3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
The following sample answers are in response to the exam practice bank of question on
pages 92 and 93 of the Year 1/AS Complete Companion. A digital copy of Handout: 3
Attachment exam question bank for A Level (in Word and PDF format) can also be
found in the Assessment section for this chapter on Kerboodle.
Note: For many of these questions there is no one right answer, so we have been
selective in choosing material from the book that could be used in response.
0
1
Below are stages of attachment. Choose one stage when answering
the questions that follow.
A
Infants show a preference for certain people but accept care from
anyone.
B
Infants show a preference for people over objects.
C
Infants show extreme anxiety when separated from certain special
people.
(i)
Identify the first stage of attachment.
[1 mark]
B. Infants show a preference for people over objects.
(ii)
Identify the final stage of attachment.
[1 mark]
C. Infants show extreme anxiety when separated from certain special
people.
0
2
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Suzanna is a young woman who has been in an intimate relationship for
two years. She describes herself as a clingy and obsessive partner who can
get extremely jealous.
Choose the type of attachment that Suzanna is most likely to
[1 mark]
have shown as an infant.
A
insecure-avoidant
B
insecure-resistant
C
secure
B
0
3
Name two of the countries studied by van IJzendoorn in his research into
cultural variations in attachment.
[2 marks]
Any two from China, Japan, West Germany, Israel, Sweden, and UK.
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
1
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
0
4
Give two features of the concept of the critical period.
[2 marks]
The critical period is innate and if an attachment is not formed during this period
Bowlby claimed that the child would be unable to ever form attachments.
0
5
Read the item below and then answer the question that follows.
Tanya and Tina were discussing their marriages. Tanya suggested that
she was far too needy and jealous and put that down to the type of
attachment she had with her parents as a child. Tina said that her
marriage was loveless and pointless. She decided it was because her
father had walked out of the family home when she was just three
years old and had never returned.
Describe and evaluate research into the influence of early attachment on
childhood and adult relationships. Refer to Tanya’s and Tina’s experiences as
part of your answer.
[12 marks]
Bowlby proposed the internal working model which is like a schema for
relationships. It is a ‘template’ that is developed from your early relationships,
where children learn about relationships and how people treat each other from
their childhood and this will influence the kind of partner they seek out. Bowlby
claimed that the kind of attachment a person has as a child will continue
throughout their life.
Hazan and Shaver investigated the internal working model using a ‘love quiz’ which
they put into a small town American paper. The quiz asked questions about both
current and historical attachment experiences to identify the ‘types’ of
attachment (secure/insecure, etc.). 620 responses were analysed and it was
found that there was a positive correlation between attachment type and
experiences of love in adulthood. For example, securely attached individuals
described their experiences of love as happy, friendly, and trusting. They also
found that the average relationship was longer lasting for those with secure
types (ten years) compared to those classed as insecure (five to six years).
This would explain Tina's claim that her childhood experiences have shaped her
adult romantic relationships. Therefore, when Tina says that her marriage is
loveless and pointless it suggests that she has an insecure–avoidant attachment
type. This could be linked to the sensitivity of her care as a child and is reflected
in her later ‘disinterest’ in her marriage. Tanya is jealous and needy which could
suggest that she has an insecure-resistant attachment type when she was an
infant. This appears to have continued with her into adulthood as she displays the
same behaviour and insecurity.
The research from Hazan and Shaver was conducted on a reasonably-sized
sample and cross section of people meaning that it is possible to potentially
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
2
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
generalise it to the population. However, it is based on retrospective
classification meaning that it relied on peoples’ memories of their childhood. Our
memories are not always reliable for recent events so when trying to recall
events that may be highly sensitive and express feelings they felt as children, it
can be very subjective and potentially unreliable. It also used a ‘self-report’
technique which, again because of the sensitivity of the topic, could have led to
social desirability effect. It might be very difficult for someone to give fully
accurate and unbiased accounts and they may have altered their answer to make
themselves appear in the best light.
