美國國防科技專案管理之演進
-借鏡美國採購程序改善執行經驗
國防工業發展協會
科技顧問
尹守紀
(2007年7月)
E-mail:alexsj.yin@msa.hinet.net
2022/5/25
1
The Design of the “Raptor”
美國國防科技之代表作F-22
2022/5/25
• 1981年開始需求構想
• 籌獲單價3.61億美金(181架計)
• 籌獲數量由648架降為341架再降
為181架
• 單機成本增加188.7% (181架計)
•
•
GAO將F-22列為非成功
計畫
2006/06 F-22戰機與
美國F-15、F-16和F18現役主力戰機進行了
模擬空戰，並取得了0比
2
Lockheed's Flying Dud
The Self-Locking F-22
April 10, 2006一架F-22座
艙發生鎖死無法開啟，5個
小時後由消防隊以電鋸切割
3/4 inch厚座艙罩；總計損
失$1.28 million ，其中座艙
罩為$286,000, ，機身重新
噴塗材料為 $1 million
發生原因主要為軟體缺陷所
造成，F-22軟體程式碼大
約有2M SLOC
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3
Air Force Fixes Glitches on F-22
Feb. 10, 2007， 6架F-22 由夏威
夷飛往沖繩島嘉手納基地，於橫
越國際換日線時發生軟體當機，
導航系統癱瘓 ，通信系統受阻礙
無作用
隨後在空中加油機導引下返回夏
威夷基地
Lockheed Martin 於數小時內找
出問題根源並於數日內解決此項
軟體小故障(glitch)
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4
目錄：
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
美國國防採購執行現況與所面臨挑戰
Chaos Report對IT專案之成功與失敗統計資料
美國國會對國防採購專案管理改善之立法
專案管理應學習之技能
專案管理應執行事項
專案管理應完成文件
PMO於RFP階段之職責
a) PBSA
b) SBA
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5
1. 2007年對遠征戰鬥載具(EFV, Expeditionary Fighting
Vehicle)之檢討： “4.5小時就故障 美兩棲戰車玩完”
費時十年，耗資十七億美元（約台幣五百六十億
元）研發的美國陸戰隊兩棲戰鬥車平均四個半小
時故障一次，軟體設計不良，液壓系統還會溢漏，
有時甚至自動轉向。
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6
2007年對JSF之檢討：“有改善但仍須加強改進”
GAO-07-360 (15 March 2007)：JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER- Progress
Made and Challenges Remain
根據美國政府的一份報告顯示，將作為美軍以及盟國空軍新一代攻擊
機之用的F-35閃電二型(Lightning II)聯合打擊戰機(JSF, Joint Striker
Fighter)，每架成本已上漲20%，目前的單價達8210萬美元。
美國國會稽核處(GAO, General Accounting Office)在報告中也指出，
美國國防部擬到2027年總計購入2400架JSF的進度也完全落後，但
GAO仍認為，發展與採購速度應減緩，避免倉促進行飛行測試和其他
發展計畫。
GAO表示：「整個JSF(到2027年)的武獲成本，已增加316億美元」，
也就是每架飛機較2004年的成本估算成長12%。
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7
2006年 GAO對6項合約成效之檢討
⚫
檢討結論：預算超支、時程落後
承約商
CMM/
CMMI
Lockheed Martin
Tactical Aircraft
System
SW-CMM：L4
1999
Boeing Integrated
Defense Systems
CMMISE/SW/IPPD/S
S：L5 2004
Lockheed Martin
SW-CMM：L4
Aeronautics Company/
1997
CMMIBoeing Integrated Defense
SE/SW/IPPD/SS：
Systems
L5 2004
SW-CMM：L4
Lockheed Martin
1997
Aeronautics Company/
CMMIBoeing Integrated Defense
SE/SW/IPPD/SS：
Systems
L5 2004
Lockheed Martin
Missiles and Space
Systems
General Dynamics
Land Systems
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CMMISE/SW/IPPD/S
S：L3 2005
CMMI-SW：L5
(2002)
8
現代武器系統所面對之特性(1)：系統軟體
複雜性遽增(Increasing System Complexity)•JSF
•UAVs
•NCW
•Inter-System
Operability
18000
⚫ 造成預算超支、時程落
後原因之ㄧ為軟體複雜
性劇增
⚫ 複雜性為人月神話所歸
類於固有性軟體問題
15000
KSLOC
12000
F/A-18E/F
17101K
F/A-18C/D SMUG/
RUG 14268K
9000
A-6E 64K
A-4 (ARBS) 16K
6000
EA-6B ICAP2
BLK 86 779K
F/A-18C/D 2130K
F-14B 364K
EA-6B ICAP2
BLK 82 395K
F/A-18A/B 943K
F-14 80K
3000
E-A6B ICAP1
48K
A-7E
16K
0
66
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70
F/A-18 Night Attack
3054k
AV-8B 764K
