LET Reviewer
Biology Majorship
Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 1)
Systematics
 classification of organisms and the evolutionary relationships among them
Taxonomy
 study of grouping and classification
Taxon

any named group of organisms that is sufficiently distinct to be assigned to a certain
category
Levels of Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Binomial system of classification
 by Carolus Linnaeus
 use of Genus and Species
o make up the scientific name
o first letter of the genus is always capitalized, while the species name starts with a
small letter. It should be in italics (underlining the genus and species means it is in
italics)
Example: Homo sapiens
Mus musculus
Common name
 less precise
 could refer to more than one organism
Six kingdom scheme
Achaebacteria
 prokaryotic (without true nucleus)
 extremophiles
 no peptidoglycan in the cell wall
 classification
Group
Thermophile
Methanogen
Halophile
Acidophiles
Characteristic
Heat loving
Release methane as by product
Salt loving
Acid loving
Eubacteria
 true bacteria
 prokaryotic (without true nucleus)
 with peptidoglycan in the cell wall
 classification (based on shape)
Group
Shape
Coccus
Round
Bacillus
Rod
Spiral
Twisted
Classification
Diplococci
Streptococci
Tetrad
Sarcinae
Staphylococci
Representative species
Thermus aquaticus
Methanobacterium
Halobacterium
Ferroplasma acidarmanus
Representative species
Staphylococcus
Streptobacilli
Spirillum
Characteristic/s
Two cocci
Chain of cocci
Four (4) cocci; division in two (2) planes
Eight (8) cocci, Cube like arrangement; division in three (3)
planes
Clusters of cocci
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Protista
 eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
 with plant, animal and fungus like characteristics
 unicellular eukaryotes
Fungus like Protists
Phylum
Characteristics
Representative species
Water Molds
Found in damp
Phytophthora infestans
environments
Slime Molds
lack chitin in their cell walls
Physarum
polycephalum
Animal like Protists
Phylum
Mode of locomotion
Sarcodina
Pseudopodia
Ciliata
Cilia
Representative species
Amoeba
Paramecium
Mastigophora
Flagella
Trypanosoma
Sporozoa
None
Plasmodium
Plant like Protists
Phylum
Description
Rhodophyta
Red algae
Representative species
Porphyra
Chlorophyta
Phaeophyta
Green algae
Brown algae
Caulerpa
Sargassum
Chrysophyta
yellow-green algae
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
Some are
bioluminescent
Gonyaulax
Fungi




Economic importance
Causes potato blight
Decomposition
Economic importance
Causes amoebiasis
Plays a key role in the
food chain of ponds
Causes African sleeping
sickness
Causes malaria
Economic importance
Source of nori, an edible
seaweed
Source of food
Habitat for marine
animals
Produces the
diatomaceous earth used
for abrasives and
filtering aids
Causes red tides
eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
heterotroph (consumer)
some are saprophytes (consume decaying plants) and some are parasitic
classification
o zygomycetes (common molds)
 resistant spherical spores
 living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material
 example-black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer)
o basidiomycetes (club fungi)
 fungi with gills or pores
 examples are mushrooms and bracket fungi.
o ascomycetes (sac fungi)
 examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, yeast
o deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi)
 have no sexual reproduction
 examples Penicillum
Plantae
 eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
 autotroph (producer)
 photosynthetic
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Plants
Non vascular
(Bryophytes)
Moss
(Bryophyta)
Liverwort
(Hepatophyta)
Vascular
Hornwort
(Anthocerophyta
Seedless
Fern allies
Seeded
Fern
Non
Flowering
Flowering
Gymnosperm
Angiosperm
Monocot
Type of
flowering
plant
Monocot
Dicot
Type of
flower
Floral parts
in multiples
of 3’s
Floral parts
in multiples
of 4’s or 5’s
Number of
cotyledon
one seed
leaf
Two seed
leaf
Arrangement
of vascular
bundles
Scattered
vascular
bundles
Vascular
bundles in
rings or
circular
arrangement
Type of leaf
venation
Type of root
system
Parallel
leaf veins
Diffused or
fibrous
Netted leaf
veins
Taproot
system
Dicot
Animalia


eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
heterotroph (consumer)
Dichotomous key
 determines the classification of an organism
Basic needs of plants
 solid (although soil less farming called hydroponics can be done)
 minerals
Manganese, zinc, iron, boron, copper, nickel, molybdenum and chlorine
Sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium and
Magnesium
 air (CO2)
 water
 light
Some benefits of plants
 Food
 Shelter
 Source of oxygen for other organisms
 Phytoremediation-help in the breakdown or reduce the concentration of pollutants in
the environment
Basic needs of animals
 food
 water
 air (O2)
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Some benefits of animals
 food
 biological regulation
 medicinal use
Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 2)
Plants
Root



anchorage and absorption
protection, support, reproduction, and storage (by specialized roots)
root systems include taproot, fibrous, and adventitious
o Taproot- composed of the primary secondary and tertiary roots
o Fibrous- of an extensive mass of similarly sized roots
o Adventitious-arise from the other parts of the plant like in the main branches,
twigs and leaves
Stem






main support system
composed of the main stem and their branches
can be with lenticels (serve as the breathing organ)
can be with leaf scars and bundle scars
with annual rings (can estimate the age of a tree)
can be specialized (ex tuber, stolon)
Leaf



serves in photosynthesis
with stomata (entry of CO2 and exit of H2O vapor)
can be specialized (ex tendrils, spines)
Flower




reproductive structure
male part is the stamen (pollen)
female part is the carpel (ovary)
develop to become the fruit
Transport
 Xylem
o conducts water from roots to leaves
o composed of tracheids and xylem vessels