There is support for Hazan and Shaver’s research from ongoing longitudinal
studies such as Simpson et al. who assessed attachment type at one year old.
Researchers have found that securely attached infants have more social
confidence, and later closer friendships and more emotional attachment to
romantic partners in adulthood compared to insecurely attached.
Other research, however, has found weaker correlations, such as Fraley which
was as low as 0.1. However, Fraley also argued that the lower correlations were
due to the instability of some types of insecure attachment and also found
correlations as high as 0.5.
Other problems with the research include the fact that it is correlational
meaning cause and effect cannot be established. We can’t be sure that the early
type has driven the adult experience. In fact, others argue that our adult
experiences might alter our ‘type’ and expectations of relationships. Finally, the
concepts have been criticised as deterministic as they suggest our childhood
experience will dictate adult relationships and there is little we can do about it
which seems to simplify hugely complex social relationships.
Mark Scheme
Level
Marks
Description
Evaluation
Organisation
Specialist
terminology
4
10-12
Accurate and welldetailed
Effective and
thorough
Clear and coherent
Used effectively
3
7-9
Evident although
occasional
inaccuracies
Mostly effective
Mostly clear and
organised
Mostly used
effectively
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
3
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
2
4-6
Mostly descriptive
and lacking
accuracy in places
Limited
effectiveness
Lacks clarity and
organisation in
places
Used inappropriately
on occasions
1
1-3
Limited and many
inaccuracies
Limited, poorly
focused or absent
Poorly organised
Either absent or used
inappropriately
0
No relevant
content
This is a level four response.
There is clear focus on the research into the impact of attachment to both
childhood and adulthood relationships. Research is accurately described
and well-detailed.
Evaluation is clear and elaborated which gives some sophisticated AO3 by
comparing and contrasting the value of various research studies.
AO2 marks are gained easily through clear and accurate reference to the
scenario and linking it to relevant research and explanations.
Evaluation is clear and elaborated which gives some sophisticated AO3 by
comparing and contrasting the value of various research studies.
AO2 marks are gained easily through clear and accurate reference to the
scenario and linking it to relevant research and explanations.
0
6
Explain what Bowlby meant by an internal working model in relation to
attachment.
[3 marks]
For a sample answer with examiner’s comments please see page 94 of the Year
1/AS Complete Companion.
0
7
Outline the procedure used in one animal study where Lorenz
investigated attachment.
[2 marks]
Lorenz divided a clutch of goose eggs into two groups. One group was left with
their natural mother and one group was hatched in an incubator and imprinted
onto Lorenz. To test whether they were fully attached to him he put both groups
back together near both himself and the natural mother and then set them free
to see which 'mother' they would follow.
0
8
Distinguish between insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment.
[3 marks]
The insecure-avoidant child avoids intimacy and shows little concern when
separated and low stranger anxiety, whereas insecure-resistant children are
more angry, and are distressed when separated, showing a higher stranger
anxiety and resistance to being picked up.
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
4
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
0
9
Outline how a psychologist might investigate the attachment type of an
infant.
[3 marks]
One way would be to test separation anxiety. Just like Ainsworth’s study, the
caregiver and infant could be in a room and then the caregiver could leave the
room to measure the amount of distress the infant displays. The reaction of the
infant would be measured. Reunion behaviour could also be measured to see if the
infant can be comforted, avoids the caregiver, or resists them on return.
1
0
Read the item below and then answer the questions that follow.
Hania is three years old and has strong bonds with both of her parents and
her grandparents too.
Toby is four months old and likes attention but shows no preference for any
person in particular.
Lola is five years old and shows little distress when her parents leave her and
hardly responds when they return.
Victor is two years old and only has one strong bond and that is with his
mother.
(i)
Name the child who demonstrates a monotropic attachment.
[1 mark]
Victor
(ii)
Name the child who demonstrates an indiscriminate attachment.
[1 mark]
Toby
(iii) Name the child who demonstrates an insecure-avoidant attachment.
