module 4 applied biology BIODIVERSITY • Biodiversity= variability of life in a particular area • 3 levels of biodiversity à interrelated + contribute to overall biodiversity Levels of GENETIC DIVERSITY biodiversity • Unique individuals • Variety of genotypes + alleles in species/population • All individuals are genetically unique • Within + among populations • Provides evolutionary flexibility à more diverse= more likely to survive environ change + withstand natural selection • Low genetic diversity pop= inbreeding à less viable offspring SPECIES DIVERSITY • Unique species • Variety of species in habitat/region • Each species= genetically unique • May be many populations within species à different populations= genetically unique • Species survival depends on conservation of several populations ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY (highest level) • Unique habitats • Variance between ecosystems/ habitats • Ecosystem= Living organisms + abiotic physical environment o Defined on various scales à e.g. entire reef to single coral • Ecosystem integrity= Ability of ecosystem to support/maintain ecological processes + organism diversity o Fine balance à easily disrupted o Protect integrity= protect species + genetic diversity • Regions where biodiversity is high Biodiversity • Often overlap w/ human habitation hotspots • E.g. Eastern Australia, New Zealand, Amazon, South Africa, NE Africa, Mexico, SE Asia • Biodiversity not constant à different levels of variation at any one time Speciation • Speciation= evolution of new species à process of allele frequency changes ALLOPATRIC • Geographic barrier separates populations à no gene flow= divergent evolution PARAPATRIC • Partial spatial isolation à no specific barrier to gene flow • Non-random mating à more likely to mate within geographic area • Reduced gene flow + varying selective pressures throughout range= divergence PERIPATRIC • Isolation of peripheral population • No gene flow with larger/main population= New species from periphery pop • E.g. island pop split from mainland pop SYMPATRIC • Genetic polymorphism • Reproductive isolation within pop • 2 sub-groups within pop continually interact only with each other= become 2 species • E.g. apple maggot fly EXTINCTION • • • Extinction= no living members of species found anywhere in world Extinct in the wild= living species only in captivity Locally extinct= no longer found in certain area • • Natural process but not all natural à human interference High endemism in Australia à extinction= lost from globe • Happen continually but there have been 5 mass extinction events Prehistoric • >99% of all organisms that have ever lived are extinct extinctions • Most studied= 66mya à killed all non-avian dinosaurs + caused massive diversification • Current extinction rate ≈ 100-1000x faster than natural Current • >1 million species threatened biodiversity • Speciation rates < extinction rates crisis • 99% modern extinctions due to human activity • International Union for Conservation of Nature (est 1964) IUCN red list • Global conservation status of animal, fungi + plant species • Information about range, pop size, habitat, ecology, uses, threats + conservation actions • Powerful tool to inform + catalyse action for biodiversity conservation + policy change • Can see how species tracking over time • Effective conservation relies on sufficient information CATEGORIES • Endangered= at risk of extinction throughout all/significant portion of range • Status of species change with increased understanding CONSERVATION BIOLOGY Conservation cycle • Shows all steps to achieving conservation outcomes Conservation biology • Conservation biology= multidisciplinary missionoriented science to address biodiversity loss 2 main components= biological/natural sciences + applied management sciences 3 stakeholder environments involved= physical, social + implementation • • Achieving goals Approaches Prioritising species Australia’s biodiversity conservation strategy 2010-2030 SPECIES APPROACH • Prioritise species for protection + management • Actions specific to species à tailored based on understanding of species ECOSYSTEM APPROACH • Allows conservation of multiple species + habitats • High biodiversity= greatest chance