Phloem
o conducts sugar from leaves to other parts
o composed of sieve tube members and companion cells
Nutrition
 by photosynthesis
light
CO2 + H2O --------------> C6H12O6 + O2
Chlorophyll

may be supplemented by carnivory (usually consumption of insects) like in the Venus
fly trap and Pitcher plant
Reproduction
 pollination (transfer of pollen to the stigma) followed by fertilization (union of sperm
and egg)
 has double fertilization
 may be sexual (using seeds) or asexual reproduction
 life span can be annual, biennial or perennial
Animals
Nutrition
 can holotrophic (feeding on solid organic material), saprotrophic (feeding on soluble
organic compounds obtained from dead animals and plants) or parasitic (feeding on
the organic substances present in the body of another living organism)
 some structures for obtaining food are tentacles, claws, teeth, and pinchers
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

food is taken into the gut or alimentary canal
Food is subjected to chemical and physical digestion then absorbed
Transport
 can be water-filled canals (like in jellyfishes) or in circulatory system (like in
vertebrates and certain invertebrates)
 circulation can be open or closed (blood stays in the vessels)
Gas exchange
 can diffuse in the tracheal tubes (like in insects), skin (like coelenterates, flatworms
and many annelids), gills (like in fishes), and lungs (like in most vertebrates)
Excretion and Osmoregulation
 kidney (like in vertebrates), malphigian tubules (like in insects)
Locomotion
 wings (in birds), tails and fins (in fishes and aquatic mammals like dolphin and
whales)
Reproduction
 may be asexual (no gametes needed)
Fission- divides into two or more equal-sized parts
Budding- outgrowth develops on the parent animal that becomes a new individual
 may be sexual (gametes needed)
Behavioral Adaptations
 Reflex actions- can happen unconsciously
 Learning- adaptive change in behavior due to past experiences
 habituation- subjected to repeated stimulation
Principle of Unity in Diversity
 All organisms are made up of cells
 The continuity of life from generation to generation is explained by the presence of the
genetic material.
 The complimentarity between structure and function is true to all living forms
 Evolutionary change is the key to the diversity of life.
 Interaction with the environment
 Stability and homeostasis
 Reproduction
Complimentarity between Structure and Function
 a relationship between the structure and function
 example
o cell provided with great number of mitochondria must be a very active cell in terms of
energy consumption
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
Matter

anything that has mass and occupies space
Matter
Pure
Element
Mixture
Compound
Homogenous
Heterogeneous
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Atom




Isotopes


tiniest particles of an element
have subatomic particles
o proton-positive
o neutron- neutral
o electron-negative
has atomic number (number of protons)
has atomic mass (number of protons and neutrons)
same atomic number but of different mass number
Example
o Hydrogen-1, Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-3
o Carbon -12, Carbon-14
Ion


Element

charged particles
can be cations (positively charged) or anions( negatively charged)
composed of one type of atom that cannot be separated into simpler substances by
chemical means.
Molecules
 aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical
bonds
Compound
 composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions
 can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances
Mixture
 consist of two or more substances wherein their composition varies
 May be homogenous (one phase) or heterogenous (multiple phase)
 Examples of homogenous mixture
o vinegar
 Examples of heterogenous mixture
o Soil
Periodic Table
 horizontal rows called period (indicates the number of energy levels)
 vertical column called group or family (indicates the number of valence electrons)
 element in the periodic table can be metals, metalloids or non metals
Covalent bond
 sharing of valence electron
Ionic bond
 formed by oppositely charged ions
 there is complete transfer of electron from one atom to another
Hydrogen bond (in water)
 bond that exist between an atom of a hydrogen in one water molecule and an atom of
oxygen in another water molecule
States of matter
 Solid
o molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular forces
o holds its shape
o volume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the solid.
 Liquid
o molecular forces are weaker than solid
o takes the shape of its container
o can flow
 Gas
o molecular forces are very weak.
o take both the shape and the volume of the container
o can flow
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Carbon
 forms the backbone of biology for all life on Earth.
 Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements, especially oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen (carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence
electrons)
Water







contracts until it reaches 40 C then it expands until it is solid.
Solid water is less dense that liquid water (thus, ice floats)
Can be attracted to other water (cohesion).
can be attracted to other materials (adhesion).
High surface tension
High boiling point
Water has a high specific heat (amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the
temperature by one degree Celsius)
Chemical reactions
 Synthesis
o A + B  AB
 Decomposition
o CD  C + D
 Single displacement
o EF + G  EG + F
 Double displacement
o IJ +Kl  IL +KJ
Biochemistry and Cell Biology
Biomolecules
 Carbohydrates
o Immediate source of energy
o made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
o simplest carbohydrate formula of CH2O
o Can be classified as monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide
o Examples of monosaccharide
 Fructose-fruit sugar
 Glucose
 Galactose
o Examples of disaccharide
 Maltose (glucose + glucose)-for making beer
 Sucrose (glucose + fructose)-table sugar
 Lactose (glucose + galactose)-milk sugar
o Examples of polysaccharide
 Glycogen-storage carbohydrate of animals
 Starch-storage carbohydrate of plants
 Cellulose-for protection
 Chitin- polysaccharide found in the outer skeleton of insects, crabs, shrimps,
lobsters and cell wall of fungi

Proteins
o Building blocks are amino acids
 Amino acids may be essential (can not be synthesized by the body)
 phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine,
leucine, and lysine
(Any Help) In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly
Valuable
 Amino acids may be non essential (can be synthesized by the body)
 Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartate, Cysteine, Glutamate, Glutamine,
Glycine, Proline, Serine, Tyrosine, Arginine, Histidine
 Individuals living with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of
phenylalanine extremely low to prevent mental retardation and other metabolic
complications. However, phenylalanine is the precursor for tyrosine synthesis.
Without phenylalanine, tyrosine cannot be made and so tyrosine becomes
essential in the diet of PKU patients.
o
Special proteins that hastens chemical reaction is called enzymes
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o
Protein deficiency leads to a disease called kwashiorkor (characterized by edema,
irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver)