[1 mark]
Lola
1
1
Describe the findings of Ainsworth’s research into the Strange Situation.
[3 marks]
Ainsworth found that there were three main patterns of behaviour in the infants,
leading her to establish three types of attachment. Securely attached children
play harmoniously with their caregiver and seek her out when they are anxious.
Insecure–avoidant children try to avoid social intimacy and do not use the
caregiver as a secure base. Insecure–resistant children are very distressed on
separation from the caregiver but show conflicting behaviours on her return,
often pushing her away.
1
2
Outline two limitations of using the Strange Situation to measure attachment. [4 marks]
Ainsworth's strange situation has been criticised for its low internal validity;
other psychologists have claimed that only measuring the attachment between a
child and it's mother as Ainsworth did in the strange situation does not provide
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
5
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
the whole picture of a child's attachment style, for example the role of other
attachments.
Participant effects are also a potential problem in this scenario, although the
infants will be unaffected by being observed it is likely that the mothers did not
always respond naturally due to social desirability effects therefore this may
influence how the infants respond to the mother.
1
3
Explain how reciprocity and interactional synchrony are involved
in caregiver–infant interactions.
[4 marks]
Reciprocity is the coordinated response between caregivers and infant from
birth. Infants have been shown to move in rhythm when interacting with an adult
that mirrors the turn taking of a conversation. This rhythm has been shown to
help adults anticipate the infants’ behaviour and therefore respond in an
appropriate fashion.
Interactional synchrony has been shown from a few days or weeks of age when
infants will copy the facial expressions and hand gestures of the adults that they
are interacting with. Research has shown that infants mirror emotions as well as
behaviours.
1
4
Evaluate learning theory as an explanation of attachment.
[4 marks]
One weakness of learning theory is that it is reductionist as it ignores all other
influences on behaviour for example evolutionary explanations such as those from
Bowlby.
Another criticism is that although food may be important, evidence suggests
that it might not be the most important factor. Harlow’s study suggests that
comfort may be more important than food.
1
5
Explain what Romanian orphan studies have shown about the
effects of institutionalisation.
[6 marks]
Romanian orphans were studied by Rutter who found that at the point they were
adopted the children were lagging behind in all measures (cognitive, emotional,
and physical). However, those that were adopted by the age of six months had all
caught up with the British comparison group. However, a proportion of the group
adopted after six months still showed significant deficits suggesting that severe
institutionalisation can be overcome if support is offered early enough. Other
studies have found that the adopted children often still show signs of
disinhibited attachment and have difficulty parenting when they have their own
children.
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
6
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
1
6
Read the item below and then answer the questions that follow.
A psychologist wanted to investigate the role that fathers played in the
development of attachment by observing a sample of 20 fathers
interacting with one-year-old children. The observations took place within
the home. The psychologist decided to use overt non-participant
observations for the research.
(i)
Outline one strength and one limitation of using an overt observation
for this investigation.
[4 marks]
Romanian orphans were studied by Rutter who found that at the point they
were adopted the children were lagging behind in all measures (cognitive,
emotional, and physical). However, those that were adopted by the age of
six months had all caught up with the British comparison group. However, a
proportion of the group adopted after six months still showed significant
deficits suggesting that severe institutionalisation can be overcome if
support is offered early enough. Other studies have found that the
adopted children often still show signs of disinhibited attachment and have
difficulty parenting when they have their own children.
(ii) Outline one strength and one limitation of using a non-participant
observation for this investigation.
[4 marks]
One strength of non-participant observation is that the observer is likely
to be more objective because he is not joining in the interaction between
the father and his child. However, one limitation is that because the
observer is not part of the activity there may be subtle points that they
are not able to observe.
1
7
Outline and briefly evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation.