74
78
82
86
Aircraft IOC, Year
F-14D
416K
F/A-18C/D XN-8
6629K
AV-8B Radar 3748K
AV-8B Night
Attack 1780K
AH-1 764K
A-E SWIP 364K
90
94
F-14B 2866K
EA-6B ICAP2
BLK 89 2203K
AH-1 NTS 1000K
98
02
06
10
9
現代武器系統所面對之特性(2)： 軟體比重遽增
Functionality Provided by Software in DoD Systems is Increasing
⚫ 造成預算超支、時程落後原因之
二為軟體比重遽增
⚫ 如人月神話之“No silver
bullets”所敘述將因為Project
Team的溝通問題導致Cost
overruns and schedule delay
% of functionality SW provides
100%
90%
80%
F-22
B-2
70%
60%
50%
F-16
F-15
40%
30%
20%
10%
F-111
F-4
A-7
1960
1964
0%
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1970
1975
1982
1990
2000
Ref: Defense Systems Management College
10
現代武器系統所面對之特性(3)：系統介面複雜
性遽增(Interoperability)
Need for Interoperability of Real-time Assets in the Global Grid
JFACC
Afloat
En-Route
C2
Tanker/
Airlift
Node
Collaborative
tools
JCS
Global
Grid
Space
Node
AF OSC
Intel
Center
Distributed Ops
AF OSC
Special
Ops
EO
C
Distributed Ops
CAOC
Sensor-to-Shooter
Sensor-to-Decision
Maker-to-Shooter
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Enroute Mission Planning
and Retargeting
11
『軟體建構功能之群組系統(SOSIS) 』與『架
構框架(Architecture Framework) 』
From System to Software
Intensive System of Systems
From Framework to
Architecture Framework
Operational
Node
B
Node
A
Sensor
Model
C2
Model
Node
C
Combat
Model
Integration
Systems
System
XSystem
Y
System
System
X
Communications
Model
NodeSystem
Y
A
Z
Node
B
System
Y
System
X
Node
C
Technical
1999
+
Standard
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1998
Standard
12
2. IT專案之成功與失敗統計資料
Chaos Report:1994
2006
35
2004
19
29
2002
46
18
34
53
15
51
Successful
2000
28
23
49
Failed
Out of Time/Budget
1998
26
1996
27
1994
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28
40
16
0
46
33
31
20
Chaos Report from
1994 to 2006
53
40
60
80
100
13
『The CHAOS Report (1994) 』 所公佈的專
案失敗10大主因
Project Impaired Factors
% of Responses
1. 需求不完整Incomplete Requirements (SE)
13.1%
2. 使用者參與不足Lack of User Involvement (SE, PM)
12.4%
3. 資源不足Lack of Resources (PM)
10.6%
4. 不實際之估算Unrealistic Expectations (SE, PM)
9.9%
5. 行政支援不足Lack of Executive Support (SE, PM)
9.3%
6. 需求與規格之變更Changing Requirements &
Specifications (SE, PM, CM)
8.7%
7. 規劃不周全Lack of Planning (PM)
8.1%
8. 產品過時Didn't Need It Any Longer (SE)
7.5%
9. IT管理資源不足Lack of IT Management (PM)
6.2%
10. 技術不成熟Technology Illiteracy (SE, PM)
4.3%
Other
9.9%
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14
『The CHAOS Report (1994) 』 所公佈的專
案成功10大主因
Project Success Factors
% of Responses
1.邀請使用者參與User Involvement
15.9%
2.完善之行政支援Executive Management Support
13.9%
3.需求完整Clear Statement of Requirements
13.0%
4.規劃周全Proper Planning
9.6%
5.實際之估算Realistic Expectations
8.2%
6.較密集之專案里程碑Smaller Project Milestones
7.7%
7.稱職的工作人員Competent Staff
7.2%
8.自有掌控權 Ownership
5.3%
9. 明確之目標Clear Vision & Objectives