Lipids
o Huge storage of energy
o Can be phospholipid, fats, waxes, oils, steroids
 Fats-glycerol + 3 fatty acids
 unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature
 unsaturated fats can be made saturated by adding hydrogen atoms
(hydrogenation)
 saturated fats are solid at room temperature
 Consumption of large amount of saturated fats has been associated with
atherosclerosis. (plaques are deposited on the walls of blood vessel
reducing blood flow)
 Waxes
 fatty acid linked to alcohol
 more hydrophobic and serve as natural coats
 covers of fruits and leaves of plants that appear shiny
 Some insects have waxy coats that prevent then from drying out.
 Phospholipid
 important in cellular membranes
 Two fatty acids are linked to glycerol. A phosphate group is attached to
the glycerol
 Steroid
 example is cholesterol
 The backbone is not an alcohol but a four-ring hydrocarbon
 Nucleic acids
o Storage of information
o Transmit parental traits to offspring
o Building blocks are called nucleotide (sugar + nitrogenous base +phosphate group)
o Can be DNA or RNA
Criteria
DNA
RNA
Pyrimidine base
Cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U)
Purine base
Adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Sugar
Deoxyribose
Ribose
Phosphate group
Present
Present
Number of strands 2
1
Location
Nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast Nucleus, cytoplasm,
ribosomes
Robert Hooke
 discovered the cell
Theodor Schwann (zoologist) and Matthias Jakob Schleiden (botanist)
 stated that cells were the basic unit of life.
Rudolf Virchow
 stated tat cells come from pre-existing cells
Cell theory
 Cells are the basic unit of life
 All organisms are composed of cells. Every living thing is either single-celled or multi-celled.
 all cells arise from pre-existing cells (Except for the origin of life itself).
Prokaryote
 No true nucleus
 With nucleoid region
Eukaryote
 With true nucleus
Structures
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
organelles
Sub-cellular Structure in
cytoplasm
Prokaryotic cell
Peptidoglycan with unique
amino disaccharide
present
Not membrane-bound
Ribosomes ( 70S)
Thylakoid
Eukaryotic Cell
cellulose
present
Membrane-bound
Ribosomes (80S)
Endoplasmic reticulum
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Cilia and flagella
Centriole
Nucleus
Does not have a 9 + 2
pattern of microtubule
absent
Nucleoid (not enclosed by a
membrane)
Innumerable enzymes
Chromosome (loop of DNA)
absent
nucleolus
Golgi apparatus
Vacuole and vesicle
Lysosome
Peroxisomes
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
cytoskeleton
With 9 + 2 pattern of
microtubules
9 + 0 pattern of
microtubule
Nuclear envelope
surrounding nucleoplasm,
chromatin and nucleolus
Concentrated area of
chromatin, RNA and
proteins
Cellular structures
 Cell membrane
o For protection
o Explained by the fluid mosaic model
 Phospholipid is bilayer interspersed with proteins
 Fluid because component move throughout the membrane
 mosaic because of integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins,
phospholipids, glycolipids, and in some cases cholesterol, lipoproteins.


Mitochondrion
o Production of ATP
o Enclosed by the inner membrane is a jelly-like matrix.
o folds are called cristae
o has its own DNA
Chloroplast
o pigment-containing
o has of small flattened sacs called thylakoids
 thylakoids are arranged in stacks called granum
o has its own DNA

Ribosome
o Make proteins
o May be attached (in rough endoplasmic reticulum) or free

Endoplasmic Reticulum
o May be Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
 Contain ribosomes
 For protein synthesis
 Flattened
o May be Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
 No ribosomes
 For lipid synthesis and detoxification
 Tubular

Golgi Apparatus
o modifies and packages materials

Vacuole
o Surrounded by tonoplast
o For storage and osmotic regulation

Lysosome
o For intracellular digestion
o Contain digestive enzymes
o Suicide bag of the cell
o May destroy cellular debris, pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

Microtubules
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o
o
provides structural support and allows motion
has protein subunits called tubulin.

Nucleus
o Control center of the cell because of the presence of genetic material
o Surrounded by the nuclear membrane

Flagellum/Cilia
o Has 9+2 microtubular arrangement
o For movement
Centrioles
o Has 9+0 microtubular arrangement
o For cellular division


Nucleolus
o Assembles rRNA
Plant and animal cell
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Mitochondria
present
present
Cell wall
None
Yes
Plastids
No
Yes
Vacuole
One or more small
vacuoles (much smaller
than plant cells).
One, large central vacuole
taking up 90% of cell
volume.
Ribosomes
Present
Present
Centrioles
Always present
Only present in lower plant
forms.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes occur in
cytoplasm.
Lysosomes usually not
evident.
Plasma Membrane
Present
Present
Cell wall
Absent
Present
Chloroplast
Absent
Present
Nucleus
Present
Present
Transport
 Passive
o Does not use ATP (the energy currency of the cell)
o Movement is through the concentration gradient (from high concentration to low
concentration)
o Examples
 Diffusion
 movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in
which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower
concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is
uniform
 Applications
 Gas exchange for respiration
 Gas exchange for photosynthesis
 Facilitated diffusion
 movement of specific molecules down a concentration gradient, using a
carrier protein
 Osmosis
 Diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane
 Water movement in
 Hypotonic environment-net water movement is going inside;
animal cell burst; plant cell turgid (no bursting because of
presence of cell wall)
 Hypertonic environment-net water movement is leaving the cell;
cell plasmolyzed (shrink)
 Isotonic environment-water entering and exiting the cell is the
same; cell remains the same in shape
 Applications
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 Absorption of water by plant roots
 Re-absorption of water by the proximal and distal convoluted
tubules of the nephron (basic unit of the kidney)
 Absorption of water by the alimentary canal