[6 marks]
Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory states that children need a uninterrupted,
close, and affectionate relationship with their mother or permanent mother
substitute. He claimed that a lack of this relationship or repeated or prolonged
separation would permanently damage an individuals’ mental health, particularly if
this absence was during the critical period which he claimed was the first two and
a half years of life. Bowlby claimed that deprivation of the mother could cause
emotional maladjustment such as emotionless psychopathy, depression, or even a
low IQ. However, Bowlby has been criticised for suggesting that it was merely
physical absence that would cause deprivation but other psychologists have
argued that psychological distance, for example parents who suffer from very
severe depression, may also cause deprivation. Bowlby's research has real-life
application as his studies changed the way that children were treated when in
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
7
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
hospital, so staff and parents tried to minimise the separation from their
caregivers.
1
8
Briefly discuss the findings of one of Harlow’s animal studies on
attachment.
[6 marks]
Harlow's study found that when eight baby monkeys were presented with two
mothers, a wire mother that provided food and a cloth mother that provided
comfort, the monkeys all spent more time, up to 23 hours a day, with the
comforting cloth mother rather than the food-providing wire mother. The babies
would leap onto the wire mother to eat but when they had finished they
immediately went back to the cloth mother. When the monkeys were scared they
always clung to the cloth mother for comfort. They often maintained contact
with the cloth monkey when playing with new objects. These findings suggest that
it is contact comfort, rather than food, that is the key factor in developing an
attachment. These findings go against the learning theory of attachment.
1
9
Discuss the role of the father in the development of attachments.
[8 marks]
Shaffer and Emerson found that fathers were far less likely to be the primary
attachment figure in an infants’ life but were the first joint attachment in around
a third of infants in the mid-sixties. This is possibly because fathers do not
respond as sensitively to their children due to biological factors, for example men
have lower levels of oestrogen than women which is a hormone that underpins
caring behaviours meaning that they struggle to be as sensitive carers as a
mother. However, in families with a male primary caregiver, children can still
form secure attachments showing that despite differences in biology, men are
quite capable of being effective carers. There is mixed evidence here as
Heerman et al. provided evidence that fathers were less sensitive to infant cues
than mothers yet Frodi et al. showed no difference in physiological response to a
video of infants crying.
Fathers traditionally spent less time with their infants as men were expected to
be the breadwinner in most Western cultures. Research has shown that
traditionally children were socialised into the view that caring is a feminine trait
so boys and men are discouraged from taking this role, again making the role of
caring for children harder for men. However, Lamb found no relationship between
the attachement and amount of time fathers spent with the infant. Lamb
suggests that it is what the father does with the children that is most important
and refers to the quality vs quanitity trade off. Lamb et al. argue that it is is
down to how much interaction (quantity), how ‘accessible’ he is (quality), and the
extent of his responsibility in caregiving tasks.
There has been a cultural change and fathers are much more likely to play an
active role in childcare. Research suggests that fathers may take a different
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
8
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
role, one which is more play-focused than emotional or caregiving duties, and play
tends to be more stimulating and unpredictable. However, Roonarine shows that
these differences may not be culturally universal.
Verissimo suggested that attachment with the father correlates with the number
of friends at preschool.
Mark Scheme
Level Marks Description
Evaluation
Application
Organisation
Specialist
terminology
4
7-8
Accurate and
well-detailed
Effective and
thorough
Appropriate
Clear and
coherent
Used effectively
3
5-6
Evident
although
occasional
inaccuracies
Mostly effective
Mostly
appropriate
Mostly clear and Mostly used
organised
effectively
2
3-4
Mostly
Limited
descriptive and effectiveness
lacking
accuracy in
places
Limited in
Lacks clarity
appropriateness and
organisation in
places
Used
inappropriately
on occasions
1
1-2
Limited and
many
inaccuracies
Weak or absent Poorly
organised
Either absent or
used
inappropriately
0
No relevant
content
Limited, poorly
focused or
absent
This response is a good level four answer.
There is clear focus in terms of the role of the father with a clear emphasis
on research. It accurately describes the research then engages in some
effective and elaborated discussion.
2
0
Read the item below and then answer the questions that follow.
