not only a
process of learning to teach but also teaching to learn. Thus to facilitate this
process, the University believes that student-teachers must experience an
extended period of school placement under the guidance of experienced mentors
and university supervisors. After every visit by a supervisor, teacher trainees are
encouraged to welcome advice and criticism from experienced staff and
supervisors and feel free to present problems in connection with their teaching
to supervisors. This would help the student-teacher to be in a better position to
deal with similar problems that may arise in the future.
Theoretical Review
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory
Experiential learning is about the learner experiencing things for
themselves and learning from them. It is a way by which people can understand
their experiences and as a result modify their behavior. It is based on the idea
that the more often a learner reflects on a task, the more often they have the
opportunity to modify and refine their efforts. This theory suggests that without
reflection people would continue to repeat their mistakes. Therefore if studentteachers reflect on the challenges they faced during their OFCTP, they would
be better experienced and equipped to deal with them when the pre-service
teachers become full-fledged professional teachers. Kolb (1984) proposed a
four stage model known as the experiential learning cycle:
20
1. Concrete experience is about experiencing or immersing yourself in the
task and is the first stage in which a person simply carries out the task assigned.
This is the doing stage.
2. Observation and reflection involves stepping back from the task and
reviewing what has been done and experienced. This is the stage of thinking
about what you have done.
3. Abstract conceptualization involves interpreting the events that have
been carried out and making sense of them. This is the stage of planning how
you will do it differently.
4. Active experimentation enables you to take the new learning and predict
what is likely to happen next or what actions should be taken to refine the way
the task is done again. This is the redoing stage based upon experience and
reflection.
Consequently, it could be said that a conscious effort to assess the challenges
faced by student-teachers during their OFCTP is an important step toward the
pre-service teachers’ experiential learning and hence their professional
development.
Operant Conditioning Theory
The operant conditioning theory developed by B.F. Skinner (1938) was
also considered. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it simply
means changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after
the desired response is exhibited. An individual learns better if the environment
is controlled by a reinforcing stimulus that will strengthen behavior such as
readiness to learn, teaching styles, and so on.
21
This theory stresses that accounting teachers should enhance learning
activities through careful manipulation of teaching and learning resources with
the learners as active participants; hence the role of an accounting teacher is to
organize learning experiences and allow learning to take place by providing
adequate learning resources required in the world of business. The OFCTP is
supposed to equip the student-teacher with practical skills in this regard.
Empirical Review
This section takes a look at studies conducted by other researchers which
are related to the problem under investigation in this study. It critically
considered works conducted in relation to inadequate teaching and learning
resources in the schools of practice, the level of support mentors give to studentteachers, and lesson plan preparation challenges faced by student-teachers.
Teaching and Learning Resources Available in the Schools of Practice
Hormenu, Agyei and Ogum (2014) investigated the challenges and
prospects of the off-campus teaching practice as experienced by the Physical
Education (PE) student teacher. The research made use of descriptive survey
design with respondents to the study comprising student-teachers on teaching
practice during the 2013/2014 academic year who were purposively selected to
respond to a 3-point Likert Scale questionnaire. It was found that majority 41
(93%) of PE student-teachers on practice have positive attitudes towards the
practicum. The study also found that poor learning environment, lack of
teaching equipment, facilities and materials 31(70%), uneasy accessibility of
some of the locations by supervisors 25 (57%), mentors not having time to guide
the student-teacher were some of the major challenges encountered by the PE
student-teachers.
22
Darkwa (2008), also conducted a study on teaching and learning
resources/materials used in financial accounting lessons in the senior high
schools in the Sunyani Municipality. The researcher used a descriptive design.
Questionnaire and observation guide were used to collect data. The findings of
the study indicated that most of the teaching and learning resources/materials
used in the schools are provided by the school. The implication is that
government provides little or no teaching and learning resources/materials in
the Senior High Schools in the municipality. The study also revealed that
teaching and learning resources such as business bulletins/magazines,
stationery, television, etc., are woefully inadequate in the schools within the
municipality.
A study by Stoner (2009), on student-teacher problems during practice
teaching in London revealed some problems related to the student-teaching
experience. Weekly seminars were organized for student-teachers from which
data was collected on some specific problems. Fifty problems were identified
and then rated according to severity by over 300 students. A correlation matrix
was formed, and a component analysis was performed. As a result, items were
combined according to component loadings. The components were grouped to
provide a factor base. Five scales were formed: administrative, discipline,
student peer, motivation, and school policy. Specific problems were identified
within each scale. The administration factor emphasized problems that student
teachers had with practices in the schools. Such as classes without books, films
arriving at wrong times, inadequate supplies, inability to use gym or classroom
when needed, failure of lights, wrong numbers on classroom doors and teacher
complains about student-teachers’ slow pace of teaching.
23
Saricoban (2010), also tried to scrutinize the potential problems studentteachers encounter during their practicum studies and suggested ways to cope
with them. In order to get valid and reliable data, a sample of 118 student
teachers were covered under the study (n=59 in the public primary schools:
n=39 for secondary schools: n=12 for Public High School and n=8 for Public
Anatolian High School). At the end of their practicum studies these studentteachers were administered a questionnaire adapted from Yanik (2008) which
was modified by the researcher and approved by a team of experts in the field.
The questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. Quantitative
methods included a self-report survey that was administered to the studentteachers who did their practicum studies in the state primary and secondary
schools. The 32-item survey which was constructed by the researcher was
judged by three experts for the validity of the items and internal consistency.
Any result 3 and over was considered a problematic case in this study. The
survey also included the qualitative method with open-ended questions to seek
the suggestions of those student-teachers about the problems they encountered
during their in-classroom teaching. The survey highlighted problems such as (a)
lack of support in terms of materials and equipment, (b) problems resulting from
errors in the course books, (c) problems resulting from the students, (d)
problems resulting from the curriculum, and (e) problems resulting from the
classroom environment. It is hypothesized that most of the problems take place
mainly due to the lack of audio-visual materials and other supplementary
materials needed. It was also agreed that overcrowded classrooms and sitting
arrangement impeded the effectiveness of instruction.
24
Level of Support Mentors Give to Student-Teachers
A study by Hamaidi, Al-Shara, Arouri, and Awwad, (2014) aimed at
investigating the student-teachers' perspectives of practicum experiences and
challenges to mentors cooperation. The study included all student-teachers from
the Faculty of Educational Sciences at the University of Jordan who enrolled in
a practicum course in the second semester of their academic year 2012/2013. A
quantitative questionnaire which consisted of 41 items was administered on (71)
student-teachers of early childhood education and classroom teacher majors.
The findings of the study revealed that the participants benefited from the
practicum practices through the development of many teaching skills such as:
the interaction and communication with students and classroom management
skills. However, both classroom student-teachers and early childhood studentteachers highlighted certain common challenges they encountered during their
practicum experience; student-teachers’ personal issues hindered their progress
in practicum practices, lack of guidance provided by practicum supervisors,
assessment challenges, challenges related to student-teachers’ understanding
and handling of teaching assignments given by their cooperative teachers during
their practicum, communication with cooperative teachers and subjectivity of
cooperative teachers.
A qualitative case study by Mtika (2011) was concerned with teaching
practicum as a pivotal component of teacher education in Malawi. It sought to
address some of the issues and concerns associated with workload, ill-defined
mentoring support, and implementation of certain pedagogical orientations
during teaching practicum placement. Purposive sampling was used to select
participant and data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The
25
findings indicated that trainee teachers undergo varied and often challenging
experiences during teaching practicum. Such challenges included professional
role ambiguity. Marais and Meier (2004) echoed that the most outstanding
positive experience of the trainee teachers was the professional support offered
to them by school staff, however, their findings in one institution in South
Africa, revealed that trainee teachers were enlisted as cover teachers; absence
of formally identified co-operating teachers; lack of formal structure of support
and collaborative relationship inevitably rendering trainee teachers to operate
as “marginal” people within school systems. To counter some of the concerns,
suggestions were made to improve certain aspects of teaching practicum. The
researcher suggested that there was the need for authentic school–college
partnerships, improved structures of school-based professional support, and a
deeper awareness of the complexity of learner-centered pedagogy. According
to the researcher, it is imperative that teacher educators engage with the findings
of this to further improve the design of teaching practicum and the overall
quality of teacher education and teaching.
Lingam (2002), studied the factors that positively or negatively affect
the preparation of novice student-teachers. A questionnaire was distributed
to106 student-teachers from the Faculty of Fiji. The results showed that there
are gaps in the preparation of student-teachers, and that there are 10 out of 17
factors that affect the preparation of student-teachers negatively. Some of the
most important factors were: the duration of the practicum, reflection time spent
by student-teachers, and guidance of cooperative teachers. One of the most
important factors that affected student teachers negatively was the lack of
guidance provided by cooperative teachers and academic supervisors. Within
26
the same line of thought, Hammad’s (2005) study aimed at understanding the
reality of practicum in Al-Quds Open University in Gaza Governorates. This
study included 134 students who enrolled in the practicum. The results showed
that the highest factor that affects the practicum experience was related to the
academic supervisor while the lowest factor was related to the effect of a cooperative school.
Lesson Plan Preparation Challenges Faced by Student-Teachers
According to Baidoo (2016), in relation to pre-service teachers’
differences in difficulties regarding lesson plan issues, the descriptive results
showed that there are differences between the mean value (2.16) of the male
pre-service teachers and the mean value (2.22) of the female pre-service
teachers. This indicates that the male pre-service teachers faced higher lesson
plan issues than the female pre-service teachers. To find out whether these
differences were statistically significant, the t-test was computed. The results
showed that there is no statistically significant difference between the male preservice teachers (M = 2.16, SD = 0.59) and the female pre-service teachers in
terms of facing problems relating to lesson plan issues (M = 2.22, SD = 0.69), t
(144) = -0.568, p > 0.05, (two tailed). The null hypothesis was not rejected. The
differences indicated by the descriptive results were not considered relevant.
Lesson plan issues were therefore considered to be faced equally by both
genders.