Active
o Uses ATP
o Movement is against the concentration gradient (from low concentration to high
concentration)
o Example
 Sodium potassium pump

Bulk transport
o Endocytosis-cell membrane folds to ingest particles
 Phagocytosis-‘eating’
 Pinocytosis-‘drinking’
o Exocytosis-release of materials from the cell; very important in waste disposal
Cell division
Interphase
 G1- The cell increases in size
 S- DNA is synthesized
 G2- significant protein being synthesized
*G0-non dividing phase
Through Mitosis
 Happens in somatic cells (all cells except the sex cells)
 Daughter cells are the same with the parent cells
 Some importance of mitosis
o Healing of wound
o Replace of worn out tissue
o Replacement of skin cells
 has four phases
Phase
Events
Prophase
Chromosome condensation
Spindle formation
Breakdown of nuclear envelope
Metaphase Movement of chromosome in the equatorial plate (also called
metaphase plate, equatorial plane, metaphase plane)
Anaphase
Separation of sister chromatids
Movement of separated sister chromatids to opposite poles
Telophase
Reformation of the nuclear envelope
Cleavage furrow is prominent in animal cell
Cell plate is prominent in plant cell
Through Meiosis
 Happens in sex cells
 Daughter cells have half of the genetic materials (haploid cell) of the parent cells
 Some importance of meiosis
o Restore diploid state of parent cell
o Production of sperm and egg cells
 Has two divisions (First division is called reductional phase; Second division is called
equational phase)
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Events
Synapsis or pairing of the homologous
Crossing-over (recombination or physical exchange of equal
pieces of adjacent non-sister chromatids ) follows
Homologous chromosomes align at the equatorial plate
Homologous chromosomes separate with sister chromatids
remaining together.
Two daughter cells are formed with each daughter cell
containing only one chromosome of the homologous pair
DNA does not replicate
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Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate
Sister chromatids migrate separately to each pole.
Cell division is complete.
Four haploid daughter cells are produced.
Cytokinesis
 cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells
 happens after telophase
Cancer
 cells have uncontrolled mitosis resulting to uncontrolled growth
 division beyond the normal limits
 may spread to other parts of the body (metastasis)
Genetics and Evolution
Genetics
 study of heredity
o Heredity is the transmission of genes from one generation to the next generation
Gregor Mendel
 Father of Genetics
 used the garden pea (Pisum sativum)
 Results of Experiment
o First generation- purebred tall plants were crossed with purebred short plants all the
offspring were tall plants.
o Second generation- tall plants, which were the progeny of the first generation, were
crossed with themselves 75% or ¾ of the resulting progeny were tall plants and 25%
or ¼ of the plants were short
 Mendelian Laws of Genetics
o Mendel Law of Dominance
 When recessive genes are with the dominant genes , the dominant genes are
the ones expressed
o Law of Segregation
 states that all the genes for all the traits of an organism are equally
divided and are equally distributed in all the resulting gametes after
meiosis
o Law of Independent Assortment
 states that alleles of different genes are distributed randomly to the gametes
and fertilization occurs at random
Non Mendelian Patterns of inheritance
 Incomplete Dominance
o states that a cross between homozygous dominant and recessive genes will result to a
progeny of heterozygous genes determining an intermediate trait between the
dominant trait and recessive trait
o Example-Red and white flowers produce pink flowers
 Co-dominance
o Detectable genetic expression of two alleles
o Example-Blood group
 Multiple Allelism
o A given gene can have more than two (2) alleles
o Can only be studied in populations
o Example-ABO blood group; Bombay phenotype (a person with antigens for blood type
A, B or AB has Blood type O)
 Sex Link
o gene responsible for a specific trait is located on a sex chromosome
o Example- Color blindness and hemophilia in humans

Sex limited
o The phenotype is the same in a specific gender regardless of the genotype
o Example
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Genotype
HH
Hh
hh

Phenotype
Female
Male
HenHen-feathered
feathered
HenHen-feathered
feathered
HenCock-feathered
feathered
Sex influenced
o Heterozygous genotype may exhibit one phenotype one sex and the contrasting one
on the other
o Example
Phenotype
Genotype
Female
Male
BB
Bald
Bald
Bb
Not Bald Bald
bb
Not Bald
Not Bald
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
 Mendelian factors or genes are located on chromosomes
 It is the chromosome that segregates and independently assort
 Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis on the behavior of chromosomes during sexual
life cycles. (In the early 1900s, geneticists showed that chromosomal movements in meiosis
account for Mendel’s laws.)
 Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome which led to the discovery that the X
chromosome in Drosophila carries a gene for eye color. This supported the chromosome
theory of inheritance
Mutation
 change in genes or chromosomes, which causes a new trait to be inherited
 may be inheritable (change occurs in the sex cells) or non heritable (change occurs in the
somatic cells) mutations
 may be negative (cause of sickness like sickle cell anemia) or positive (cause desirable traits
like superior intelligence) mutation
 possible causes (mutagen)
o radiation (x-rays, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and radioactive substances)
o chemical (formaldehyde, benzene)
 Types
o Single gene disorders
 information contained in the particular gene is either changed or absent
o Chromosome Abnormalities or Chromosomal aberrations
 Changes in number
 Changes in structure
o Mitochondrial disorders
 genes in the mitochondria (egg contains most of the mitochondrial cells) is
altered
o Multifactorial disorders
 caused by a combination of genetic changes and environmental factors
DNA replication
 Unzipping
o DNA unwinds
o Use the enzyme helicase to unzip