Freddie was raised by his mother – a single parent – for the first three
years of his life. He had developed a strong bond with her but, after
experiencing a nervous breakdown, Freddie’s mother abandoned him
and he is now in the care of social services.
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
9
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
(i)
Explain why this is an example of maternal deprivation.
[3 marks]
This is maternal deprivation because Freddie had formed but then later
lost the primary attachment and emotional care he received from his
mother when she abandoned him at the age of three. Bowlby claimed that
maternal deprivation could occur if an attachment was permanently lost or
repeatedly disrupted between birth and five years old; this includes
Freddie as he was only three when his mother left.
(ii)
Using Bowlby’s theory, outline two ways in which Freddie may be
affected by the maternal deprivation.
[4 marks]
Freddie may be affected by this in becoming emotionally maladjusted as
suggested by Bowlby's 44 thieves study which found that the boys who had
experienced maternal deprivation were more likely to become affectionless
thieves, which suggests that Freddie is at greater risk of becoming an
affectionless psychopath. A second way that Freddie may be affected is
that he is more likely to suffer from depression or an anxiety disorder as
an adult, particularly because his deprivation occurred before the age of
six.
2
1
Discuss animal studies carried out on attachment by both Lorenz and
Harlow.
[12 marks]
For a sample answer with examiner’s comments please see page 94 of the Year
1/AS Complete Companion.
2
2
Discuss Bowlby’s theory of monotropic attachment.
[12 marks]
Bowlby claimed that attachment is ‘adaptive’ in evolutionary terms and aids human
survival. Infants will form one special, core attachment with their primary
caregiver (monotropy) and they remain close and protected by that person. The
theory suggests that attachment is innate and both the infant and parent have
in-built mechanisms to ensure that they become attached. Bowlby outlined the
importance of social releasers in this theory. These are things like smiling and
having a ‘baby face’ that work as a way of eliciting caregiving from the adult.
Bowlby claimed that infants must form the primary attachment during the
critical period, which Bowlby stated is 0–30 months. He argued that if an
attachment is not made in this time then children will be maladjusted and will
struggle to ever form an attachment. Bowlby also claimed that the importance of
a monotropic attachment was that it created the internal working model which
will affect all the child's future relationships and emotional development.
The learning theory disagreed with Bowlby as it suggests that attachment is not
innate and that it needs to be learned. They believe that conditioning plays a key
part rather than it being evolutionarily adaptive. One of the criticisms is that
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
10
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
Bowlby suggests that attachments form after three months, which is pretty late
to be protective as before three months is even more vulnerable. This can be
seen in other species such as primates who cling to their mother’s fur pretty
much from birth. The counter-argument for this is that human babies don’t need
to cling on as they can be carried and the attachment is formed from around the
time that a baby would start crawling, meaning it is well-adapted to specific
human development.
Bowlby's theory of monotropy is backed by some research into the role of
fathers, for example Grossman and Grossman found that fathers usually play a
key role as a secondary attachment figure supporting the idea of monotropy.
There is also key evidence for the internal working model and continuity from
Hazan and Shaver and from Sroufe et al. showing that early attachment does
indeed affect later relationships.
Bowlby's theory has also been supported to some extent by Rutter's research
into the Romanian orphans. She found that the infants who were adopted after
six months of age recovered significantly less well than those adopted before six
months of age. However, the critical period itself has been questioned as others,
including Rutter, have found evidence that even though it was unlikely, it was not
impossible to form an attachment after that time and individuals were still able
to recover later. It was then altered to a ‘sensitive period’ between the ages of
0–5 years.
Evidence to criticise Bowlby's monotropic theory also comes from Schaffer and
Emerson who found that the majority of infants form multiple attachments
rather than simply one core attachment meaning that multiple attachments are
the norm and not unique. Although Bowlby might argue that it will only happen
after the monotropic attachment is formed and they won’t be as special or as
deep.
