PREFACE.
THE plan of "Graded and Higher Lessons in English, will perhaps be
better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which
this course is brought into competition.
1\let.hod of One Class of Text-books.-In one class are thop - that
aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in thf order of
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large
space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word
parsing,- work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention
of grammarians, and has little value in determining the pupil's use of
language or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the
long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method.
l'Hethod of Another Class of Text-books.- In another class are
those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition,
Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes
these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked
pp some scraps of knowledge ; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the
aim of 11. good text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as
it presents a clear, logical development of its-subject. It must present its
science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no justification
of its being.
The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of 'Vords.- It is
the plan of this course to trace with ea~y steps the natural development
of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to
the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details
and to disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely
intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined
only by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the
offices and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically
trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an
3
4
Preface.
organic whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It
is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that
he falls into such errors as " How many sounds have each of the vowels ? "
"Five years' interest are due." " She is older than wie." He probably
would not say -'each have,'''' "interest aj-e," "me am." One thoroughly
familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using
correctly the few inflectional forms in English.
The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse. Through
the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge
cl the parts o2 speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we
In the sentence the student
disco \''T the laws of discourse in general.
should tiu^ the law of unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All
good writing consists of good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse, it is all-important that the
He should be able to put the principal
pupil should know the sentence.
and the subordinate parts in their proper relation ; he should know the
exact function of every element, its relation to other elements, and its
He should know the sentence as the skillful
relation to the whole.
engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts,
he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it.
The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation. The
laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the
sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired
a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign
language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his
own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much
greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign
tongue 1 A study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do
—
—
not conform to those of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of
modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts.
The Study of the Sentence for Discipline. As a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the
sentence.
To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and
to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts
of the thought, is to learn to think.
It has been noticed that pupils
thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come
to their other studies with a decided advantage in intellectual power.
These results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work.
Experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence
—
;
O
Preface.
and a few at the end can afford little disciIcnowledge that will endure, and that a knowledge of the
sentence cannot be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored
forms of analysis. To compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of
such bewildering terms as "complex adverbial element of the second
class" and "compound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is grossly unjust it is a substitution of
at the beginning of a course
pline
and
little
;
form for content, of words for ideas.
Teachers
Subdivisions and Modifications after tlie Sentence.
familiar with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around
the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the
following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it
—
of connection unifying this work is the
be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of
sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices
of the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to
continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech.
The inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a
separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable
one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent.
In tracing the growth of the
Paragraplis.
Sentences in Groups
sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as
it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences,
chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel
the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand.
Paragraphs from literature are then selected and are used at intervals,
with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and
The
to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow.
lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider
is
remembered that the thread
sentence,
it
will
—
—
They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are
grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other
and they lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation
in the style of the several models presented.
The Use of tlie Diagram. In written analysis, the simple map, or
diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present
directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the
sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase
to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and
subordinate parts in their proper relations.
It is only by the aid of such
a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence
scope.
—
—
6
Preface.
whole made up of many parts performing various funcand standing in various relations. Without such a map he must
labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal
as an organic
tions
or in succession.
But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams,
they may be omitted witliout causing the slightest break in the work.
The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams.
The Objections to the Diagram. The fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault.
It
is, on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the
literary order and discover the logical order.
He thus learns what the
literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so
long as the logical relations are kept clear.
The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not
borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis
than in written.
The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching
examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty,
and compels a decision on every point.
The Abuse of the Diagram. Analysis by diagram often becomes
so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to
be orardone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis.
When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should
be used only for the more difficult sentences or, if the sentences are
In both oral and written
long, only for the more difficult parts of them.
When
analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition.
the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped.
—
—
;
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
TWENTY-FIVE CAREFULLY GRADED STEPS IN GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION; AND RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION
AS NEEDED.
FAGC
1.
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Simple Subjects
and Predicates
Capital Letters, Period, Interrogation Point,
—
Parts of Speech, Nouns, Verbs, Pronouns
....
2.
9-33
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Subjects modified
by Adjectives
33-44
3.
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Predicates modified
4.
Analysis and
by Adverbs
44-60
Composition of Sentences with Subjects and
Predicates modified by Prepositional Phrases
The Para-
—
60-66
graph, Prepositions
5.
Expansion of Adjectives and Adverbs into Phrases, and Contraction of Phrases into Adjectives and Adverbs
66, 67
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Compound SubConjunctions, Interjections, Exclamajects and Predicates
.
6.
.
—
tion Point
7.
70-79
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Nouns, Pronouns,
—
and Adjectives as Complements
Object Complement, Attribute Complement, Narration, Position and Use of ilodifiers
.
79-84, 95-97
8.
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Participles and
9.
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Nouns and Pro-
Infinitive Phrases
nouns
— The
as Modifiers
Participle, Descriptive
— Comma, Argument
.
Writing
.
.
102-108
115-120
10.
Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing
124-128
Adjective Clauses
11.
Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing
Adverb Clauses
129-132
7
8
Table of Contents.
I
PAGE
12.
13.
Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing
Koun Clauses
136-139
Analysis and Composition of Compound Sentences
Inde-
—
pendent Clauses
140, 141
14.
Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory Sen-
15.
16.
Continued
Expansion and Contraction
Classes of Nouns and Pronouns in Sentences
17.
Classes of Adjectives in Sentences
18.
Classes of Verbs in Sentences
162-165
19.
Classes of Adverbs in Sentences
166, 167
20.
Classes of Conjunctions and of Other Connectives in Sentences
21.
Nouns and Pronouns with
22.
Adjectives and Adverbs with their one Modification in Sen-
23.
197-217
Verbs with all their Modifications in Sentences
Composition of Sentences in Paragraphs and of Paragraphs
....
tences
—
.....
.
.
.
141-144
147-150
157-160
161, 162
167-170
all
their Modifications in Sentences
176-192
193-197
tences
24.
.
in
Themes
.
.
56-60, 86-89. 108-113, 12-'-124, 133-136, 145, 146,
152-156, 171-174
25.
Composition of Paragraphs
Syntax, Proof Marks
Review of Graded Lessons
.
......
.......
Arbkeviations
Index
in Letters
— Summnary
A TALK ON LANGUAGE.
The
least
teacher
recommended
is
two or three
occupy the time of
to
recitations, in talking
at
with his pupils
about language, always remembering that, in order to
secure the interest of his class, he must allow his pupils to
The
take an active part in the exercise.
guide the thought of his class
all
has been
We
do
left to
all
;
but,
if
when he
the talking, he will find,
teacher should
he attempts to do
concludes, that he
the thinking.
give below a few hints in conducting this talk on
language, but the teacher
He
them.
self to
is
not expected to confine him-
will, of course,
be compelled, in some
instances, to resort to various devices in order to obtain
from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested.
LESSON
Teacher. —
distinctly,
letter,
and not
Pupil.
T.
I
three
signs to
P.
—
— Give
them,
—
I will
thus
:
its
1.
pronounce these three sounds very slowly and
Notice,
b-u-d.
it
name, that I give.
is
the power, or sound, of the
What
did you hear?
heard three sounds.
them.
letters
I will write
—
b-u-d.
on the board, so that you can see
Are these
letters,
taken separately,
you of anything?
Yes, they are signs to
me
just heard.
9
of the three sounds that I have
Graded Lessons
10
in English.
— What then do
taken
your eye?
— They
the sounds that came
my
—
then
what
— Letters are the signs sounds.
—
pronounce the same sounds
uniting them more
— hud. These
form a spoken word.
Of
what do you think when you hear the word hud?
— think a
round thing that grows
branch
be a
a
— Did you the thing when you were thinking
— No.
— Then you must have had a
We
your mind.
mental picture an
What
up
— was
up by the word hud, which
— A spoken word then the
what
— A spoken word the sign an
—
write
another way.
up the same
and
them thus hud. What do you
— the word hud.
— we the
we
word hud a spoken word, what
— This a written word.
— they stand the same
how do they
—
heard
and
T.
these letters,
P.
Letters
T.
to
are the signs of
ear.
?
of
P.
T.
I will
rapidly,
sounds, so united,
closely
P.
or
separately, picture to
picture
of
I
to
little
leafy
flower.
T.
of
see
it ?
P.
picture of
T.
idea.
call this
P.
T.
of
is
unite
P.
I see
T.
If
call
?
idea.
I will
idea in
I will call
three letters
see
:
?
shall
other
?
P.
is
for
T.
If
P.
I see this,
T.
sign of
is
P.
call this
this idea?
I heard.
called
It
T.
in
it
called
—
-
You
ent tilings
;
differ?
idea,
that.
I
we have called attention to four differbud your mental picture of the bud,
idea and the two words, which we have
will observe that
viz.,
the real
which we have called an
;
;
called signs of this idea, the one addressed to the ear,
and the other
to the eye.
If the
pupil be brought to see these distinctions,
observe more closely and express himself more clearly.
it
may
aid
him
to
A
Talk on Language.
LESSON
Teacher.
— What
Pupil.
I
sounds
;
—
that a written word
;
2.
did you learn in the previous Lesson
learned that a spoken
signs of sounds
11
word
is
composed of
is
and that spoken and
letters
Avritten
1
composed of certain
that letters are
;
words are the signs of
ideas.
This question should be passed from one pupil to another
till all
of
these answers are elicited.
All the written words in all the English books ever
made
ters
and these sounds make up what
Of
these twenty-six letters, a,
are called vowels,
o, u,
may
and sometimes "w and
called
y,
consonants.
understand what kind of sounds the vowels
will tell
you
breathed out from your lungs beats against two
flat
human
something about the
air
let-
verbal language.
and what kinds the consonants represent, I
for,
The
i,
and the remainder are
In order that you
stand
e,
is called
are formed
These
of twenty-six letters, representing about forty -four sounds.
voice.
muscles, stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and
them
causes
to vibrate.
Put one end
This vibration makes sound.
of a thread between your teeth, hold the other end of
fingers,
voice
is
draw
made.
it
tight
and
strike
if
the voice
is
will
it
in your
understand
without voice, and
is
is
formed which we
call
how
vowel sounds.
held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or
one kind of consonant sounds
i
is
made.