of success • Conserve representative sites à species + environmental conditions characteristic of ecosystem WILDERNESS APPROACH • Assumes likely to have species needing protection à preserve rather than restore • Wilderness= Areas w/ low/no human activity/ no planned development HOTSPOT APPROACH • Target BD hotspots à highest level of BD + endemism • 34 hotspots targeted as protected areas • reality= too many threatened species to conserve all • Choice based on: understanding of species/ threat scale + severity/ resources + priorities FACTORS USED • Distinctive= only species in genus/family; unusual genetic characteristics • Utilitarian= value/utility to humans • Keystone= crucial role in ecosystem function= extinction would have cascading effect • Flagship= ambassador/ symbol for habitat, issue or campaign • Indicator= acute sensitivity to environ harm= useful indicators of ecosystem health • Umbrella= protection would indirectly protect many other species • Threatened= higher threat status VISION • Biodiversity healthy + resilient to threats • Biodiversity value in its own right + in its essential contribution to our existence THREATS • Identify threatened species • Identify + understand threatening processes PRIORITY ACTIONS • Engage all Australians • Build ecosystem resilience in changing climate • Getting measurable results THREATS Threatened species criteria (NSW) • • • Reduction in population size Restricted geographical distribution Few mature individuals Key threats in NSW NSW government response • 39 key threatening processes in NSW= 4 main categories: • Pest animals à resource competition/ predation/ degrade natural ecosystems • Weeds à resource competition/ displace native flora + fauna • Diseases à weaken/kill native species • Habitat loss + change à human encroachment/ pollution SAVING OUR SPECIES MANAGEMENT PROGRAM • Species managed in diff ways depending on specific ecology + threats • 9 management streams o Site-managed species o Landscape-managed species o Iconic species o Threatened ecological communities o Data-deficient species o Threatened populations of a species o Key threatening processes o Partnership species o Keep-watch species LEGISLATION Interinstitutional collaboration Levels of legislation • • Effective conservation management requires coordinated efforts of multiple stakeholders TRADITIONAL APPROACH ONE PLAN APPROACH Independent planning for in situ + ex situ • Integrated planning efforts pops INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS/AGREEMENTS • Highest level • UN Convention on Biological Diversity • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)= regulates international trade + movement of species o CITES I= threatened speciesà movement must benefit species + permits required o CITES II= not yet threatened à permitted under monitored/controlled conditions o CITES III= species protected within nation à export permit + certificate of origin • Rio de Janeiro 1992= major international gathering of 193 nations + NGOs à international recognition that biodiversity globally important, intrinsically valuable + vital to human wellbeing NATIONAL STRATEGIES/ ACTS • Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Convention Act 1999= central environmental legislation à registers list of CITES species o Control international movement of wildlife o Protect + manage world + national heritage o Promote ecologically sustainable development o Protect threatened species + ecological communities à conservation + threat abatement plans • Australia’s Biological Diversity Strategy= developed to fulfil international obligations Example: Biosecurity (+ Corroboree Frog) Example: Animal welfare o Develop national strategies for conservation + sustainable use of biodiversity o Integrate conservation + sustainable use into relevant sectors o Reduce rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional + national level • Increasing legislation à complex, detailed + time intensive STATE ACTS (NSW) • Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016= Regulate impacts to biodiversity + threatened species by maintaining ecosystem diversity + quality o List threatened species + ecological communities o Establish independent scientific committee o Identify areas