Complementary base pairing
o nucleotides match with place by complementary bases
 A binds with T and vice versa
 G binds with C and vice versa

Joining of adjacent nucleotides
o The joining of the sugar/phosphate parts of adjacent nucleotide molecules causes the
length of the new DNA molecule to increase
Protein Synthesis
 Transcription
o Unzipping or Initiation
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o
o

Complementary base pairing
 A pairs with U
 T pairs with A
 G pairs with C and vice versa
Joining of adjacent nucleotides
Translation
o mRNA codons are read in the ribosomes.
o ends with the production of proteins.
o tRNA carries the amino acids to the ribosome; tRNA anticodons match with the codons
Regulation of Gene Expression
 in prokaryotes, control of transcriptional initiation is the major point of regulation
 in eukaryotes the regulation of gene expression is controlled nearly equivalently from many
different points
Applications of Genetics
 Genetic Engineering
 Animal Cloning
 Plant Cloning
 DNA Fingerprinting
 Creation of Monoclonal Antibodies
 Tissue Engineering
Benefits of Biotechnology
In Agriculture:
 Improved crop varieties and animals in terms of quality traits, resistance to biotic and abiotic
stresses
 Enhanced crop protections thru diagnostics & biodrugs for plant and animal diseases.
 Plants have also been engineered to produce hormones, clotting factors and antibodies
 Biotechnology has helped to increase crop productivity by introducing such qualities as
disease resistance and increased drought tolerance to the crops
In Medicine
 Production of pharmaceutical products like hormones (insulin), vaccines, interferons,
complements, important proteins like the anti-clotting factor.
 In pharmacogenomics (study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her
body’s response to drugs.)
 Biotechnology lead to development of tailor-made medicines and more accurate methods of
determining appropriate drug dosages, improvements in the drug discovery and approval
process, safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of
genetic engineering.
 Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like
cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to
bolster a normal function such as immunity.
In Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation
 When genetic engineering results in reduced pesticide dependence, it leads to less pesticide
residues on foods, reduced pesticide leaching into groundwater, and minimize farm worker
exposure to hazardous products.
 Creation of genetically modified microbes to clean the environment or for bioremediation
 Genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of
metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways
and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions
Evolution
 gradual change of structure and function of organisms due to the changes in the
environment
 descent with modification
Evidences for Evolution
 Fossils
o Remains of one existing organisms
 Chemical and anatomical similarities
o the more similar the structures are, the more related they are
 Geographic distribution
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major isolated land areas and island groups often evolved their own distinct plant and
animal communities.
Recorded genetic changes in living organisms over many generations
o the more similar the genes are, the more related they are
o

Microbiology and Biotechniques
Toxins
 Exotoxins
o toxins secreted by a pathogen
o proteins in nature
o Example
 Clostridium botulinum releases exotoxin causing paralysis
 Endotoxins
o part of some bacterial cell wall
o lipopolysaccharide (lipid and carbohydrate) in nature
o Example
 Salmonella typhi releases endotoxin causing typhoid fever
Bioremediation
 process of cleaning contaminants in the environment using living organisms.
 Bacteria are efficient organisms for this purpose
Probiotics
 food supplements using bacteria or fungi
 Lactobacilli is a common probiotic ingredient
Virus





means poison in ancient Rome
characterized by the presence of capsid (protein coat covering the nucleic acid)
Multiplication
o attachment
 virus locates a specific binding site on the recipient host cell.
o penetration
 genetic materials or the whole virus enters the cell
o replication and synthesis
 the genetic component of the virus dictates to the host cell to reproduce
materials needed by the virus for reproduction
o assembly
 viral materials are structured to become new viruses
o release
 new viruses are liberated from the host cell
Pathways to achieve the process of multiplication of virus
o lytic cycle
 all steps in multiplication (see above) are immediately and successively done.
o lysogenic cycle
 the incorporated viral genetic material does not immediately produce the
needed material.
 genetic materials stay incorporated in the genetic make up of the host cell until
triggered to produce materials needed for virus assembly.
Classification
DNA Virus
Herpes simplex
Chicken pox virus
RNA Virus
Dengue virus
Mumps virus
Human Immunodeficiency virus

Disease caused
Herpes
Chicken pox
Disease caused
Dengue fever
Mumps
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
Bacteriophage
o group of virus that infects bacterial cell
Herbarium
 collection of plant specimens which are dried, arranged and classified
 serves as basis of identifying plants in succeeding collection
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Aquarium
 miniature water ecosystem
Terrarium
 miniature terrestrial ecosystem
Taxidermy
 art of preserving the skins of different animals for study or exhibition
 provides realistic visual aid in teaching concepts in animals like Integumentary system and
habitat.
Microscopic techniques (microtechniques)
 prepare materials for microscopic observation and study
 Some steps
Steps
Description
Anesthetization
Reduce or eliminate pain of animals during dissection
Dissection and Subdivision
Careful exposition of desired animal part
Fixation
For preservation of tissues and its components
improves staining potential of specimens
Washing
Removal of excess fixative agents
Dehydration
Removal of water from the specimen and replacing it by
alcohol
Clearing
Clearing agent replaces the dehydrating agent
Infiltration
Substance like paraffin is used to penetrate inner layers of
the tissue specimen; this allows sectioning possible
Embedding
Substance like paraffin is allowed to solidify around the
specimen
Sectioning
Cutting (use of microtome, instrument that can section
specimen thin enough for a slide) to desired thickness
Deceration
Staining
Mounting
Drying, cleaning, and labeling
An improvised microtome can be used. The specimen to be
sectioned may be placed in between styrofoam or potato
before cutting using the ordinary blade (must be very
sharp)
Removal of paraffin from the specimen
Coloring of the specimen using stains
Placing the specimen on the slide and covering with glass
slide
Letting the mounting medium to dry; cleaning with solvent
of the mounting medium; identifying the specimen
prepared

