Principles of
Constructing Research
Instruments
Statistical Analysis with Software
Applications
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, the students should be
able to:
1.Analyze the different types of items that may be
used for questionnaires and;
2. Construct Likert scale items.
Survey Research
Basic Steps of Survey Research
• Step 1: State the goals of the research.
• Step 2: Develop the budget (time, money, staff).
• Step 3: Create a research design (target population,
frame, sample size).
• Step 4: Choose a survey type and method of
administration.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Basic Steps of Survey Research
• Step 5: Design a data collection instrument
(questionnaire).
• Step 6: Pretest the survey instrument and revise as
needed.
• Step 7: Administer the survey (follow up if needed).
• Step 8: Code the data and analyze it.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Survey Types
Type of
Survey
Characteristics
Mail
You need a well-targeted and current mailing list
(people move a lot). Low response rates are typical
and nonresponse bias is expected (nonrespondents
differ from those who respond). Zip code lists (often
costly) are an attractive option to define strata of
similar income, education, and attitudes. To
encourage participation, a cover letter should clearly
explain the uses to which the data will be put. Plan
for follow-up mailings.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Types
Type of
Survey
Characteristics
Telephone Random dialing yields very low response and
is poorly targeted. Purchased phone lists
help reach the target population, though a low
response rate still is typical (disconnected
phones, caller screening, answering
machines, work hours, no-call lists). Other
sources of nonresponse bias include the
growing number of non-English speakers and
distrust caused by scams and spams.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Types
Type of
Survey
Characteristics
Interviews
Interviewing is expensive and timeconsuming, yet a trade-off between sample
size for high-quality results may still be worth
it. Interviews must be carefully handled so
interviewers must be well-trained – an added
cost. But you can obtain information on
complex or sensitive topics (e.g., gender
discrimination in companies, birth control
practices, diet and exercise habits).
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Types
Type of
Survey
Characteristics
Web
Web surveys are growing in popularity, but are
subject to nonresponse bias because those
who participate may differ from those who feel
too busy, don’t own computers or distrust your
motives (scams and spam are again to blame).
This type of survey works best when targeted
to a well-defined interest group on a question
of self-interest (e.g., views of CPAs on new
proposed accounting rules, frequent flyer
views on airline security).
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Types
Type of
Survey
Characteristics
Direct
This can be done in a controlled setting (e.g.,
Observation psychology lab) but requires informed
consent, which can change behavior.
Unobtrusive observation is possible in some
nonlab settings (e.g., what percentage of
airline passengers carry on more than two
bags, what percentage of SUVs carry no
passengers, what percentage of drivers wear
seat belts).
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Guidelines
(Table 2.13)
Planning
Design
Quality
What is the purpose of the survey? Consider
staff expertise, needed skills, degree of
precision, budget.
Invest time and money in designing the
survey. Use books and references to avoid
unnecessary errors.
Take care in preparing a quality survey so
that people will take you seriously.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Guidelines
(Table 2.13)
Pilot Test
Pretest on friends or co-workers to make
sure the survey is clear.
Buy-in
Improve response rates by stating the
purpose of the survey, offering a token of
appreciation or paving the way with
endorsements.
Expertise
Work with a consultant early on.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
• Use a lot of white space in layout.
• Begin with short, clear instructions.
• State the survey purpose.
• Assure anonymity.
• Instruct on how to submit the completed survey.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
• Break survey into naturally occurring sections.
• Let respondents bypass sections that are not
applicable (e.g., “if you answered no to question
7, skip directly to Question 15”).
• Pretest and revise as needed.
• Keep as short as possible.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
(Table 2.14)
Type of Question
Example
Open-ended question
Briefly describe your job goals.
Fill-in-the-blank
How many times did you attend formal
religious services during the last year?
________ times
Check boxes
Which of these statistics packages
have you ever used?
❑ SAS
❑ Visual Statistics
❑ SPSS
❑ MegaStat
❑ Systat
❑ Minitab
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
(
Type
of
Question
Ranked choices
Example
“Please evaluate your dining experience”
Excellent Good
Fair
Poor
Food
❑
❑
❑
❑
Service
❑
❑
❑
❑
Ambiance
❑
❑
❑
❑
Cleanliness
❑
❑
❑
❑
Overall
❑
❑
❑
❑
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
Type of
Question
Example
Pictograms
“What do you think of the President’s economic
policies?” (circle one)
Likert scale
Statistics is a difficult subject.
Neither
Strongly Slightly Agree Nor Slightly Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree Disagree Disagree
❑
❑
❑
❑
❑
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Question Wording
• The way a question is asked has a profound
influence on the response. For example,
1. Shall state taxes be cut?
2. Shall state taxes be cut, if it means
reducing highway maintenance?
3. Shall state taxes be cut, it means firing
teachers and police?
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Question Wording
• Make sure you have covered all the
possibilities. For example,
Are you married? ❑ Yes ❑ No
• Overlapping classes or
unclear categories are
a problem. For
example,
How old is your father?
❑ 35 – 45
❑ 45 – 55
❑ 55 – 65
❑ 65 or older
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Coding and Data Screening
• Responses are usually coded numerically
(e.g., 1 = male 2 = female).
• Missing values are typically denoted by special
characters (e.g., blank, “.” or “*”).
• Discard questionnaires that are flawed or missing
many responses.
• Watch for multiple responses, outrageous or
inconsistent replies or range answers.
• Follow-up if necessary and always document your
data-coding decisions.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Data File Format
• Enter data into a spreadsheet or database as a
“flat file” (n subjects x m variables matrix).
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Survey Research
Advice on Copying Data
• Using commas (,), dollar signs ($), or percents
(%) as part of the values may result in your data
being treated as text values.
• A numerical variable may only contain the digits
0-9, a decimal point, and a minus sign.
• To avoid round-off errors, format the data
column as plain numbers with the desired
number of decimal places before you copy the
data to a statistical package.
Applied Statistics in Business and Economics by Doane and Seward
Group Work
Construct a15-tem questionnaire using Likert
Scale Items by following the steps given below:
1.Identify the attitude to measure.
2.Create 30 potential items.
3.Assign at least 3 members that will judge the
potential item based on its relevance to the
attitude.
4.Submit the list of potential items together with
the judges’ rating.
Chap 1-22
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc.
References
Baylon, B. P., Macapagal, N. R., & Noble, N.M (2012).
Statistics for Management (2012 ed.).
Doane, D. P., & Seward, L. W. (2019). Applied statistics
in business and economics. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin,.