Mark Scheme
Level
Marks
Description
Evaluation
Organisation
Specialist
terminology
4
10-12
Accurate and welldetailed
Effective and
thorough
Clear and coherent
Used effectively
3
7-9
Evident although
occasional
inaccuracies
Mostly effective
Mostly clear and
organised
Mostly used
effectively
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
11
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
2
4-6
Mostly descriptive
and lacking
accuracy in places
Limited
effectiveness
Lacks clarity and
organisation in
places
Used inappropriately
on occasions
1
1-3
Limited and many
inaccuracies
Limited, poorly
focused or absent
Poorly organised
Either absent or used
inappropriately
0
No relevant
content
This answer is a level four response with clear understanding of Bowlby’s
theory of attachment.
There is accurate and well-detailed description as well as clear discussion
of the strengths and limitations of the theory with an effective use of
research.
2
3
Read the item below and then answer the questions that follow.
A researcher carried out cross-cultural
research to compare the attachment
types across two countries: Germany
and Japan. He interviewed parents in
both countries and asked to describe
their interactions with their young
children. From this, he categorised
their attachment as secure, insecureavoidant or insecure-resistant. The
results from the study are shown
right.
(i)
Calculate the percentage difference in secure attachments between
the two countries.
[1 mark]
8%
(ii)
Explain one limitation of using the interview method to categorise
the attachment type.
[2 marks]
One limitation is social desirability bias. Most parents would portray their
relationship with their children in the most positive light possible when
discussing it with an interviewer therefore leading to biased results.
(iii) Briefly discuss what this study has shown us about attachment types in
different cultures.
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
12
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
The study shows that both Germany and Japan have a majority of infants that are securely
attached. However, in Japan, the majority is much bigger – 66% compared to 51%. It also shows
that different cultures have varying levels of insecure attachments too as Germany had ten
times the amount of avoidant infants compared with Japan whereas Japan has far more infants
that are insecure-resistant.
However, we need to be careful when using the results of this study to explain cultural
differences in attachment type as it only looked at two cultures. Not only that but the parents
may have given incorrect information when interviewed and if we tried to generalise, we might
make a mistake and presume differences or similarities that may not actually exist.
2
4
A level only
Discuss the use of animal studies for investigating attachment.
[16 marks]
Animal studies have been used throughout a great deal of psychological research.
A study by Lorenz saw him separate a clutch of eggs into two conditions; in the
first condition the eggs were incubated by the mother goose and in the second
condition they were raised in an incubator. In the first condition the first moving
object that the goslings saw was the mother goose and in condition two the first
moving object they saw was Lorenz himself. Lorenz found that the gosling
immediately imprinted on the first moving object that they saw so in condition
two they immediately attached to him. This study was used to provide support
for the idea of a critical period in humans.
However the ‘usefulness’ of this study can be questioned as there are few
similarities between geese and humans meaning this study may have no relevance
to human attachment and its usefulness is limited in terms of the study of human
attachment. However, others have argued that it does show attachment is an
innate mechanism which supports Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis and
demonstrates that animals are predisposed to find an attachment figure.
The learning theory suggests that babies form attachments with those who feed
them.
Harlow removed baby monkeys from their natural mother and placed them in a
cage with one wire mother and one cloth mother. For half the monkeys the cloth
mother held the food bottle and for the other half this role was taken by the
wire mother. Harlow wanted to test whether food or comfort was the main
source of bonding in the babies. Harlow found that all eight spent most of their
time with the cloth monkey regardless of whether she had food and when the
babies were scared they all used her as a source of reassurance. Harlow
concluded that comfort is a more important factor in attachment than food.
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
13
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
This provides evidence against the learning theory and suggests that it is not as
simple as the learning theory suggests. However, once again there is an issue of
generalising the results from monkeys to humans; the results may have no
relation to how humans attach as it does not include a number of aspects of
human attachment.
Therefore, some psychologists believe that it is not possible or accurate to
extrapolate the results from animal studies to human attachments. Many believe
that studies of goslings following a researcher, or rhesus monkeys being scared
into clinging on to cloth-covered wire models, are highly unlikely to reflect the
emotional aspects and complex interactions of human attachment.
