NAME
:
NOSHEEN KHALID
ROLL NO
:
CC501692
COURSE CODE
:
6501
COURSE NAME
: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY :
GUIDEANCE
PROGRAM
:
M.ED
SEMESTER
:
1ST AUTUMN 2020 STE
QUESTION NO 1
Discuss different stages and aspects of cognitive development.
Critically analyze the role of heredity and environment in the regard.
Answer
Definition of Cognition:
“The term cognition is used to cover a broad range of abilities, all of which involves
internal, mental activities. These include processes such as reasoning interpreting
.cognitive psychologists focuses upon how the individual represents information
mentally “.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:
The most comprehensive account of cognitive development is the work of Jean
Piaget a Swiss psychologist. A proponents of the genetic – structure lost view,
Piaget proposed that Cognitive development is the result of an adoption process.
just as animal adapt their appearance or behivour to changing environment
Piaget’s Developmental Stages:
Piaget saw the child as adapting cognitive as his or her world expands. To Piaget,
intelligence is the result of adaption to one’s environment. In its simplest sense
adoption is the maintains of an equilibrium or state of balance between the
organism and the environment.
1. The Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 Year):
For Piaget, the sensorimotor stage is composed of six sub stages. During the
sensorimotor stage, children’s understanding of the world is based totally on their
savory and motor interaction with it schemata at this stage are all organized system
of overt behavior. The earnest schemata are composed of basic reflexes, such as
seeking through which children explore the world around them, As the body and
brain mature children become better able to control and direct their movement and
to coordinate sensory and motor information schemata expound to include
coordinated voluntary action.
The Pre-operational Stage (2 to 5 Year):
The pre operational Stage is divided into two sub –stages : the pre-conceptual
phase (2-3 Year) and the intuitive phase (4-5 Year ).
(a) Pre-Conceptual Phase:
Pre-Conceptual children are capable of symbolic schemata ,rather than being
lived to the behavior schemata of infancy .They can organize information
mentally by thinking about the properties of objects and events or about the
relationships between them. Thus a drawing of three trees of different sizes is
said to depict the “daddy” “mommy” and “baby” trees
(b) The intutive phase:
In the intuitive phase, thinking begins to become move logical and objectives
classification and problem solving skills improve and egocentrism begins to
decline. However intuitive phase children still cannot referent a series of aclious
mentally and thus cannot solve problems requiring attention to sequence.
2. The Concrete Operational Stage (6 to 12 Years)
During this stage the ability to use logic becomes mature .Locatable
operational children are much less egocentric and are more objectives about
the world around them .
3. The formal Operational Stage (12 Through Adulthood)
In formal operation, thinking becomes more abstract , systematic and
probalistic .Adolescents are able to think hypothetically to consider
possibilities and to image picture out comes of present action .
The role of heredity and environment:
Most researchers view development as the result of an interaction
of heredity and environment factors. Behaviors & characteristics
are seen as resulting from the combined effect of genetic
inheritance and experience.
The role of genetic or heredity
Genes are the basic elements of genetic transmission of
chromosome is a chain formed by a combination of nearly 20,000
genes. Chemically genes consists of de-oxyribnucleic acid usually
abbreviated DNA which contains course for synthesizing the
protein that form the body and guide its functioning. In essence
DNA defines our genetic heritance.
Determination of sex
At the moment of conception every human being received a total
mosomes or 23 pair from the sperm and 23 from the ovum. 22
pairs are autosomes 23rd where the sex chromosomes determine
the child sex. The sex chromosomes of every ovum is an X
chromosomes but the sperm may carry it there and x or a small
size Y chromosome. When an ovum x meets an x carrying sperm.
Zygote is XX female. When an ovum is fertilized by a wire
carrying sperm the zygote is xy a male. So it is the father who
determines is child sex.
DIAGRAM
FEMALE
X
MALE
X
X
Y
X X
XY
Female
Male
 Dominant and recessive genes:
Because each cell contains pair of chromosomes is cell contain pair of genes
many genes come in two forms differing in potency
 Genotype and phenotype:
The actual genetic pattern in the chromosome is the child genotype many
genetic messages are there but are not exhibited because they are weak in
progency.