A descriptive survey was conducted by Tashevska (2008) to report the
results of a survey conducted into teacher trainees’ perceptions of their own
strengths and difficulties in lesson planning during teaching practice on
intensive teacher training courses. It seems that by the end of the course,
27
surprisingly, more trainees find lesson planning more difficult than at the
beginning.
The comparison of results shows that teachers improve in most aspects
of planning as they familiarise themselves with the lesson planning
requirements and receive support from tutors, and after gaining in experience
and confidence, through implementing the plans in their teaching. Most of the
teachers improve in deciding on lesson aims but still experience problems in
formulating them: it is indicative that 95% find deciding on lesson aims easy at
the end and only 14% find formulating the aims still difficult. Most teachers are
aware of the former but unaware of the latter - perhaps they do not perceive the
difference between setting the aims and formulating them. Tutors’ responses
show that, at the end, teachers still experience problems formulating their aims.
It appears that most teachers are preoccupied with some of the more ‘technical’
aspects of planning, like timing and sequencing activities, and underestimate
some important aspects, like anticipating problems and planning relevant
solutions, even at the final stage of the course. Timing, which has been rated as
difficult initially by 39%, has increased to 68% at the end. Sequencing activities,
which was a preoccupation for 22% initially, rose to 36%. With the advance of
the course more teachers are aware of the importance of anticipating problems,
which was initially rated as difficult by 17%, finally increasing to 45%. This is
also born out by the TP tutors’ responses, all of whom agree that teachers still
find this aspect difficult. An interesting discrepancy between teachers and tutors
can be observed in relation to thinking of relevant solutions to the problems. All
tutors agree teachers still find this difficult at the final stages of the course, while
only 18% of teachers perceive it as such. There is also a difference between the
28
large percentage of teachers finding anticipating problems difficult – 45%, and
only 18% finding thinking of solutions difficult. It is hard to explain how people
who claim they find it difficult to anticipate problems can easily think of
relevant solution to the same, presumably anticipated, problems.
The above studies highlight a number of challenges that pre-service
teachers face during the teaching practice period. However, most of these
researchers failed to consider accounting students in their studies. It is therefore
essential to conduct a study to assess the challenges faced by student-teachers
in the accounting field.
29
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
This chapter deals with the study design. It explains the rationale for the
choice of study design. Additionally, it describes the population, sample and
sampling procedure, the instrument used, data collection, and data analysis
procedure.
Research Design
Descriptive survey design was used as the study design to obtain data
from the B.Ed. (Accounting) students in order to assess the challenges they
faced during their off-campus teaching practice. A survey research according
to Aborisade (2007), is the one the researcher is interested in studying certain
characteristics, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, motivations, behaviour, opinions of
a population, which may be large or small, without attempting to manipulate
any variables. It is, therefore, appropriate for this study because it seeks to
assess the challenges faced by B.ed (Accounting) student-teachers during
OFCTP, and the number of the respondents to be involved is relatively large.
Also, no variables would be manipulated in the study.
Osuala (2001) is also of the view that descriptive surveys are versatile
and practical, especially, to educators in that they identify present conditions
and point to present needs. He goes on to say that descriptive research is basic
for all types of research in assessing the situation as a pre-requisite for
conclusions and generalizations. Osuala’s position also confirms that the design
selected is appropriate for this study. This is because the challenges faced by
30
B.Ed. (Accounting) student-teachers during their OFCTP is what is being
assessed and appropriate generalization made to the study population.
According to Chalmers (2004) and Ponterotto (2005), descriptive
research strategy is appropriate for our study because it affords us the
opportunity to seek explanations of certain aspects of social phenomena such as
opinions, and attitudes of the respondents. Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (2004)
explained that descriptive research studies are designed to obtain information
concerning the current status of phenomena. They are directed towards
determining the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study. It can,
therefore, be concluded that the challenges faced by the B.Ed. (Accounting)
student-teachers during their recent experiences in the OFCTP is what is
currently being sought and therefore the design that is selected is the most
appropriate for this study.
The descriptive design was chosen because it has the advantage of
producing a good amount of responses from a wide range of people (Fraenkel
& Wallen, 2002). At the same time, it provides a meaningful picture of events
and seeks to explain people’s perceptions and behaviour on the basis of data
gathered at a point in time. Also, in-depth follow-up questions can be asked and
items that are unclear to the respondents can be explained using descriptive
design (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2002).
Also, the descriptive design requires subjects who can articulate their
thoughts well and sometimes even put such thoughts in writing (Krejcie &
Morgan, 2004). The subjects who were the B.Ed. (Accounting) final year
students are literate in that regard. And so they would be able to read and
understand the items on questionnaires. However, descriptive survey design
31
may produce unreliable results because they delve into private matters that
people may not be completely truthful about (Oppenheim, 2008).
Some weakness associated with the descriptive research design include;
participant may not behave naturally when they know they are being observed
(Bernard &Bernard 2012), it cannot be used to correlate variables or determine
cause and effect (Creswell, 2013). Also, the findings of descriptive survey may
be open to interpretation (Grimes & Schulz, 2002). Therefore our study
employed descriptive statistics in the data analysis (mean, standard deviation,
etc.) instead of inferential statistics (correlation, regression, etc.)