of outstanding biodiversity values o Consult landholders, conservation groups, agencies, councils + community o Licensing + enforcement • International= UN Convention + CITES • National= Biosecurity Act 2015 • State= Biosecurity Act 2015 • Standards + policies= National Zoo Biosecurity manual + Husbandry manuals NATIONAL ACT (BIOSECURITY ACT 2015) • Manage biosecurity risks that may harm animal/plant health or environment • Give effect to Australia’s International rights + obligations • E.g. Chytrid fungus à threat abatement plan= Dept Environ + Energy 2016 STATE ACT (BIOSECURITY ACT 2015) • Manage threats arising from pests, diseases, contaminants + other matter • Promote biosecurity as shared responsibility b/w govt, industry + communities • Give effect to intergovernmental biosecurity agreements to which State is a party • E.g. captive corroboree frog colony maintained in quarantine facility to prevent entry of chytrid fungus STANDARDS + POLICIES (EX-SITU BIOSECURITY MANAGEMENT) • Facilities need struct quarantine protocols to ensure no pathogens enter insurance pops • National Zoo Biosecurity Manual= cooperative initiative b/w govt, industry + communities à zoos develop own institution-specific plans • Species husbandry manuals= best practice care guides à often includes biosecurity issues Quarantine procedures (e.g. Southern Corroboree Frog) • Holding facility= high level of quarantine à eliminate risk of pathogen transmission by separating from other frogs • PPE à gumboots, surgery gown, disposable gloves • Tended to first thing in morning • Adults tended to first • Regular skin examinations + faecal sampling à 3 samples every 5 days • New arrivals= min. 30 day quarantine • No international or national legislation à managed at state level via multiple Acts EXHIBITED ANIMALS PROTECTION ACT 1986 • Ensure welfare of exhibited animals is safe guarded • Governs min. requirements for care in captivity à housing/ nutrition/ record keeping/ quarantine • Relevant NSW Standards of Exhibited Animals o General standards o Specific Australian mammals o Need to meet both general + specific standards for native mammals UNDERSTANDING SPECIES NEEDS • No universal approach for all species à need to tailor management to specific species ecology + threats • Natural habitat/climate Biological • Food + water requirements à diet/ dietary specificity/ frequency/ GIT features information needed for captive management Getting species information Applying species knowledge to ex-situ management (e.g. Tammar Wallaby) • Living conditions à mimic natural conditions where possible • Shelter preferences • Reproduction à breeding seasons/ sexual maturation/ mating behaviour/ offspring output • Behaviour • Predator-prey interactions • Social interactions HOW • Knowledge from biologists, vets, nutritionists, behaviourists, researchers, indigenous communities • Based on science, practice, technology + generational expertise • In accordance w/ laws + regulations WHY • Enhance animal care + welfare • Conservation à breed + release to h wild pops • Model species for research à easy handling/ adapts well to captivity/ breeds well in captivity • 2 subspecies= different needs o SA= N.e.eugenii o WA= N.e.derbianus LIVING CONDITIONS + CLIMATE • Should mimic natural habitat where possible • Diff subspecies may have diff requirements • Diff species= diff degrees of plasticity in capacity to cope w/ altered conditions • SA wallaby= grassland + woodland à rainfall= i summer + h winter • WA wallaby= heath, woody shrubs + beach/coastal à rainfall= none in summer NUTRITION + WATER • Some species more adaptable to different diets while others strict specialists • Ab libitum fresh water supply= important for all species • Multiple food + water dispensers available in captivity • SA wallaby= grasses • WA wallaby= woody shrubs + get water from food in summer SHELTER • Consider social interactions à groups= multiple shelters • Consider potential predators à shelter to provide protection • Ensure enclosure excludes predators à e.g. deep + tall fences bent outwards at top SOCIAL + REPRODUCTIVE INTERACTIONS • Determines whether males + females can be housed together • Determines space needed per animal • Determines whether they are housed in groups