 Direct and indirect influences:
Hereditary factors can affect behavior directly for example colorblindness
can result from a hereditary defect that present detection of certain lines
 Studying genetic influences:
Much of our information about the role of heredity comes from the study of
twins. Identical twins have the same genotype and the common environment
fraternal twins are no more similar genetically them siblings but they do
share a common environment.
The role of environment:
From the moment of conception throughout our life we are shaped by our
environment even before birth environment influences the child.
 The parental environment:
Now we shall look at some of the most important parental influences.
Maternal nutrition:
The typical pregnant woman needs and increase of 300 to 500 calories daily
and introduce 7 different food groups daily like milk vegetable fruits serials
fats and eyes for a healthy child all these food substances are necessary.
Maternal drug intake:
Many antibiotics and hormones birth control pills caffeine nicotine in
alcohol marfiaun and addictive drugs may cause some abnormality in fetal
development and also later development.
Other maternal factors:
Stress illness maternal birth weight and blood type incompatibility are some
other factors which also cause some abnormality is all problems in
development.
Question No 2
Explain the nature and cause of maladjustment? Discuss different
adjustment mechanisms and their characteristics with the help of
example how guidance and counseling can help in adjustment of
students?
Answer
Definition of Maladjustment:
Maladjustment mention to disharmony between the person and his environment
opposite to adjustment. Maladjustment consider a condition in which one feels
that one need are not fulfill and he has been a failure in establishing harmony with
his self and the environment.
Nature of Maladjustment:
There is a difference of degrees between maladjustment and adjustment. On the
basis of observation in the classroom or in the school there are certain symptoms
which give some indication of mall adjust mint if excessively used by the children.
a. Physical symptoms
b. Behavior deviations
c. Emotional symptoms
a. Detection of Mal adjustment
To detection of Maladjustment required professional skills of a psychiatrist we
cannot expect from a teacher but as teacher at the preliminary stage can help in
detecting Mala adjustment in the following ways.
Observation and interview
The teacher can observe the behavior of children in the classroom outside the
classroom on the playground library and dramatics extra he can hold interview
with those whom he suspects small adjusted and can reach this definite conclusions
regarding individual case of Maladjustment.
Use of test
There are a number of psychological test inventory and rating scales which have
been developed by psychologist to screen Maladjusted children.
b. Frustration and conflict
This may define frustration as the unpleasant feelings that result when the
motive satisfaction is blocked or delayed the following may be seated as examples
of frustration.
Someone fails to return your book in time.
You get up in the morning without having had enough sleep.
Your conversation are interrupted.
You are late for your first period.
c. Operations of frustration:
The operation of a station involves preventing the organism for making some
response to attend the goal prevention of response can be accomplished in several
ways most important of them are three which are given below:
1. Withholding reinforcement:
The first operation of frustration refer to withholding of the reinforcement that
ordinarily occurs from an organism that has already been conditioned in a
particular way.
2. Thwarting:
Second operation involves mechanically preventing a response from occurring this
operation is called frustration B farting it means that at some point of an organisms
barrier is introduced and behavior is prevented.
3. conflicts
Third operation of frustation involves placing the organism in a conflict
situation by making reinforcing stimuli symmetry simultaneous available for
the two incompatible response a conflict may be formally defined as the
simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motive.
Cause of Maladjustment
Maladjustments is a complex problem of human behavior no single factor can be
pin pointedly named as its cause it is the outcome of multi factor interacting with
the developing personality of the child there are numerous factors at home society
and school which lead to maladjustment.
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Physique
Long sickness and injury
Poverty
Broken home
Personal inadequacies
Parental attitude
Value placed on sex of the child
Adoption
Emotional shock
Different adjustment mechanisms and characteristics
Different adjustment mechanisms are as under:
Simple Daniel:
The easiest way to maintain the balance of personal is to deny he fact which could
create conflict in the mind.