If the breath
is
lips,
driven out
held back by these same parts of the mouth,
the other kind of consonant sounds
1
and you
If the voice thus produced comes out through the
open mouth, a class of sounds
But,
it,
^
is
formed.
Called respectively sonants and surds.
We
suggest that you have
the pupils give the sounds of the vowel a in ale, care, am, arm, ask, and
Graded Lessons
12
The teacher and
English.
in
pupils should practice on these sounds
till
the three
kinds can easily be distinguished.
You
are
now
prepared to understand what I mean when I say
vowels
that the
are the letters which stand for the
open sounds
of the voice, and that the consonants are the letters which stand
for the
sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed
breath.
The teacher can here
how
ideas
profitably spend a few minutes in showing
may be communicated by Natural Language,
the language
of sighs, groans, gestures of the hands, attitudes of the body, expres-
He
sions of the face, tones of the voice, etc.
versation,
we sometimes
can show that, in con-
couple this Natural Language of tone and
make a
gesture with our language of words in order to
impression.
Let the pupil be told that,
ing, he should do the
Let,
same
in
if
stronger
the passage contain
feel-
Reading and Declaiming.
the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation.
Definition.
— Verbal
language, or language proper, consists
of the spoken and written words used to communicate ideas
and thoughts.
Definition.
— English grammar
the science which teaches
is
the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English
language.
aU ;
the sounds of e in ye, end, and fern
orb,
and odd; and
of
u
the sonants b, d, g in gin, g
in
Xenophon,
tJie
surds, c
in wax.
x
in
in exact,
cent,
c
;
of
i in ice
in ufe, rude, full, up,
z
in
in get,
j,
in zero,
cut,
i,
1,
m,
and z
n,
and
and urn.
r,
s in
h, k, p,
s in vision, v,
z
and the sounds
of
and
z
is,
in seizure;
o in old,
The sounds of
ill; of
q, s, s in sure, t,
A Talk on Language.
LESSON
Let
pupils be required to tell
tlie
13
3.
what they learned
in the
previous
Lessons.
— When
Teacher.
star bud,
Pupil.
I
how many
— Two.
two words star and bud, thus
jironounce the
ideas, or
mental pictures, do
I call
up
to
you
:
1
— Do you any connection between
ideas?
P. — No.
T. — When
the two words bud and swelling thus
bud
do you
any connection
the
they stand
P. —
imagine that
a bud expanding,
growing
T.
these
see
I
swelling,
utter
:
see
.Yes,
ideas
in
I
I
for
see
?
or
larger.
T.
—
I
thought:
Avill
'^
when
I say,
thing
is
we
call
connect two words more closely, so as to express a
Buds
^'
swell."
A
thought has been formed in
my mind
JBuds swell" ; and these two words, by which some-
said of something else, express that thought,
and make what
In the former expression, bud swelling,
a sentence.
assumed, or taken for granted, that buds perform the act
latter,
the swelling
Leaves
associated, or
it
is
in the
asserted as a fact.
Do
these
two words express two ideas merely
do they express a thought?
— They
— "Leaves
—A
— Why?
P. —
— When
P.
express ideas merely associated.
T.
P.
is
falling.
;
fall."
What
do these two words express
?
thought.
T.
Because, in these w^ords, there
is
something said or asserted of
leaves.
T.
I say,
thought of leaves
P.— No.
?
"Falling leaves rustle," does /a/^*»f/
tell
what
is
Graded Lessons
14
T.
P.
T.
P.
T.
— What
—
— What word
—
— You
in English.
does falling do ?
,
It tells the kind of leaves
does
tell
you are thinking and speaking
what
is
thought of leaves
of.
?
Rustle.
see then that in the thought there are
thing of which
we
think,
two parts
and that which we think about
;
some-
it.
Let the pupils give other examples.
LESSON
Commit
to
Definition.
memory
4.
all definitions.
— A Sentence^
is
the expression of a thought in
words.
Which
of the following expressions contain
words that
have no connection,^ which contain words merely
ated,
'
and which are sentences
associ-
?
1.
Flowers bloom.
12. Sugar graze.
2.
Ice melts.
13.
3.
Bloom
4.
Grass grows.
15.
Smoke
5.
Brooks babble.
16.
Serpents
Babbling brooks.
17.
Smoke
7.
Grass soar.
18.
Serpents sparkles.
8.
Doors open.
19. Melting babble.
30. Landscape piano.
9.
Open
Cows
doors.
20. Eagles soar.
31.
Serpents crawl.
graze.
21. Birds chirping.
32.
Eagles clock.
22. Bird are chirping.
33. Serpents crawling.
'6.
10.
^11.
1
'14.
ice.
Curling smoke.
Or,
if
preferred,
A
Dew
sparkles.
Hissing serpents.
Sentence
is
curls.
hiss.
curling.
23. Birds chirp.
24. Gentle cows.
25. Eagles are soaring.
"26.
Bees
^27.
Working
ice.
bees;
28. Bees work.
29. Crawling serpents.
a group of words expressing a thought.