or individually • Wallabies= generally housed w/ 1 male to multiple females MALE BEHAVIOUR • Male-male aggression particularly issue in sexually dimorphic + polygynous species • Need sufficient space + numerous feeding stations à reduce competition • Need appropriate socialisation à can kill each other if not socialised properly • Wallabies= Bachelor groups ok but not ideal à fight • Strong linear dominance hierarchy à 1 dominant male + others progressively less dominant • Dominant male= h testosterone + larger testes à tries to monopolise females BREEDING BIOLOGY • Important to understand in order to maximise reproductive success in captivity • Some species do well in captivity, others don't • Success may vary w/ living conditions • Wallabies= sub-species differ but both have young when rainfall lowest o SA= ~95% reproductive success in captivity à shorter breeding season (Jan/Feb) o WA= 50-60% reproductive success in captivity à longer breeding season (Nov-Feb) Adapting management to updated knowledge (E.g. Shortbeaked Echidna) • Constantly need to continue learning about species + updating management appropriately • 5 sub-species à varied fur + spine cover • 2-7kg • Strong forelimbs + sharp claws • Excellent climbers • Threats= invasive predators + vehicles • Habitat= forests, woodlands, grasslands + arid areas • Distribution= Australia-wide + PNG SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR • Wide range= overlap w/ others but fairly solitary • Captivity= loosely hierarchical à dominant individual REPRODUCTION • Seasonal= mid-late winter • Mating train= female followed by up to 10 males 1. Egg laid in female pouch à puggle hatches after 10 days using egg tooth to crack 2. Female constructs nursery 3. Lactates via milk patches in pouch until young grow spines 4. Mum forages for food + returns every 4-6 days to feed puggle 5. ~200 days old= puggles leave nursery NATURAL DIET • Termite, ant + larvae specialist à Prey size limited by small gape of mouth • Long sticky tongue= capture prey • Forage in leaf litter + logs à detect by smell + electrical impulses CAPTIVE ENCLOSURES • deep layer of soil, leaf litter + mulch substrate (>60cm) à allows digging • Smooth barrier at least 60cm high + 50cm below ground à stops climbing/digging out • No wire mesh à can pull apart w/ forelimbs + climb up • No overhanging shrubs/trees CAPTIVE HISTORY • Poor reproductive success à 1908-2007= only 7 captive births in Aus • Possible explanations= unsuitable egg incubation sites/ failure to remove males after mating/ excessive handling of incubating females/ poor body condition of females/ diet • Fed meat gruel + insectivore à very h protein RESEARCH FINDINGS + IMPLEMENTATION • Necropsies of stomachs= captive sample had significantly higher rates of abnormal epithelium + gut flora à 22 abnormal captives vs 1 abnormal wild • Stable isotope analysis= assess nitrogen + carbon content in keratin o Wild echidnas= closer to herbivores than carnivores à ingests plant material w/ ants o Captive echidnas= higher nitrogen + carbon à high protein food • Updated captive diet to include i protein à potential improvement in reproduction ISLAND ARKS • • Island ark= isolated system in which a suite of species are maintained w/ goal of conserving individual species/systems in the absense of introduced predatorsà May be offshore or inland Globally recognised as important to support biodiversity • 8222 islands within maritime borders à 1.26% total landmass Offshore • Varied climate + conditions à can support range of species islands in • ~330 used for conservation à support ~35% threatened species Australia Pros • • • • • Lack of invasive species i urbanisation + human interference Isolation from disease Geologically + ecologically diverse around Aus à support many diff species Relatively enclosed space à easier to monitor/maintain Cons Factors which influenced island use in conservation Island persistence Island conservation/ translocation • • • • • • • Narrow geographic range Only 1 or a few small populations No gene flow à i genetic diversity Naivety + lack of immunity to intro species Little/no prior human contact= i disturbance tolerance Island persistence= recognition that number of taxa persisted only on offshore islands