Introduction to Social Psychology 1st year undergraduate psychology lecture 2008 James Neill Overview Part 1: About Social Psychology Part 2: Cognition, Influence, & Relationships Part 1: About Social Psychology Activity: Topic Matching Definition(s) Scope Foci Topics Video (27 mins) Topic Matching Activity Activity: In pairs, discuss and agree on a topic match for each of the sets of displayed images. Discussion: Go through the image sets and ask for suggestions – lecturer accepts and highlights some key terms for each image. Allocate one of these topics to each of the following sets of slides... Prejudice Aggression Group Dynamics Crowd Behaviour Social Exclusion Environmental Relationships Prosocial Behaviour Conformity Leadership 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 What is Social Psychology? Influence of social processes on the way people: Think (thoughts; cognition) Feel (feelings; emotions) Behave (behaviour; actions) Three Themes Social Thinking - how we think about others e.g., Attributions Social Influence - how we are influenced by others, e.g., Conformity Social Relations - how we interact with others, e.g., Relationships Domains / Units of Analysis Scope Why is Social Psychology Important? Focus 1: Relationships Focus 2: Social Influence Focus 3: Leadership Focus 4: Intergroup Relations Video: The Power of the Situation Annenberg (1989). The Power of the Situation (Program 19). [27 min video] Annenberg: Santa Barbara, CA. Part 2: Cognition, Influence, Relationships Social Cognition – Attribution – Attitudes Behaviour – Cognitive Dissonance Social Influence – Conformity – Obedience – Group Influence Social Relationships – – – – Group polarisation Aggression Conflict & Cooperation Prosocial Behaviour Social Thinking Attribution Behaviour Cognitive Dissonance Attitudes Social Thinking Questions How do we explain people’s behaviour? How do we form our beliefs and attitudes? How does what we think affect what we do? How can attitudes be influenced and behaviour changed? Attributions We are all ‘intuitive scientists’ or 'naive psychologists'. Process of inferring the causes of mental states, behaviours, and events which occur to ourselves & others (Heider, 1958) – External attributions Behavior is due to the situation, ‘The boss yelled at me ... because this is April 15th and his taxes are not done.’ – Internal attributions Behavior reflects the person, ‘The boss yells at everyone ... because he is a hostile person.’ Attributional Biases Fundamental Attribution Error (or Correspondence Bias) – Overestimate internal factors (i.e., blame people) more than external factors (i.e., circumstances) Actor-Observer Bias – More aware of external influences on our own behaviour Attributions Observed Behaviour Internal (Dispositional) Explanation External (Situational) Explanation Attitudes Valenced (+/-) beliefs & feelings towards people, objects, & events, e.g., – George W. Bush? – Guns? – Recreational drug use? Do attitudes behaviour ? Attitudes & Behaviour Behaviour Attitudes Situation When do Attitudes Predict Behaviour? Attitudes are implicit (unconscious). Situational demands are low. Attitudes are strong & based on personal experience. Attitudes are specific & relevant to behaviour. Conscious/aware of attitudes. Environmental reinforcement matches attitude. Important others share the same attitude. Behaviour also influences Attitude Behaviour Attitudes Situation Behaviour also influences attitude e.g., Foot-in-the-door Role playing “What we do, we gradually become.” Foot-in-the-door Technique st IV: 1 request: “Sign a petition supporting safe driving?” vs. no request ~ 2 weeks later… DV: “Can we place this large, ugly ‘Drive Safely’ sign in your front yard?” Those who had signed the petition were 3 x more likely to agree to the 2nd request. - Freedman & Fraser (1966) Foot-in-the-door Technique Foot-in-the-door technique as used by Scientology Time Magazine, 1991 Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger) (Action Belief) Distress Distress (Action or Belief) (Action = Belief) Distress Cognitive Dissonance I don't believe in sex before marriage (attitude), but I just had sex before marriage (behaviour). I believe that speeding increases the risk of car accidents (attitude) yet speed on a daily basis (behaviour). Cognitive Dissonance Model Two inconsistent cognitions (e.g., an attitude and a counterattitudinal behaviour) State of dissonance Motivation to reduce dissonance UNLESS No dissonance Attitude change Change or justify counterattitudinal behaviour No attitude change Social Influence Conformity Obediance Group influence Social Influence Questions How we influence each other? How are we affected by pressures to conform and obey? How are we affected by group interaction? How do groups affect our behavior? Social Influence The greatest contribution of social psychology is its study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions and the way they are moulded by social influence. Conformity Willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Conformity Solomon Asch studies. Asch’s Conformity Studies (1950’s) Subjects were asked to judge line lengths while working in a group 7 subjects; the 6th was real, rest were confederates. Confederates