Population
The target population refers to all final year (level 400) Accounting
Education students in the Department of Business and Social Sciences
Education (D.B.S.S.E) of the 2018/2019 academic year in the University of
Cape Coast. They are 192 students in total (SRMIS, 2019). The final year
students were targeted because they had successfully completed their offcampus teaching practice and therefore possessed the unique characteristics
required to serve as respondents to the study. The accessible population for the
study constituted 192 final year Accounting Education student-teachers. The
total population for male and female pre-service teachers was 136 (70.83%) and
56 (21.17%) respectively.
Sampling Procedure
One hundred male (100) and forty-six (46) female students were
selected in the B.Ed. (Accounting) programme. Therefore the sample size used
for the study was 146 out of the total population of 192. The justification for the
use of the sample size of 146 is as follows: according to the sampling framework
32
by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007), for a population of 200, for sampling
error of 5% and a confidence level of 95%, a minimum representative sample
of 132 is acceptable. Based on this sampling framework, for external validity
and to cater for unreturned questionnaires, the sample size was increased to 146
for the study. The study sought to assess the challenges student-teachers
encountered during their field experiences. Therefore, the proportionate random
sampling technique was used. Percentages were applied to the sample size in
the population to determine the male and female B.Ed. (Accounting) students
to be selected. The proportionate random sampling technique was used to select
male and female respondents based on their percentage representation in the
population. As a result 100 males and 46 females were selected.
The simple random technique specifically the lottery method was used
to obtain the respondents for the study. The males and female students were
separated. To select 100 males we indicted ‘yes’ (100) and ‘no’ (29) on pieces
of paper and placed in a bowl for the respondents. The same procedure was used
for the female respondents, ‘yes’ (46) and ‘no’ (13). The respondents who
picked ‘yes’ were involved in the study while those who picked” no” were
rejected.
Data Collection Instrument
A self-developed questionnaire was used to collect data from
respondents. A questionnaire may be described as a data collection instrument
that is used to collect statistically quantifiable data based on research objectives
(McMillan & Schumacher 2001). The questionnaire was used for the study
because it is appropriate for survey work and also affords the respondents
adequate time to give well thought out answers (Kothari, 2004).
33
One of the advantages of questionnaire is that it enables the researcher
to ask as many questions as he/she likes (Debois, 2016). Another advantage of
the instrument is that it allows the researcher to gather information from a large
audience (Carter, 2001). When a questionnaire is used, it is quick and easy to
collect results with online and mobile tools (Moser, 2013). Result captured
using questionnaire are easy to analyse (Gilbert, 1993). The weaknesses of the
use of questionnaires are as follows: respondents may not be 100% truthful with
their answers to the questions on the questionnaire (Oppenheim, 2002); a
questionnaire cannot fully capture the emotional responses or the feelings of the
respondents (Wilson, 2006); it is hard to know if the respondent has really
thought the questions through before answering (Kirakowski, 2000).
The questionnaire was made up of four sections; Section A; Section B;
Section C and Section D. Section A elicited responses on the demographical
characteristics of the respondents and consisted of three items: gender; age and
school of practice of respondents. Section B also elicited responses on
challenges with teaching and learning resources available in the school of
practice and consisted of eight items. Section C elicited responses on challenges
with level of mentor’s support and consisted of six items. The questionnaire was
made up of a four-point Likert scale item of strongly agree to strongly disagree.
It was coded as follows: strongly agree = 4; agree = 3, disagree = 2; strongly
disagree = 1. Respondents were required to respond by ticking the appropriate
level regarding statements on the Likert scale. The last section of the
questionnaire, Section D also elicited responses on challenges with lesson plan
preparation which also had six items. In all, the questionnaire had twenty two
34
items. Both the conceptual and empirical literature formed the basis of the
developed questionnaire and subsequently used for data collection.
Data Collection Procedure
Before administering the instrument we visited the Oquaa Apartments
with a letter of introduction from the Head of Department, Department of
Business and Social Sciences Education (DBSSE), of the University of Cape
Coast where our respondents were gathered. It was administered on 25th May,
2019 around 10:00 am. Fifteen minutes was given to the respondent to respond
to the questionnaire. The questionnaire was personally administered by us. The
advantage of administering in person is summarized by Osuala (1982) that the
researcher has the opportunity to brief respondents to understand exactly what
the items mean so as to obtain the right responses.
It is ethical in research to assure respondents of their confidentiality and
anonymity, hence the questionnaire was accompanied with a cover letter to this
effect and to crave their maximum co-operation. Also, after fifteen minutes
given for the respondents to complete the questionnaire, we collected the
completed questionnaires. Respondents whose questionnaires were not ready at
that time were given extra five minutes to complete them. During the data
collection, we were available to clarify issues that the respondents failed to fully
understand. In all, 140 questionnaires were retrieved which gave a return rate of
96%. Mathematical proof of the return rate of 96% is shown below: A total of
146 questionnaires were administered. Out of this total, 140 questionnaires were
retrieved. This gives a questionnaire return rate of approximately 96%
[(140/146)*100%].