On the other hand, others believe that there are clear similarities between us
and animals. In fact, the use of animals is based on evolutionary theory that
proposes that we came from ape-like ancestors. That means that we share a
great deal of traits and characteristics with other mammals, especially primates,
and evidence suggests that we share around 93% of our genes with rhesus
monkeys. To add to this argument, Green believes that, on a biological level at
least, all mammals, including rhesus monkeys, have the same brain structure as
humans with the only difference in terms of size and the number of neural
connections. This would suggest that Harlow’s studies provide a good insight into
human attachments and not just animal ones.
Indeed, Harlow had a significant impact on the provision of childcare and showed
clear connections between early attachments and later development and
relationships. Regardless of how closely matched we are, the practical application
which led to more stable and consistent childcare practices is clearly a real
positive.
Another argument is that the ‘usefulness’ of this research lies in our ability to be
able to conduct it rather than the closeness of the species. There would be no
way that Harlow or Lorenz would have been able to use human babies for this
research. Therefore, animals provide the only opportunity to do that. Without
the studies on animals, we wouldn’t have the information to compare to humans
and see how significant changes in early childhood might affect an individual as an
adult. As with Harlow, Lorenz provided understanding and evidence of the longterm effects of early attachment and provided us with key knowledge that could
be compared and applied to humans. This does lead to another issue regarding
animal rights and ethics in research, although not one relevant to ‘usefulness’.
The effects of many animal studies have been compared against the limited case
studies we have for humans such as Genie and Rutter’s study of Romanian
orphans. This allows us to see what does and does not match, what might be
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www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
14
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
biological, and what might be due to environment. That allows us to have a greater
understanding of how best to provide childcare and be able to reverse effects of
problematic childhoods.
Mark Scheme
Level Marks Description
Evaluation
Application
Organisation
Specialist
terminology
4
13-16
Accurate and
well-detailed
Effective and
thorough
Appropriate
Clear and
coherent
Used effectively
3
9-12
Evident
although
occasional
inaccuracies
Mostly effective
Mostly
appropriate
Mostly clear and Mostly used
organised
effectively
2
5-8
Mostly
Limited
descriptive and effectiveness
lacking
accuracy in
places
Limited in
Lacks clarity
appropriateness and
organisation in
places
Used
inappropriately
on occasions
1
1-4
Limited and
many
inaccuracies
Weak or absent
Either absent or
used
inappropriately
0
No relevant
content
Limited, poorly
focused or
absent
Poorly
organised
This is a level four response. There is a clear discussion that is focused on
the usefulness of the research using animals. The answer offers a
description of both Lorenz and Harlow and, although this does not directly
debate the usefulness, it does provide a background and a basis for
comments later. The answer clearly refers back to both for strengths and
limitations during the discussion.
2
5
Discuss Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment. Use learning theory as
part of your discussion.
[16 marks]
Bowlby's theory of attachment is based on the evolutionary theory and claims that
infants and caregivers attach to each other as it is adaptive and promotes survival,
therefore making it innate. Bowlby claimed that attachments must form in the
critical period or the child will suffer lifelong negative consequences. He claimed
that the critical period is between 0–30 months and that the child will form the
attachment with the most sensitive caregiver rather than the one who feeds them
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
15
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
or provides the majority of care. Bowlby claimed that attachments are innate but
that maternal sensitivity to the child's needs, production of social releasers such
as smiling, and reciprocity and interactional synchrony between the parent and
child would cement the primary attachment. Social releasers are things such as
smiling and crying as well as physical features such as small nose and big eyes;
these social releasers elicit a caregiving response. Bowlby claimed that infants
form a monotropic attachment with this primary caregiver; this means that they
have a special bond above all others that is at the core of the child's development.
This attachment then forms the template for every future relationship that they
may have. This is called the internal working model and is part of the continuity
hypothesis which suggests that an emotionally secure child will go on to be an
emotionally secure, trusting, and socially confident adult.