consistently gave obviously wrong answers The subject often conformed and gave the same wrong answer On average, 37% of participants conformed. Some never caved. Conditions That Conformity Feelings of incompetence, insecurity, low self-esteem. Group size 3+. Group is unanimous (lack of dissension). Group status desirable & attractiveness. Group observes one’s behavior. No prior commitment to response. Culture strongly encourages respect for social standard. Reasons for Conformity Normative Social Influence – A person’s desire to gain approval or avoid rejection. – Respecting normative behavior, because price may be severe if not followed. Informational Social Influence – Group may provide valuable information. – When the task is difficult or you are unsure, it makes sense to listen to others. Obedience People comply to social pressures. But how would they respond to outright command? Milgram designed a study that investigated the effects of authority on obedience. Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) Milgram’s Study Milgram’s Studies 63% complied with administration of shocks Degree of obediance influenced by: – Physical proximity of authority figure – Status of authority figure – Depersonalisation of victim – Lack of defiant role models Milgram’s Study Depending on subtle changes in conditions, compliance varied b/w 0 & 93% Zimbardo’s Prison Study (1970’s) Subjects played either prisoners or guards. Prisoners were arrested, fingerprinted, dressed, and referred to by number. Guards were dressed and given control over prisoners. Subjects became their roles in action, thought and feeling. Resistance ~a third of individuals resisted social coercion (Milgram). One dissenter can have a disproportionate effect on reducing the compliance of others. (e.g., Asch) Group Influence Social facilitation Social loafing Deindividuation Group polarisation Groupthink Social Relationships Prejudice Antisocial Aggression Conflict Prosocial Behaviour Social Relationships Questions What causes us to harm, help, or to fall in love? How can we transform aggression into compassion? Social Relations Social psychology teaches us how we relate to one another from: Prejudice, aggression, and conflict to Attraction, altruism, and peacemaking. Prejudice “Prejudgement”: Unjustifiable (usually -ve) attitude toward a group and its members – often towards a different cultural, ethnic or gender group. Works at the conscious and [more so] the unconscious level. More like a knee-jerk response than a conscious decision. Prejudice Components • • • Beliefs (stereotypes) Emotions (hostility, envy, fear) Predisposition to act (to discriminate) Prejudice Roots 1. Social inequalities – haves vs. have-nots 2. Social divisions – in- vs. out-groups (in-group bias) 3. Emotional scapegoating – blaming, emotional outlet (+FAE) We Categorisation are “cognitive misers”, so we use categorisation to simplify and organise our perceptual worlds. Stereotypes Potential for prejudice Potential for aggression/conflict Generalised (often exaggerated) beliefs about a group of people. Physical Aggression or verbal behaviour intended to hurt or destroy. Emerges from the interaction of: – Biology Genetic Neural Biochemical – Experience Aversive events e.g., misery, temp, frustrate Operant conditioning Social learning Scripts Aggression Game Theory Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Conflicting parties, each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior “Social Trap”: – Win-Lose – Lose-Win, or – Lose-lose. Game Theory Game Theory Game Theory Attraction Proximity (mere Attractiveness Similarity Cost-benefits exposure effect) Love Passionate Aroused state of absorption (arousal + cognition) Companionate Deep affection & caring Altruism Unselfish, intentional behavior that is intended to benefit welfare of others. – Behaviours which have no obvious gain for the provider – Behaviours which have obvious costs for the provider (e.g. time, resources) Is there really altruism? – Altruism is often for self-benefit e.g., power, status, reward, psychological gain. What matters in judging the act is the actor's intended outcomes. Altruism Equity / Reciprocity – Give to relationships in proportion to what we receive (Social Exchange Theory) Social responsibility norm Reciprocal altruism – Natural selection favors animals that are altruistic if the benefit to each is greater than the cost of altruism Bystander Effect Diminished sense of personal responsibility to act because others are seen as equally responsible. Bystanders are less likely to help in presence of more people (e.g. part of a large crowd) 75% help when alone vs. 53% in presence of others "Diffusion of responsibility" Peacemaking Superordinate goals Communication Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT) Lecture Web Pages http://ucspace.canberra.edu.au/display/Psy102/S http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Introduction_to_socia Reading Myers (2007) Ch 18 Social Psychology References Myers, D. G. (2001). Social Psychology (Ch. 18). In D. G. Myers (2001). Psychology (6th ed.) (pp. 643-688). New York: Worth. Myers, D. G. (2007). Social Psychology (Ch. 18). In D. G. Myers (2007). Psychology (8th ed.) (pp. 723-771). New York: Worth.