35
Data Processing and Analysis
In order to address the research questions that guided the study, the data
that was obtained from the respondents was filtered to remove any irrelevant
responses and coded. After that they were analysed using the Statistical Product
and Service Solution (SPSS, v. 25). The preliminary information on students as
well as other data were analysed using descriptive statistics. Percentages, mean,
and standard deviation of the data were obtained and discussed thoroughly.
Research question one sought to determine the availability of teaching
and learning resources in the school of practice. It was measured on a four-point
Likert scale and coded as SA (Strongly Agree) = 4; A (Agree) = 3; D (Disagree)
= 2; SD (Strongly Disagree) = 1. It was then analysed using mean and standard
deviation. Justification of the use of mean and standard deviation is as follows:
The mean was used to determine the average responses of the respondents on
each item on the questionnaire. The standard deviation provided information on
the congruence or homogeneity of the responses given by the students (Kumar,
2004). Research question two focused on the challenges with level of mentor’s
support. It was also measured on a four-point Likert scale same as research
question one. Again, it was analysed using mean and standard deviation.
Research question three focused on the challenges with lesson plan preparation.
It was also measured on a four-point Likert scale same as the first two research
questions. Data was analysed using mean and standard deviation. Table 1 shows
the summary of how data was analysed.
36
Table 1: Summary of Data Analysis
Research Questions
Data Analysis Technique
1. What are the teaching and learning
Mean and Standard Deviation
resources available in the school of
practice of B.Ed. (Accounting) studentteachers in UCC?
2. To what extent do mentors give
Mean and Standard Deviation
support to the student-teachers during
off campus teaching practice?
3. What are the challenges faced by the
Mean and Standard Deviation
student-teachers in the preparation of
lesson plan during off campus teaching
practice?
Source: Field Data (2019)
Chapter Summary
The study adopted the descriptive survey design to assess B.Ed.
(Accounting) student-teachers challenges faced during off campus teaching
practice with a population of 192 B.Ed. (Accounting) final year students. The
proportionate random technique, and the simple random sampling technique
was used to determine the sample size and the participants involved in the study.
In all, a sample size of 146 students was used for the study. The questionnaire
developed on a four-point Likert scale facilitated the collection of relevant data
necessary to address the research questions that guided the study. The major
limitation of the instrument was that only closed-ended questions were used
which prevented the respondents from openly giving out responses that could
37
have further enriched the study. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the
obtained data. Specifically, percentage was used to analyse data on the
demographical variables while mean and standard deviation was used in
analysing research questions 1 - 3.
38
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
The purpose of the study was to assess the challenges faced by B.Ed.
(Accounting) student-teachers during their OFCTP. This chapter presents the
results, analysis and discussion of the data gathered for the study. The chapter
begins with the presentation and analysis of the demographic characteristics of
the respondents used for the study. It further presents the analysis and discussion
of the results obtained from the respondents pertaining to the various research
objectives that guided the study.
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
This part of the study presents the demographic characteristics of the
respondents for the study. The characteristics would provide understanding to
readers as to the category of students who were involved in the study. These
include gender, age, and the practiced school of respondents. The demographic
characteristics were analysed using frequencies and percentages. The results are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Summary of Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Variable
Subscale
no.
%
Sex
Age (in years)
Practiced School
Male
94
69.6
Female
41
30.4
18-22
33
24.4
23-27
94
69.6
28 and above
8
5.9
Northern Ghana
31
23.0
Southern Ghana
104
77.0
Source: Field Data (2019)
39
From Table 2, 94(69.6%) out of the 135 respondents who participated
in the study were males whiles 41(30.4%) were females. The implication is that
more male teachers in the field of Accounting would be produced as against
female teachers in the field of Accounting.
With reference to Table 2, majority 94(69.6%) of the respondents were
within the age range of 23-27 years, followed by those in the age range of 1822 years 33(24.4%). Only few 8(5.9%) students were found within the age range
of 28 and above. Results on the varying ages of respondents imply that
challenges teachers face do not depend on their ages.
Results from Table 2 indicate that out of the 135 practiced schools which
we captured in the study, 31(23.0%) of them are located at the northern portion
of the country and 104(77.0%) in southern Ghana. This implies that most
student-teachers prefer doing their OFCTP in the schools located in the southern
sector of Ghana as against the schools located in the northern sector.
Discussion of Main Results
This section discusses the main results in relation to the research
questions that guided the study. The result on each research question is
presented in a table followed by its discussion.
Research Question One: What are the teaching and learning resources
available in the school of practice of B.Ed. (Accounting) student-teachers
in UCC?
Research question 1 sought to determine the teaching and learning
resources that were available in the teaching and learning process in the
practiced schools. In order to address this research question, Accounting
student-teachers in the University of Cape Coast were asked to respond to a
40
number of statements by indicating whether a teaching and learning resource
was available (mean ranging from 2.5 to 4.0) or not available (mean ranging
from 1.0 to 2.4) in the schools of practice. The mean of means and the average
standard deviation were determined by finding the arithmetical mean of the
individual means and standard deviations respectively. We analysed the data
using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). The results are
summarised in Table 3.