Aggression:
The meaning of the word aggression have been interpreted in several ways we call
a vigorous person ever receive a person who tries to gain something from other is
also called aggressive.
Compensation:
It is the tendency of every person to make up deficiency of one trait or area or
development in another area when a person feels weak and fails in one area he
compensate in another field tie works and hard to become strong and successful.
Sublimation:
It is substitute reaction which may be classified as compensation among all the
mental mechanism of defense sublimation is the most advanced highly developed
and constructive mechanism.
Identification:
Identification may be identified as mental mechanism of eating outside and beyond
conscious awareness through which an individual in wearing degree makes himself
like someone else he identifies himself with another person.
Projection:
It is the most common adjustment mechanism which is used by all people in daily
life we defend ourselves against our represented get feelings by projective them
into a third thing and people it is mechanism which relieves frustration to the
individual.
Rationalization:
Personalization has been defined as mechanism by which the individual justify his
police and actions by giving reasons other than those which activated are
motivated him.
Regression:
Regulation has been defined as an unconscious backtracking are there in memory
or in behavior watch must have been successful in the past the adult who has been
frustrated in fulfilling his needs a return to more primitive modes of behaviour.
Repression:
Repression is dynamism which is fundamental in theory and theory of personality
that has been defined as motivated for getting the forgetting or rejection from of
memories of threat and specially the ejection form Awareness of impulses in
oneself that might have objectionable consequences.
Reaction formation:
Reaction formation is also called reversible formation it is to substitute opposite
reaction formation which cause anxiety.
Negativism:
Negativism is a mechanism by which an individual draws the attention of other
person's it is partly a defense and partly and escape mechanism.
Fantasy:
It is fact that mostly with think to reduce our frustration our thoughts can be
realistic effort to remove the obstacles that make anxious.
Example:
Teacher must have the knowledge of fundamental principle of human behavior to
tackle the problem of a student must be emotionally stable and should have
positive attitude towards teaching. He must take interest in student and their
welfare his behavior with students should be of a friend philosopher and guide he
should not show partially or favor to any student he should try to develop a
philosophy of life in his student he should create confidence in his student to face
the realities of life student should not be criticized unnecessarily and no sarcastic
remarks should be passed against any student. Teacher can play an important role
in developing Corporation Team Spirit and group participation in his student
conduct is social climate should be created in the class and the school.
Question No 3
Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation by
providing examples. How would you as a teacher enhance
motivation of your students by using intrinsic and extrinsic
techniques.
Answer
 Intrinsic motivation:
Internal motivation refers to interest for certain actions to meet a desired need
develop from within the individual automatically. Generally internal motivation is
born with the rise of biological needs a teacher with help of certain measures can
ensure internal motivation in the pupils.
1. Specifying the aims and objective:
When objective of a certain activity are made clear to the Pupil interest to learn
will develop and then knowledge of objective, aims, benefits and uses arises the
desire for progress in study among the students.
2. Curiosity:
each child wants to know what lies hidden in the box .if curiosity is involved in a
teaching activity, internal motivation can be insured the teacher may encourage the
student to explore and search new knowledge through Discovery method.
3. Ego involvement:
In the word of Sharif and Cartrill “ Ego involvement is a condition of total
participation of the spelt as knower, organizer , observer status seeker and
socialized being. Ego is involved where the individual is challenged.
4. Knowledge of result:
If the students are made aware of their progress from time to time they
will that certainly be motivated to learn more. compete and break their
previous records.
5. Aspiration level:
Aspiration level often determines the rate of involvement in studies
students having aspiration level work hard the student’s who want to
become doctor, engineer, Technologist or bank officer study till late at
night. Whereas pupils having no ambition in life show poor performance
in the class . The teacher can effectively utilize the student’s capacities
buy setting aspiration levels.
6. Rivalry:
It Is not considered a good value in the society hence it can be e used
for motivating purposes. Rivalry among individuals students between
groups and between male and female pupils gives birth to healthy
competition.
 Extrinsic Motivation:
External motivation refers to forces in environment that arouse the
individual to act over desired goal. These are some measures by which
external motivation can be insured.