2.9%
10. 工作努力且專心的工作人員Hard-Working,
Focused Staff
2.4%
Other
13.9%
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15
專案失敗的主因
InformationWeek surveyed IT managers
– Top 3 Reasons for Project Failure
Poor Planning or Poor Project Management (77%)
Change in Business Goals During Project (75%)
Lack of Business Management Support (73%)
KPMG Study (Canadian-based International
service provider)
– 3 Most Common Reasons for Project Failures
Poor Project Planning
Weak Business Cause
Lack of Top Management Involvement and Support
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16
3. CMMI-AM之緣由：源起於國會之不滿
1. 2001年美國政府管考辦公室或國家審計總署(GAO)針對國防部
有關系統與軟體改善提出建議報告，該報告中建議採用SEI之
IDEAL Models並列舉SW-CMM之相關內容以改善專案品質；
但美國國防部企圖以改進DOD 5000.2R(已更名為Defense
Acquisition Guidebook)方式達成SW-CMM Level-3(或相近似
models)以滿足Software Process Improvement部分(但僅針對
研發案金額超過美金$3.65億或採購金額超過美金$21.9億之計
劃)；在DOD 5000.2R增列Software Management章節，並明
述承約商須具有SEI所發展或由採購單位認可同等Model之
Level-3能力，若承約商無法達到前述目標應提出Risk
Mitigation Plan，前述之Level-3 appraisement效期為2年；
GAO在報告之page 35頁亦提到“Software Capability
Maturity Model® (SW-CMM® ), was designed to assist
organizations in improving software development and
maintenance processes.”，未提到Acquisition Phase之適當方
法；
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17
CMMI-AM之緣由(續)
2. 由於前述建議報告未得到國防部正面回應，2002年12月
2日通過之美國國會2003年度國防授權法案（National
Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003）針對前
述之缺失提出SEC. 804. Improvement of Software
Acquisition Processes，責令(mandate)國防部執行重大
武器系統採購計畫(Major Defense Acquisition Program)
須進行軟體採購過程改善，同時在Section 804附註Major
Defense Acquisition Program之定義應參用美國聯邦法
典section 139(a)(2)(B) of title 10, United States Code之
解釋，意即研發案金額超過美金$3億或採構金額超過
$18億者；
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18
CMMI-AM之緣由(續)
2002.12.02
國會於Section
804提出四項改
善領域
3. Section 804條列應執行事項有
1) 對於(1)software acquisition planning,
(2)requirements development and management,
(3)project management/ oversight, 及(4)risk
management.等程序應有文件紀錄；
2) 對於計劃執行效能應進行度量評估暨進行持續改善；
3) 採購專案之關鍵執行工程人員應具有適當之經驗與
軟體採購訓練；
4) 每一軍事採購單位應確實遵循既定採購程序與需求
執行軟體相關專案採購；
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19
採購單位之程序改善承諾：美國國防部針對
Section 804的改善措施
美國國防部針對Section 804的要求，擬定了8項改善領域；
Section 804責令國防部應於該法案生效日起120天內開始執行，
因此國防部各採購單位配合Section 804完成下列措施：
1) 成立Software Acquisition Process Improvement
Program (SAPIP)，
2003.03,21
2) 重新訂定諸如Acquisition Guideline之採購指引，
美國國防
部增列為
3) 參用實獲值工程ANSI/EIA-748-A-1998 EVMS進行效能
八項改善
監控，
領域
4) 各單位依據需要分別選用CMMI、SA-CMMR、FAAICMM、或混合使用以配合SAPIP執行Acquisition
Process Improvement，(所選用類型極為繁雜；因此國
防部認為有必要規劃CMMI-based acquisition model，此
即後續CMMI-ACQ之發軔；先期規劃有CMMI Module
for Acquisition (http://www.sei.cmu.edu/news-atsei/features/2005/1/feature-1-2005-1.htm)，其對象係針
對system project offices/program managers
(http://www.sei.cmu.edu/acquisition/acquisition.html))；
1.
2.