Table 3: Teaching and Learning Resources (TLR) Available in the Schools
of Practice
Statements
M
SD
Textbooks
1.73
0.73
Computers
1.74
0.67
Marker/Chalk and Duster
1.54
0.64
Desks
1.68
0.73
Photocopier Machines
2.14
0.80
Business bulletins/magazines
1.56
0.68
Stationery
2.23
0.72
Television
1.69
0.61
Mean of Means/Average Standard deviation
1.79
0.70
Source: Field Data (2019)
NB: TLR Available (4) TLR Not Available (1)
Results from Table 3 shows that stationery were not available in the
practiced schools (M=2.23, SD=0.72). This implies that, performance of the
41
teacher is likely to be affected by inadequate teaching and learning resources.
This could lead to poor academic performance of students. This affirms the
findings of Darkwa (2008) whose study revealed that teaching learning
resources such as business bulletins/magazines, stationery, television, etc., were
woefully inadequate in the Senior High Schools within the Sunyani
Municipality.
It is also evident from Table 3 that photocopier machines were not
available in the schools of practice (M=2.14, SD=0.80). The implication of this
finding is that if photocopier machines are not available in the schools of
practice, teachers would have to go outside the confines of the school in order
to make photocopies of questions and notes to hasten the teaching and learning
process. This would go a long way to slow down the progress of the learners.
This finding is in line with the results presented by Saricoban (2010): it is
hypothesized that most of the problems during practice teaching take place
mainly due to the lack of audio-visual materials and other supplementary
materials needed.
The responses from Table 3 indicates that B.Ed. Accounting studentteachers agreed to the statement that, textbooks for teaching Accounting were
not available in the practiced schools (M=1.73, SD=0.73). A Standard deviation
value of 0.73 indicated that the respondents were homogeneous in their
responses. The implication deduced from this finding is that student-teachers
would have to spend more money to buy their own textbooks in order to prepare
for their lessons. And if the student-teacher is not able to afford the textbooks,
less information will be available to him/her during lesson preparation, and
students’ academic performance will be adversely affected. This finding agrees
42
with the findings of Stoner (2009) which revealed some problems studentteachers encounter during their teaching practice. These problems include
classes without books, inadequate supplies and so forth.
Research Question Two: What is the level of support that mentors give to
the student-teachers during off campus teaching practice?
Research question 2 sought to ascertain the level of support that the
mentors give to the student-teachers during off campus teaching practice. In
order to address this research question, Accounting student-teachers in the
University of Cape Coast were asked to respond to a number of statements by
indicating their level of agreement (mean ranging from 2.5 to 4.0) or
disagreement (mean ranging from 1.0 to 2.4) to the statements. The mean of
means and the average standard deviation were determined by finding the
arithmetical mean of the individual means and standard deviations respectively.
We analysed the data using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation).
The results obtained are summarized in Table 4.
43
Table 4: Level of Support Mentors Give to Student-Teachers during Off
Campus Teaching Practice
Statements
M
SD
2.90
0.88
3.21
0.79
3.08
0.84
My mentor was unfriendly.
3.24
0.75
My mentor complained to some
3.33
0.87
My mentor was uncooperative.
3.15
0.82
Mean of means/Average Standard
3.14
0.83
My mentor always interfered and
made interjections during teaching
learning process.
My mentor always complained of
my teaching pace.
The mentor under whom I worked
did not believe I was capable of
handling the class.
external supervisors about my
teaching.
Deviation
Source: Field Data, 2019
SD= Strongly Disagree (1); D= Disagree (2); A=
Agree (3); SA= Strongly Agree (4)
From Table 4, the respondents agreed that their mentors were unfriendly
(M=3.24, SD=0.75). This implies that the student-teacher may find it difficult
to approach the mentor to discuss issues bordering him and this will retard his
44
progress in the field of teaching. This affirms the findings of Hamaidi, Al-Shara,
Arouri, and Awwad, (2014) when their findings revealed that trainee teachers
face challenges related to student-teachers’ understanding and handling of
teaching assignments given by their cooperative teachers during their practicum
and communication with cooperative teachers.
With reference to Table 4, the respondents agreed that their mentors
were uncooperative (M=3.15, SD=0.82). This implies that the mentors
disregarded their duty of supporting the student-teacher in the learning process
leaving the student-teacher to fend for himself. This is in line with the findings
of Lingam (2002) when he indicated that, one of the most important factors that
affected student teachers negatively was the lack of guidance provided by
cooperative teachers and academic supervisors.
Results from Table 4, indicate that the mentors under whom the
respondents worked did not believe they were capable of handling the class
(M=3.08, SD=0.84). The implication of this finding is that whatever the studentteacher will teach will be taught again by the mentor which will delay the
completion of the syllabus for the term. This confirms findings of previous
studies by Marais and Meier (2004), which revealed that trainee teachers were
enlisted as cover teachers.
Research Question three 3: What are the challenges faced by the studentteachers in the preparation of lesson plan during off-campus teaching
practice?