after mainland pops went extinct à “serendipitous arks” Island conservation/Island translocation= proactive attempts to protect highly valued species from human impacts by “marooning” on islands in late 19th century • CWR mammals= most vulnerable to invasive predators à i range on mainland after Euro settlement + tend to persist on islands • Predator susceptible mammals= species which cannot persist over long periods unless predators are eliminated or significantly reduced EXAMPLE: BURROWING BETTONG • Weight= ~1.3kg • Former distribution= wide range across WA, SA, NT + NSW • Current distribution= 3 islands off WA à Bernier, Dorre + Barrow EXAMPLE: WESTERN BARRED BANDICOOT • Weight= ~210g • Former distribution= inland NSW + coast of WA + SA • Current distribution= 2 islands off WA à Bernier + Dorre EXAMPLE: BANDED HARE WALLABY • Weight= ~1.6kg • Former distribution= WA + SA • Current distribution= 2 islands off WA à Bernier + Dorre RELEVANCE TO ISLAND ARKS • Effective way to protect + manage CWR mammals • Physically separate from major threats à predators • Late 1800s= deliberate translocations for conservation began • 1898= Koalas intro to French island • 1905= Tammar wallabies intro to Greeny island • Introduction= intro species to area outside natural historic range • Reintroduction= return species to area within natural historic range where it has become locally extinct CREATING ISLAND ARKS • h trend towards marooning species on islands through introductions + reintroductions • Currently 588 Aus islands cat/fox free à huge conservation potential FENCED MAINLAND ARKS • Currently= 19 reserves • Size= 0.5 – 123 km2 Effectiveness of EXAMPLE: WILD WEST ZONE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA (2008-2018) • Bounded by dog proof fence Island Arks • Risks within Island Arks Managing risks Measures of success= survival for 8+ years, h distribution + recovery after drought o Greater bilby= success o Burrowing bettong= success o Western barred bandicoot= success o Greater stick nest rat= success o Numbat + Woma python= failed à predation from above (birds)?? • Predators baited outside fence à bettong + bilby released= failed due to cat predation o Need longer term solutions than just baiting SMALL POPULATIONS + ENVIRONMENTAL PERTURBATIONS • h vulnerability to stochastic environmental events + climate change • E.g. Bramble Cay Melomys= lived on island off PNG à extinct in 2014 due to climate change o Rising sea levels + severe storms= reduced island to baron + small GENETICS • Inbreeding depression + i gene flow= h extinction risk • Inbreeding= i fitness in pop à affects reproduction + survival rates • i genetic diversity= affects evolutionary potential of pop + ability to respond to selective pressures • E.g. Mountain pygmy possum= small fragmented pops à h susceptibility to disease + i female size + i reproductive success • E.g. Tasmanian devil= i pop à i genetic diversity= h susceptibility to facial tumour disease FOSTERS RULE • Change in size relative to mainland counterparts • Insular gigantism= species become bigger than mainland à i predator pressure • Insular dwarfism= species become smaller à limited food resources • Spread b/w multiple sites • Actively manage all sites as metapopulation à promote artificial gene flow b/w sites • Monitor outcomes at diff sites à # individuals/ gene pool/ threats CASE STUDIES: ISLAND ARKS Island persistence (Lord Howe Island) • Protecting species already on the island • Fauna evolved in isolated à naïve to new threats which arrived w/ Europeans LORD HOWE ISLAND • Volcanic remnant 570km east of NSWà Humid subtropical climate • Discovered 1788 • Settled 1834 à still low residency • 80%+ in natural state LHI BIODIVERSITY • 239 indigenous vascular plants • >1600 invertebrates • 2 reptiles • 2 mammals (bats) • >200 birds recorded 3 WAVES OF EXTINCTION • Phase 1 (mid-1800s)= human persecution facilitated by naivety o white gallinule + white-throated pigeon= killed for meat à terrestrial= easy to access o Red-crowned parakeet= shot b/c eating crops • Phase 2 (1918)= SS Makembo shipwreck à black rats escape= eat bird eggs o Robust white eye, Island thrush + Tasman starling • Phase 3 (1920s-1960)= Masked owl + barn owl introduced to remove rats o Grey