Some methods
o Teasing
 parts are dissociated by a solution then separated by fine needles
 example
 striated muscle fibers preparation
o Smear
 spreads the specimen on the slide
 example
 blood
o grinding
 hard tissues are treated then thinned using abrasives. Bone tissues (cross section)
are prepared using this means.
o Squashing
 done by gently crushing the specimen to loosen the aggregation
 example
 Onion root tips showing the chromosomes
Culture media
 any material designed for growth of microorganisms
 Microbes placed in the culture medium are called inoculum.
 microbes growing from this setup are called culture.
 agar is the most commonly used
o characteristics of agar
 few microbes can degrade it making it in solid form
 liquefies at 1000C and remains liquid until about 400C
 may be used in petri dish or test tube
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Hay infusion
 usually used in studying protists
o Steps in making
 add hay (grass) in pond water.
 drop glucose (to start growth of bacteria, the food of protists)
 set aside for a few days to allow proliferation of protists
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Levels of organization
Atom
Molecule
Biomolecule
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Integumentary system
 protection from harmful elements of the environment
 prevents dehydration
 synthesizes Vitamin D precursors
 regulates body temperature
 components
o skin
 Epidermis layer
 stratum corneum
 composed mainly of dead cells
 keratin is found on this layer
 stratum granulosum
 plays a big role in keratinization
 granular in appearance
 stratum spinosum
 spiny in appearance
 stratum basale/germinativum
 site of active mitotic activity
 Dermis layer
 Next layer after epidermis
 Contain sebaceous gland (secretes sebum/oil) and sweat gland (secrete
sweat)
 arrector pili (contract resulting to goose bumps) muscle present
 Hypodermis layer
 also known as the subcutaneous layer hair
 adipose tissues present
o hair
 parts
 shaft
 protrudes over the epidermis
 made up of dead cells
 hair follicle
 capable of mitosis
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nails
 for protection
 for grasping objects
 for scratching.
Some diseases
o Acne
 inflammation of the hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
 common areas affected are the face, chest, back and sometimes the scalp
o Dermatitis
 Irritation of the integument
o

Muscular system
 give shape
 provides movement
 gives posture
 capable of heat production
o Types of Muscles
 Skeletal- striated, multi-nucleated, voluntary movement
 Cardiac- striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary movement
 Smooth/visceral -non- striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary movement, spindle
shape
 Some disease
o Muscular dystrophy
 disintegration and degeneration of muscle fibers
o Myasthenia gravis
 autoimmune disease
 too little acetylcholine reaching the neuromuscular junction causing severe
exhaustion and muscle fatigue
Skeletal system
 for framework and protection
 storage of calcium
 production of blood cells
 compose of cartilage (tough but elastic) and bone
 division
o Axial
 Comprises of the skull, thorax and the vertebral column
o Appendicular
 Constitutes the shoulder girdle, upper extremities, pelvic girdle and the lower
extremities
 Types of joints
o Ball and socket-exemplified by the shoulders
o Gliding- exemplified by the carpals (wrist)
o Hinge- exemplified by the elbow
o Pivot-exemplified by the neck

Some diseases
o Scoliosis
 lateral curvature of the spine
o Osteoporosis
 bones of become brittle and porous due to decrease in calcium and
phosphorous
Nervous system
 for transmission of nerve impulses throughout the body
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Nervous System
Central Nervous
system
Peripheral Nervous
system
Somatic nervous
system (voluntary)
Autonomic nervous
system (involuntary)
Sympathetic
(control organs in
times of stress)
Parasympathetic
(control organs in
times of rest
Central Nervous system
 compose of the brain and the spinal cord
 component of the brain
o Cerebrum
 Seat of consciousness
o Cerebellum
 body movements
o Diencephalon
 Composed of thalamus and the hypothalamus(seat of emotion)
 control body temperature, thirst, hunger and even sexual urges
o Brainstem
 Composed of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
 responsible for respiration, breathing, heart beat, regulation of blood flow and
blood pressure
Peripheral nervous system
 serves as a receiving site of nerve impulse transmission coming to and from the brain and
spinal cord
Some Diseases of the Nervous System
 Bell’s Palsy
o paralysis of the facial muscles
o loses of the ability to close the eye on the affected side along with muscle weakness,
loss of taste and facial deformity.
 Alzheimer’s Disease
o progressive memory loss and deterioration of intellectual capacity.
o Results from a decrease in acetylcholine receptors, smoking, alcoholism, infection and
heredity
 Parkinson’s disease
o Muscular rigidity, resting tremor, general lack of movement
o Results from deficiency or absence of dopamine
Circulatory system
Blood
 composed of plasma (made up of water, proteins, electrolytes, and other substances) and
formed elements (blood cells)
Blood cells
 erythrocyte
o red blood cell
o carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide
 leukocyte
o for protection against invading organisms
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may be granular (neutrophil, eosinophil, and basophil) or non granular (lymphocyte
and monocyte)
Thrombocyte
o Platelets
o For initiation of blood clotting
o