1. Praise and blame:
There are powerful incentive praise induces the student to work hard. It
even create interest in over rage and inferior children for study.
2. Reward and punishment:
reward like money ,medal ,badges, prices, exemptions ,Shield and Cup
gives pleasure when come with success and achievement.
3. Attractive School environment:
Attractive and educative environment of the school motivate the
students to stay and take part in school activities with zeal and vigour .
4. Nice friends:
If the students has a company of nice friends he will certainly take
interest in study and other school activities in their association.
5. Curriculum:
If the Curricular activities teaching methods, teacher’s , and behavior
and other facilities provided in the school Suit the students they will
naturally be motivated for learning .
6. Instructional Technology:
Instructional Technology used in the class for teaching a certain lesson
may urge the students to comprehend and learn effectively movies, T.V.
maps projectors, pictures etc attract the students on the path of
knowledge
7. Recognitions and ignorance:
this incentive a verbal or non- material type when the students are
recognized by means of marks, grades ,promotions for their performance
in studies they are motivated to learn more.
Techniques used by teacher that enhance motivation of student:
Introduction:
Motivating factors and incentives are many which a teacher can use to
arouse motivational state in students some of them are discussed in
following line to know why and how they are helpful tools in the hands
of teachers.
Extrinsic reward and punishment:
Scholarship has positive effect in motivating the children to learn but it
must not be an Android service should create Desire and interest for
more learning.
Praise and blame:
Everyone in this world wants praise for his achievement Hurlock
experiments show that place is more effective than blame for activating
children phrase can be used in many ways like a note of teachers by
good look or verbal praise.
Novelty:
Each level thing at tracks that children attention and creates interest the
teacher should get Novelty into his teaching method arrangement and
presentation of lesson content and using educational technology.
Arousing interest:
It is important to convince students about the importance and interest
level of the material to be presented for this purpose the teacher should
relate the lesson with the students previously acquired knowledge and
daily experiences.
Curiosity:
A skillful teacher uses various means and methods to arouse curiosities
in the lesson science teacher of unused amongst ration that surprised
students and induce them to want to understand why and how.
Modes of presentation:
Internal motivation for some learning can be increased and enhanced by
the use of various mode of presentation student interest can be aroused
by intelligent use of films demonstration trips and guest speakers.
Goals:
Goals effect and increase motivation goals may vary from person to
person and the intensity to reach the goal may vary from time to time in
the same person or from man to man.
Expectations:
Student want to know what they are supposed to how they will evaluate
and what result of their success will be are you often the students fail to
complete a task due to an awareness of what has been asked to do it is
necessary to state expectation clearly while giving assignments and
project to students.
Clear feedback:
The word feedback means information on the result of students offered it
also refers to information students receive on the performance feedback
serves as an incentive.
Respect for personality:
Children as well as adults have their pride and self-respect any attempt
to enquiries are Himalayas a student especially in the presence of his
class fellows hurts the self-respect and ego.
Securing attention and creating and enthusiasm:
The unattended child is preoccupied and does not hear what is said he
might be mentally absent securing attention is therefore the primary prerequest for motivating School learning.
Attitudes in motivation
Closely related to motivation and attention is attitude is one that to react
in a given way in a particular situation it is relatively wider and
permanent than interest.
Success versus failure:
Success furniture it on rise many and activity are performed for the sheer
satisfaction of succeeding in activity success is type of reward and
failures is considered as punishment.
Positive versus negative:
Most investigator favored award motivation over punishment because it
is positive there as punishment is negative.
Self-motivation and will to learn:
Knowledge of research high aspiration and clear goals are the best
incentive to self-motivation.
The quality of environment:
Environment in which a person lives and works serves as an important
source of motivation if environment is stimulating the student will not
like to go home from school rather will prefer to stay at school longer
time than others.
The drive for self-actualization:
The drive for self-actualization may also set a condition in the person
Allport,’ Maslow’ and Rogers have demonstrated the relationship
between state of motivation in a person and drive for self-actualization
an individual has his own uniqueness and he has his own experience
which determine his conduct.