Bowlby was influenced by the work of Lorenz, who established that geese have an
innate imprinting mechanism that means that they attach to the first moving
object that they see when they hatch which allows them to be protected from
danger and to learn the skills they need from the mother. However, it can be
argued that this offers limited support for Bowlby as it is based on animals and
therefore cannot be generalised to humans. However, Bowlby's theory does have
face validity; human infants are helpless and so attaching to an adult and
importantly having the adult attach to the human is vital for survival. The learning
theory would argue that infants are at their most vulnerable during the first three
months of life, which is before Bowlby suggests attachments start to form. Other
animals, such as primates, will cling on to their mother’s fur from much earlier on
and used this is evidence to show that we cannot compare ourselves to animals and
their survival aspects. An argument against this is that the development of
attachment actually ties in with when a baby begins to crawl and, as a human baby
can be easily carried, this is the key time for survival.
The learning theory of attachment claims that actually rather than sensitivity
being the most important factor in establishing a primary attachment, food had a
greater impact. However, there is very little research evidence to support this
claim and far more to back up Bowlby's idea of sensitivity being a more important
trait. However, Kagan suggests an alternative view in that it is not simply the
adults’ sensitivity that is important. He claims the child's innate temperament also
plays a role as babies who are judged to be difficult in the first few days of life
are more likely to develop insecure attachments.
Bowlby’s critical period has also been subject to much research. A large amount of
research, including that by Rutter et al., has highlighted the difficulty in later
development of attachments and relationships if an attachment is not formed in
the first 30 months. However, research has also suggested that it is not impossible
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www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
16
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
and therefore not a critical period. It has since been altered to be a ‘sensitive
period’ up to five years old.
Bowlby's theory of attachment is often claimed to be a child of its time as he
focused very heavily on the role of the mother. However, the longevity of his
research would suggest that it has some validity and is still applicable today.
Despite this, Bowlby's theory of monotropy is backed by some more recent
research into the role of fathers, e.g. Grossman and Grossman found that fathers
usually play a key role as a secondary attachment figure supporting the idea of
monotropy. There is also key evidence for the internal working model and
continuity hypothesis from Hazan and Shaver and Sroufe et al. showing that early
attachment does indeed affect later relationships.
Mark Scheme
Level Marks Description
Evaluation
Application
Organisation
Specialist
terminology
4
13-16
Accurate and
well-detailed
Effective and
thorough
Appropriate
Clear and
coherent
Used effectively
3
9-12
Evident
although
occasional
inaccuracies
Mostly effective
Mostly
appropriate
Mostly clear and Mostly used
organised
effectively
2
5-8
Mostly
Limited
descriptive and effectiveness
lacking
accuracy in
places
Limited in
Lacks clarity
appropriateness and
organisation in
places
Used
inappropriately
on occasions
1
1-4
Limited and
many
inaccuracies
Weak or absent
Either absent or
used
inappropriately
0
No relevant
content
Limited, poorly
focused or
absent
Poorly
organised
This is a level four response.
The description of the model is clear and accurate with a great deal of
detail. The core elements of the theory are included and the use of
specialist terminology is good.
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www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
17
3 Attachment
Handout: Exam question bank answers for A Level
The evaluation is well-developed and points are frequently elaborated with
a good use of research and counter-arguments. There is a well balanced
approach with both strengths and limitations highlighted.
Importantly, the learning theory is incorporated into a number of points. If
it had been used more briefly, or not mentioned at all, then a key part of
the question would not have been answered which would have significantly
limited marks.
2
6
A level only
Discuss the extent to which early attachment influences
childhood and adult relationships.
[16 marks]
For a sample answer with examiner’s comments please see page 95 of the Year
1/AS Complete Companion.
© Oxford University Press 2019 The Complete Companions: AS/Year 1 and Year 2 Kerboodle for A level Psychology
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/acknowledgements
18