fantail + Lord Howe gerygone= eaten by intro owls o Southern boobook= outcompeted by intro owls Island translocation/ conservation (The Sanctuary) LORD HOWE ISLAND BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT PLAN • Overview of species à flora/ fauna/ biodiversity/ hotspots • Threats • Current management à management plans/ recovery plans/ weed + vegetation control • Proposed management à priority areas, threats, species + communities • Legislation LORD HOWE ISLAND RODENT ERADICATION PROJECT • Key objective= Removal of destructive invasive rodents + noxious weeds, while protecting threatened species by establishing biosecurity to prevent intro of invasive species • Multiple stakeholders involved à govt, conservation orgs + local communities 1. Problem identification (2001) 2. Planning, logistics + community engagement (2017-2019) 3. Baiting (2019) à brodifacoum at 20ppm (low enough that native + domestic animals safe) 4. Monitoring + captive management (2019-2021) RISK ASSESSMENT + MITIGATION • Determine potential impacts of baiting program on non-targets (environment, humans, domestic animals + native wildlife) • Research + initial trails= low risk to environment but risk identified for LHI Currawong + LHI Woodhen • Mitigation plan= captive management of 80-85% woodhens + 50-60% currawongs for 3-4 months while rat baiting occurs à 3 key considerations: o Husbandry= observations/ nutrition/ bird release/ space requirements/ breeding season o Health monitoring= check-in process/ sick bird procedures/ routine health checks o Management + operations= security/ biosecurity/ staff/ shipment/ storage/ transport SPECIES BIOLOGY + CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT Species biology Captive management LHI woodhen • Flightless • 2 buildings à total 11 pens • Males larger • 20-25 birds/pen à family groups • Diet= insects + worms • Pens surrounded by rodent proof perimeter • Pair for life • Sheeting buried to 600mm • Nests= moss, grass, burrows under trees • No gaps > 6.5mm x 6.5mm • Rat baiting may overlap w/ • Natural substrate breeding season LHI • Males larger • Modular design Currawong • Diet= omnivorous à insects, • 20 aviaries in 3 rows seeds, fruits, lizards • Birds held in pairs= i disease risk • Breeds in undisturbed forest • Mouse mesh on ground • No gaps > 1.2cm x 1.2cm RELEASE • All released • Continual monitoring for next 2 yrsà Both doing well OUTCOMES • Currawong + woodhen doing well • Black winged petrel nest burrows= 100% occupied • LHI Christmas beetles, silvereyes + green doves= h abundance observed • Creating mainland Island Arks • Multiple stakeholders involved 3 WAVES OF EXTINCTION • Phase 1 (1788-1800)= Euro settlement + cats o E.g. Western long-beaked echidna extinct in Australia • Phase 2 (1800-1940)= Rabbits introduced o E.g. lesser bilby extinct • Phase 3 (1940s)= more cats + foxes o E.g. desert bettong extinct Similarities THE SANCTUARY, NSW • 110ha à 4.5km perimeter • 3 broad habitats= callitris woodland, eucalypt woodlans + grasslands • Purpose= breed genetically + behaviourally appropriate fauna for reintroduction into wild GREATER BILBY Basic biology • Nocturnal marsupial • Poor eyesight • Strong hearing + smell • Sexual maturity= 6mths old • Diet= insects, larvae + bulbs • Critical weight range • Conservation status varies by state à Extinct in NSW Habitat • wide ranging à arid, woodlands + grasslands Distribution • Former= all states • Current= WA, NT + small fragment in QLD Threats • Invasive predators à foxes + cats • Invasive competitors à rabbits • Habitat loss + fragmentation • Isolated populations PREPARING THE SANCTUARY • Habitat surveys + classification • Fuel load monitoring + fire • Fauna surveys à natives + invasives • Eradicate invasives à fox trapping/ rabbit baiting/ detection dogs/ shooting • Target species population PRE-SANCTUARY RELEASE- CHECKS + TAGGING • Mid-2019= Wild-caught bilbies introduced to pre-release holding area • Health + genetic analysis • Research breeding success, habitat + diet preferences • Fit w/ radio trackers • Late 2020= first cohort ready for wild release • Both involve management of invasive species + biosecurity • Address national biosecurity Acts • Address NSW Invasive Species Plan + Biosecurity Strategy