Blood vessels
 Artery
o carries blood away from the heart
o usually carries oxygenated blood (exception is the pulmonary artery)
 Vein
o carries blood towards the heart
o usually carries deoxygenated blood (exception is the pulmonary vein)
 capillary
o site of exchange of materials
Heart
 4 chambers
o 2 receiving atria
o 2 pumping (blood away from the )ventricles
o Contraction initiated by Sinoatrial node (SA node or pacemaker)
Diseases of the Circulatory System
 Arteriosclerosis
o hardening large arteries
 Atherosclerosis
o lipid deposits in the arteries
Respiratory system
 for exchange of gases
 parts include nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
o Nose
 For prewarming or air
 Filtration of air
o Pharynx
 Common pathway of food, water and air
o Larynx
 Voice box
 Opens and closes the larynx
o Trachea
 With C-shape cartilage
 With cilia (for filtration)
o Bronchi
 Pathway of air
o Bronchioles
 Smaller than bronchi
o Alveoli
 Site of exchange of gases
Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Tuberculosis
o Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
o Signs and symptoms include as fever, night sweats, fatigue and coughing with
 Pneumonia
o Inflammation of the lungs
Immune system
 for protection
 types
o innate (non specific; exemplified by inflammation, phagocytosis, chemical mediators)
or adaptive (specific; exemplified by antibody formation)
o active (antibody produced by the body in response to an antigen) or passive (actual
antibody is transferred to the person)
o Natural (natural exposure) or artificial (with human intervention like vaccination)
Diseases of the Immune System
 AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
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o
o
o
Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
 attacks helper T cell (functions in signaling other immune cells to fight
antigens)
could be acquired by an exchange of body fluids during sexual intercourse from an
infected individual, blood transfusion, sharing of needles, tattooing, body piercing
attacks helper T cell (functions in signaling other immune cells to fight antigens)
Endocrine system
 Secretes hormones
 Some examples
Gland
Hormone
Pituitary
Oxytocin
Growth hormone
Prolactin
Follicle stimulating hormone
Pineal
Melatonin
Thyroid
Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine
Calcitonin
Thymus
Thymosin
Adrenal
Adrenaline
Pancreas
Insulin
Glucagon
Testis
Testosterone
Ovary
Estrogen
Progesterone
Action
Stimulates contraction of the uterus
Stimulates growth (specially the bones)
Stimulates production
Stimulates production of sperm and egg
Biological clock
Stimulate and maintain metabolic needs
Lowers blood calcium level
Stimulate T-cell development
emergency hormone
Lowers blood glucose
Increase blood glucose
Development of secondary male sex
characteristics
Development of secondary female sex
characteristics;
Promotes uterine lining growth
Promotes uterine lining growth
Diseases/disorder of the Endocrine System
 Diabetes
o insufficient production of insulin
 Dwarfism
o insufficient production of growth hormone
Digestive system
 breakdown and assimilation of food
 parts
o Mouth
 breaks down the food into smaller pieces with the help of the teeth (incisors,
canine, premolar and molar) and tongue
o Pharynx
 Common passage of food, water and air
o Stomach
 Temporary storage of food
 Highly acidic
o Small intestine
 Complete digestion occurs
 Receives secretion of pancreas and liver
Large intestine
 Reabsorption of water
 production of some vitamins by help of microorganism
o Anus
 Exit of feces
Accessory glands
o Liver
 Produce bile (emulsifies fats)
o Gall bladder
 Stores bile
o Pancreas
 Secrete enzymes for digestion
o

Peristalsis
 Rhythmic contraction of gastrointestinal tract to propel food downward
Diseases/Disorder of the Digestive System
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
Appendicitis
 Inflammation of appendix
 needs appendectomy (removal of appendix)
Urinary system
 elimination of waste (urine)
 parts
o kidney
 nephron is the basic unit
o Ureter
 propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
o Urinary bladder
 Temporary storage of urine
o Urethra
 connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body

Process of Urine Formation
o Filtration
 waste products are further eliminated in the form of Glomerular filtrate which
enters the Bowman’s capsule
o Reabsorption
 allows necessary nutrients and substances to be absorbed by the blood while
eliminating ammonia, urea and other waste products
o Secretion
 urine is already formed in this final process
Diseases/Disorder of the Human Excretory System
 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
o inflammation to any of the parts of the urinary tract
o females have shorter urethra compared to males making them more susceptible to
infection
Reproductive system
 for perpetuation of species
 male parts
o Scrotum
 enclosing the testes
 for thermoregulation.
o Testes
 Produce sperms (in seminiferous tubules)
 give rise to male secondary sexual characteristics.
o Epididymis
 Place where sperm mature.
o Vas deferens
 duct where sperms pass through
o Seminal Vesicles
 secretes sugar, protein, and other substances that nourish the sperm.
o Ejaculatory duct
 results from the fusion of the seminal vesicle and the vas deferens
o Prostate gland
 secretes an alkaline fluid neutralizing the vagina from its acidic condition.
o Bulbourethral glands
 pea-sized structure situated below the prostate gland
 helps lubricate the penis during intercourse
 female parts
o Ovaries
 secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone
 production of egg
o Fallopian Tubes
 Also called oviducts
 serves as a passageway egg cell
 site of fertilization (ampulla)
o Uterus
 Place of the fetus for growth and development.
o
Vagina
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