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20
History of the CMMI： CMMI is a process improvement approach
DSMC’90:“…statement identifies the
need for capability and maturity in
software acquisition and
Development…”
Carlucci：
“Defense
Acquisition
Improvement
Program”
1981
1987
1991
First CMM
Published
1993
SW-CMM v1.1
Published
Model Refined
and Published as
SW-CMM v1.0
2022/5/25
1995
SEC. 804. “Improvement of
Software Acquisition
Processes”
GAO 01-116 “Software and
Systems
Process Improvement
Programs Vary in Use
of Best Practices”
1997
2000
CMMI-SE/SW
Version 1.0
Published
CMMI Initiative
Launched
2002
2005
2006
CMMI-AM
Version 1.1
Published
CMMI-SE/SW/IPPD/A
Version 1.1
Published
Software Acquisition (SA-CMM),
Systems Engineering (SE-CMM),
Integrated Product Development (IPD-CMM),
Organizational Workforce Capability Development (People CMM)
Developed
CMMI-ACQ
Report
Published
21
GAO：美國國會管考辦公室(或國家審計總署)
FY03 Defense Authorization Act
Section 804
•
Requires Services and applicable Agencies establish “software acquisition
process improvement programs” within 120 days (March 2003)
•
•
•
Army, Navy, Air Force
MDA, DISA, DLA, DFAS, and Health Affairs
Requires ASD(NII) and USD(AT&L) to…
•
•
•
Prescribe uniformly applicable guidance
Ensure compliance by Service/Agency Components
Section 804 approach to Component implementation identified eight process
improvement areas:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Acquisition Planning
Requirements Development and Management
Configuration management
Risk Management
Project Management and Oversight
Test and Evaluation
Integrated Team Management
Solicitation and Source Selection
2003.03,21
揭示採購單
位必須改善
之8項領域
• Past performance, Process maturity, Product maturity
：Section 804要求領域
2022/5/25
：美國國防部另增領域
Slide 22
CMMI-AM Structure
2005.05.15
SEI配合Section
804規劃之
CMMI-AM的架
構
CMMI
®
CMMI Acquisition Module
V 1.1
Project
Management
• Project Planning
• Project Monitor and Control
• Integrated Project
Management
• Risk Management
• Solicitation and Contract
Monitoring
Engineering
• Requirements Management
• Requirements
Development
• Verification
• Validation
• Measurement and
Analysis
• Decision Analysis and
Resolution
• Transition to Operations
and Support
：Section 804要求領域
：美國國防部另增領域
Key
New for CMMI-AM
© 2005 by Carnegie Mellon University
Support
CMMI-AM and Project Management v0.1
CMMI Acquisition Module - Page M2-23
DAWIA Information and Certification
Application
The Defense Acquisition Workforce Improvement Act (DAWIA) was signed into law
in November 1990. It requires the Secretary of Defense, acting through the Under
Secretary of Defense (Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics), to establish
education and training standards, requirements, and courses for the civilian and
military acquisition workforce. Acquisition Career Fields:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Auditing
Business, Cost Estimating and Financial Management
Contracting
Facilities Engineering (created in year 2001)
Industrial/Contract Property Management
Information Technology
Life Cycle Logistics
Acquisition Logistics Career Path - original career field until 2002
Systems Sustainment Mgt Career Path - separate career paths created in 2002
–
–
–
–
Production, Quality, and Manufacturing
Program Management
Purchasing
Systems Planning, Research, Development and Engineering
Systems Engineering Career Path - original path until 2001
Science & Technology Manager Career Path - new career path created in 2001
–
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Test and Evaluation
24
1996年通過的國家技術移轉和促進法中規定的“自願性共識
標準Voluntary Consensus Standards （VCS））
該法案規定除了國會法案強制、重大公眾利益和公共資源領域，如無線通信
的频率使用方式、食品監督、藥品監督、飛安、環境保護等（事實上此等應
歸類為法令(Codes）而非標準（Standards），Codes與Standards差異在於
強制性與自願性)，政府仍將執行強制性的技術標準（即法令）以外，其他
不損及生命與公眾利益項目，政府單位不再執行強制性標準，採購案中的執
行技術標準必須取得雙方自願性共識，但在政府採購案中如果是屬於新技術
或新發明領域，可以由政府單位訂定指導性技術標準，其前提是訂定單位必
須經由白宮預算辦公室(OMB)審查並經國會通過方可執行，其目標是增强企
業自治，解除政府管制；
所謂自願性共識標準之選用與認定則由美國國家標準學會(ANSI)執行管理和
協調，ANSI並非政府機構是屬於非營利性團體，其本身扮演third-party，
在國會法案下選用各組織（約200家）所訂定的標準予以鑑定
(accreditation)可否納入自願性共識標準，因此見到的標準編號會是
ANSI/RIA R15.05-1-1990、ANSI/IEEE C57.117-1986、ANSI/IEEE 729-1983、
ANSI/IEEE Std 1042…等，比較值得注意的是系統工程標準目前有
ANSI/EIA-632，而IEEE 1220與ISO/IEC 15288似乎尚未納入ANSI鑑可項目，
ISO/IEC-12207被ANSI鑑可在ANSI Joint Standard 016項目（或是稱為
IEEE-1498），但僅有Development Process，目前則尚未看到將IEEE/EIA12207鑑可為ANSI文件（由NIST會議資料所知，有諸如政府出版辦公室(GPO)
單位認為IEEE/EIA-12207在Quality Assurance方面不如MIL-STD-498，因此
反對將12207納入VCS）；國防部在此法案下，只要是有符合自願性共識標準
的民間版標準，美國國防部即將相關軍規標準予以汰除（但仍可使用，只是
不再執行維護與Q/A）；
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25
Questions???