Research question 3 sought to examine the challenges faced by studentteachers in the preparation of lesson plan during off-campus teaching practice.
We addressed this research question by asking Accounting student-teachers in
45
the University of Cape Coast to respond to a number of statements by indicating
their level of agreement (mean ranging from 2.5 to 4.0) or disagreement (mean
ranging from 1.0 to 2.4) to the statements. We ascertained the mean of means
and the average standard deviation by finding the arithmetical mean of the
individual means and standard deviations respectively. We analysed the data by
means of descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). The results
obtained are summarised in Table 5.
Table 5: Challenges Faced by the Student-Teachers in the Preparation of
Lesson Plan
Statements
I always found it difficult in formulating
M
SD
3.02
0.88
2.91
0.91
3.17
0.79
2.41
0.98
2.51
0.89
3.21
0.72
2.87
0.86
appropriate lesson objectives during teaching
and learning process.
I always found it difficult to allocate
appropriate amount of time to various steps
and activities of the lesson.
In preparing lesson plan I had a challenge to
sequence the various dimensions of the
lesson.
I find it difficult in selecting relevant teaching
and learning materials to include in my lesson
plan.
I always found it difficult in selecting
appropriate
classroom
activities
when
preparing my lesson plan.
I find it difficult in ordering activities of the
lesson to achieve lesson objectives.
Mean of means/Average Standard Deviation
Source: Field Data (2019)
SD= Strongly Disagree (1); D= Disagree (2); A=
Agree (3); SA= Strongly Agree (4)
46
A critical look at Table 5 indicates that the student-teachers had
difficulties in formulating lesson objectives during teaching and learning
process (M=3.02, SD=0.88). The implication of this finding is that since the
teacher is not able to formulate clear lesson objectives, the learners will struggle
to focus on exactly what they are expected to learn and understand how they
will be assessed. This affirms the findings of Tashevska (2008) which revealed
that trainee teachers find it difficult in formulating lesson aims and sequencing
the various dimensions of the lesson.
The results in Table 5 also depict that student-teachers strongly agreed
that they found it difficult to allocate appropriate amounts of time to various
steps and activities of the lesson (M=2.91, SD=0.91). This connotes that while
some aspects of the lesson receive too much time, other aspects get insufficient
time. Therefore not all lesson phases can be successfully completed within the
time allowed for the lesson. This is in line with the findings of Tashevska (2008)
which revealed that trainee teachers find it difficult in allocating appropriate
amount of time to various activities of the lesson.
It is evident from Table 5 that the respondents found it difficult in
selecting appropriate classroom activities when preparing their lesson plans
(M=2.51 SD=0.89) .This implies that the teacher will have to waste class time
flipping through the textbook, thinking of what to do next, or running to pick
up resources to be used to complete classroom tasks. This supports the findings
of Baidoo (2016) which showed that both male and female pre-service teachers
faced lesson plan issues which include incorporating appropriate classroom
activities when preparing lesson plans.
47
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This chapter summarizes the study highlighting the methodologies
adopted in collecting and analysing data so as to come out with the main
findings in addressing the research questions formulated on the challenges faced
by B.Ed. (Accounting) student-teachers during off campus teaching practice.
Based on the main findings, conclusions are reached to permit the provision of
appropriate recommendations as well as suggestions for further studies.
Summary of the Study
The research was carried out to assess challenges facing Accounting
student-teachers during off- campus teaching practice in the University of Cape
Coast. The following research questions guided the study:
1. What are the teaching and learning resources available in the schools of
practice of B.Ed. (Accounting) student-teachers in UCC?
2. What is the level of support that mentors give to the student-teachers
during off campus teaching practice?
3. What are the difficulties faced by student-teachers in the preparation of
lesson plan?
The study employed the descriptive survey design using the
questionnaire as the only instrument to collect the relevant data in addressing
the research questions formulated. One hundred and forty six (146) B.Ed.
(Accounting) student-teachers were selected to respond to the questionnaire.
Frequencies and percentages were used to analyse the demographic
characteristics of respondents whereas mean and standard deviation were used
48
to analyse research question 1-3. The Statistical Product and Service Solutions
was used to generate the frequencies, percentages and tables.
Key Findings
The following key findings were obtained after a thorough discussion of
the results:
1. It was revealed from the research question 1 that teaching and learning
resources such as textbooks, stationery, desks, and photocopier
machines were not available in the various schools of practice.
2. Findings from research question 2 revealed that the support that the
mentors gave to the student-teachers during their practicum was
minimal. We found out that mentors were not friendly neither were they
cooperative. Also, mentors did not believe in the student-teachers’
capability of handling the class.
3. It was also revealed from research question 3 that the student-teachers
found it difficult to prepare lesson plan during off campus teaching
practice. Our study revealed that student-teachers had difficulty in
formulating appropriate lesson objectives in the preparation of lesson
plan. They also found it difficult to allocate appropriate amount of time
to various phases of their lessons.
Conclusions
Student-teachers struggle with a number of challenges during their
OFCTP. If such challenges are left unaddressed, they are likely to affect the
student-teachers ability to teach effectively during their OFCTP. It can be
concluded from the findings that most of the practiced schools do not have
teaching and learning resources to enhance teaching. This will go a long way to
49
affect the teaching and learning process. These challenges may stifle the ability
of student-teachers to perform during their practicum. This suggests that
student- teachers may not only view their field experiences as burdensome over
time but may also become uninterested about doing their best during their
OFCTP and subsequently passing out into the teaching profession.
The minimal support that mentors give to the student-teachers posed a
challenge to them during their practice. The student-teachers may thus feel
overwhelmed and left alone when starting their teaching journey. Therefore the
student-teachers viewed their practicum as an isolating experience. Isolating in
the sense that the mentors were not committed to guiding the student-teachers.
It can be concluded from the findings of our study that student-teachers
faced challenges in preparing lesson plan during OFCTP. Therefore they found
it difficult to follow a step-by-step approach in their teaching. Also, the
difficulty in preparing lesson plan negatively affected the confidence of the
student-teachers when delivering the lesson in the classroom.
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings revealed by the study and the conclusions
that were drawn, the following recommendations are made:
1. Head Teachers and the Parent Teachers Associations of Senior High
Schools should ensure that there are adequate teaching and learning
resources available in their Schools to enhance the performance of the
student-teachers.
2. The Teaching Practice Unit (TPU) of the University of Cape Coast must
intensify its efforts of motivating the mentors in various practicing
50
schools. This could be achieved by giving the mentors monetary rewards
and workshops from time to time.
3. The lecturers who handle “Methods of Teaching Accounting” must give
prospective student-teachers numerous opportunities to prepare lesson
plan. This would enable the student to realize their shortcomings in that
regard and make improvements before they go out to the field.
Suggestions for Further Research
Taking into consideration the scope and limitations of this study, we
suggest that further research be conducted into the following areas:
1. A replication of this study to take into consideration all education
students in the University of Cape Coast may provide a more extensive
view of the challenges of field experiences. This is expected to provide
in-depth information relating to the issues raised in this study.
2. An investigation into the effect of the challenges of field experiences on
student academic performance may also conducted.
51
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61
APENDICES
APENDIX A
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
EDUCATION
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENT-TEACHERS
Dear respondents, this questionnaire seeks to elicit information about the
challenges faced by B.Ed. (Accounting) student-teachers during their offcampus teaching practice. This is solely for academic purpose. You are
assured of strict confidentiality and anonymity for all the information provided.
We therefore seek your maximum co-operation in responding to the items in
this questionnaire. You however, have the right to participate voluntarily and
right to withdraw at any time from the study. You are therefore not required to
provide your name and registration number. Thank you.
SECTION A: Student’s Information
Instructions: Please answer the following questions by writing or ticking [√]
where appropriate.
1. Gender
a. Male [
]
b. Female [
]
2. Age (in years)
a.18-22 [
b. 23-27 [
]
]
62
c. 28 and above [
]
3. Name of Practicing School…………………………………………………
CHALLENGES OF THE OFF CAMPUS TEACHING PRACTICE
EXPERIENCE AS PERCIEVED BY THE STUDENT-TEACHER
SECTION B: Challenges with Teaching and Learning Resources Available
in the School of Practice
Instruction: please indicate your responses by ticking [√] in the appropriate
box whether these resources are available or not available in your school of
practice.
No Teaching and learning resources
Available
.
Not
Available
4.
Textbooks
5.
Computers
6.
Marker/Chalk and Duster
7.
Desks
8.
Photocopier Machines
9.
Business bulletins/magazines
10. Stationery
11. Television
SECTION C: Challenges with Level of Mentors’ Support
Instruction: Below are statements on a four (4) point scale relating to some
challenges you may have faced during your off-campus teaching practice.
Please indicate your responses by ticking [√] the scale which best describes
your opinion of agreement or disagreement concerning the challenges you
63
faced during your off-campus teaching practice for sections C-D: SA
(Strongly Agree), A (Agree), D (Disagree), and SD (Strongly Disagree).
Key: SA =4, A =3, D =2, and SD =1.
No
Statements
S
.
12.
A
D
A
My mentor
always
interfered
and
S
D
made
interjections during teaching learning process.
13.
My mentor always complained of my teaching
pace.
14.
The mentor under whom I worked did not believe
in my capability of handling the class.
15
My mentor was unfriendly.
16.
My mentor makes complains to my external
supervisors concerning my teaching.
17.
My mentor was uncooperative.
SECTION D: Challenges with Lesson Plan Preparation
No
Statements
S
.
18.
A
I had difficulty in formulating appropriate lesson
objectives during teaching and learning process.
19.
I always found it difficult to allocate appropriate
amount of time to various steps and activities of
the lesson.
64
A
D
S
D
20.
In preparing lesson plan I had a challenge to
sequence the various dimensions of the lesson.
21.
I find it difficult in selecting relevant teaching
and learning materials to include in my lesson
plan.
22.
I always found it difficult in selecting appropriate
classroom activities when preparing my lesson
plan
23.
I find it difficult in ordering activities of the
lesson to achieve lesson objectives.
Thank you for participating in this study.
65
APENDIX B
66