2022/5/25
26
PM Training
COURSE
NUMBER/SCHEDULE
DAU COURSE TITLE AND DESCRIPTION
PMT 202
Multinational Program Management
PMT 203
International Security and Technology Transfer/Control
PMT 250(On line)
Program Management Tools
PMT 250
Equivalency Test - Program Management Tools
PMT 304
Advanced International Management Workshop
PMT 352A(On line)
Program Management Office
PMT 352B
Program Management Office
PMT 401
The Program Manager's Course
PMT 402
Executive Program Manager's Course
PMT 403
Program Manager's Skills
2022/5/25
27
4. 由PM Tools學習的專案管理技能
apply best practices for establishing effective IPTs;
develop work breakdown structures (WBSs);
build program schedules and apply risk management
principles using state-of-the-industry software;
apply current cost estimating processes;
perform contract planning and post-award activities; and
use earned value tools and techniques for program
planning and control.
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IPT
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Schedules
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Risk Management
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cost estimating
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contract planning
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post-award activities
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earned value
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Performance Based Service Acquisition (PBSA)
PBSA methods are intended to ensure that required
performance quality levels are achieved and that total
payment is related to the degree that services performed
meet contract standards.
– (a) Describe the requirements in terms of results required rather
than the methods of performance of the work.
– (b) Use measurable performance standards (terms of quality,
timeliness, quantity, etc.) and quality assurance surveillance
plans (see FAR 46.103(a) and 46.401(a)).
– (c) Specify procedures for reductions of fee or for reductions to
the price of a fixed-price contract when services are not
performed or do not meet contract requirements (see FAR
46.407)(d) Include performance incentives where appropriate.
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5. 專案管理應執行事項
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
聯合作戰能力流程Joint Programs
國際合作發展International Cooperation
整合式專案管理Integrated Program Management
Earned Value Management
Contract Management Reporting
風險管理Risk Management
以知識為基礎進行籌獲Knowledge-Based Acquisition
以效能為基礎之環境Performance-Based Business Environment
整體壽期管理Total Life Cycle Systems Management
產品與流程之整合式發展Integrated Product and Process Development
Technical Representatives at Contractor Facilities
Contractor Councils
Government Property in the Possession of Contractors
Integrated Digital Environment
Simulation-Based Acquisition and Modeling and Simulation
藉由單位外獨立專家進行軟體質心計畫之審查Independent Expert Review of
Software-Intensive Programs
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6. 專案管理應完成文件
Program Office Administration and Personnel
• Analysis of Alternatives (AoA)
• Cost Analysis Requirements Description (CARD)
• Program Funding
• Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Execution (PPBE)
Process
• Acquisition Program Baseline (APB)
• Program Protection and System Security
• Acquisition Plan (AP)
• Contracting
• Request for Proposal (RFP) Preparation
• Systems Engineering (SE)
• Threat Assessment
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• Risk Management
• Logistics Support
• Integrated Process and Product Development (IPPD)
• Configuration Management (CM)
• Test and Evaluation (T&E)
• Political Dynamics
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