o
o
receives the erected penis
provides a passageway for the fetus to be delivered during the process of
labor.
Vulva
 part of the vagina located externally. Incorporated in this area are pairs of liplike structures known as the labia. The outer portion is the labia majora and
the inner is the labia minora.
Mammary glands
 milk production
Diseases/Disorder of the Reproductive System
 Gonorrhea
o yellowish discharge accompanied by an inflammation of the urethra
o difficulty and pain while urinating, pelvic pain and fever
o caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae
 Syphilis
o infection penetrates the mucosal linings of the reproductive tracts causing ulcerations
o signs and symptoms such as skin rashes, alopecia, fever and body aches
o may reach the brain resulting to a mental illness and paralysis that could possibly lead
to death
o caused by Treponema pallidum
Fundamentals of Physics
System
 collection of parts confined in a specific boundary
 Ecosystem, the major unit in ecology is an example of a system
 May be an open (may acquire inputs from the environment; ecosystem is an example ) or a
closed system (No input can pass through the boundary of the system)
Thermodynamics
 study of collective effects of heat, work and energy in a system.
 First Law of Thermodynamics
o law of conservation of energy
o energy is not created nor destroyed but simply converted to another form
o Example
 the light energy of the sun is converted by the plants into chemical energy.
When humans walk using the chemical energy, then the chemical energy is
converted to mechanical energy.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
o that heat flows spontaneously from a higher temperature material to a lower
temperature material
o can also be viewed in terms of entropy (conversion of matter and energy to a more
random or disorganized state)
o example
 Between winter and spring, ice melts. This means that ice accepts heat making
it in a more disorganized state (since liquid molecules have more freedom of
movement)
Heat transfer
 can be through conduction, convection and radiation. These can be differentiated with the
media used.
Heat transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Medium
Solids
Fluids (liquid and gas)
None

Conduction
o Materials which conduct heat well are called thermal conductors (example is wood)
o Materials that do not conduct well are called thermal insulators
o Example
 A lizard resting on its belly on the soil is losing heat in a sunny day by
conduction

Convection
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When fluids are heated, they expand. This results to increase in volume and a
subsequent decrease in density. On the other hand, when fluids area cooled they
decrease in volume and the density increases.
o fluid flowing with it is called the convection current.
o Example
 dispersing pollutants in cities
 In lakes or oceans, valuable nutrients settling at the bottom can not be
accessed by phototrophic organisms above unless the bottom waters move up.
This is achieved when there is a turnover, convection current.
Radiation
o Example
 During forest fires, trunks acquires heat form burning materials through
radiation
 Lemurs with white fur are able reflect light to the surrounding. During cold
mornings, they allow their small black skin on their belly towards the sun. This
captures more heat for warming up
o


Ecology
Study of the interaction of organisms to their environment
Physical factors in the environment
 Temperature
 Light
 Water
 Wind.
 Air
Relationships
 Mutualism
o both members are benefited
o Example
 Flower and insect
 Commensalism
o One benefits (commensal) while the other is not affected (host)
o Example
 Epiphytes (like orchids) and tall trees
 Parasitism
o One is benefited (parasite) and the other is harmed (host)
o Classification of parasite
 Ectoparasite
 Parasite lives outside the host (like mosquito)
 Endo parasite
 Parasite lives inside the host (like intestinal worms)
 Competition
o May impart limiting effects on both members
o may be Interspecific (competing organisms belong to different species) intraspecific
(competing organisms belong to the same species) competitions
 Predation
o One is benefited (predator) and the other is harmed (prey)
o Example
 Snake (predator) and mouse (prey)
Niche
 role or status of the organism in the community or ecosystem
 this can be through participation in the transfer of energy, recycling of materials, shaping
communities
Habitat
 place where an organism lives
Food chain
 series of eating and be eaten
 example
o rice plantmousesnake-decomposer
Food web
 composed of different food chains
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Food pyramid
 shows the energy transferred to each trophic level
 producers occupy the base of the pyramid
 final consumers at the tip
 follows the rule of 10 (energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is about 10%.)
Biomes
 Tundra
o in polar region
o Limited plant growth
o little precipitation
o with permafrost (permanently frozen soil)
 Taiga
o also called boreal or coniferous forest
o found in cool, elevated areas
o with tall conifers with needle-like leaves
 Temperate deciduous forest
o With deciduous trees (leaves change color together with the season, and shed in
winter)
 Tropical Forest
o Climate here is mild, as summer remains warm and winter is cold
o Strata include canopy, understorey and floor
 Savanna
o grasslands with few shrubs and trees
o site of safari
 Grasslands
o Abundant with grass
 Desert
o least amount of precipitation
o always dry but NOT always hot
Aquatic ecosystem
 Freshwater
o River
o Lake
 Marine (salt) water
o Sea
o Ocean
Succession
 change in the species structure of an ecological community over time
 may be primary succession (takes place on an area that is originally completely empty of life)
or secondary succession (occurs in an area where life once existed but has then been
destroyed)
Natural ecosystem
 present in the environment that receives no human intervention
 example
o forest
Managed ecosystem
 receives no human intervention
 example
o aquarium
o terrarium
Effects of natural disturbances
 flood
 species are endangered (very few species remaining)
 extinction (elimination) of species
Statistics for Biology
Graphs
 representation of a set of objects where some pairs of the objects are connected by links
 Types
o Line
 plotted peaks and dips on the grid allow you to monitor and compare
improvement and decline
o Bar
 data in a simple format consisting of rectangular bars
o Histogram
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
o
o
o
displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights to represent the
frequencies
Pie
 data comparison, consisting of a circle that is split into parts
Pictographs
 use small picture symbols to compare information
Scatter Plot
 effective way in illustrating the relationship between two measures
Frequency
 number of times the event occurred
Ratio
 comparison of two numbers
 Example
o 8:12
o 8/12
Proportion
 statement that two ratios are equal
 Example
o 3/4 = 6/8
o 2/4=1/2
Probability
 belief that an event will occur or has occurred
Central tendencies
 needs to be able to understand summaries of large amounts of data that use simple
measures to best represent the location of the data as a whole.
 measures of central tendency
o Mean
 arithmetic mean
 simply the average of the group
 Example
 Mean of 13, 14 and 15 is 14 (13+14+15= 42; 42⌯ 3 = 14)
o Median
 middle score or the midpoint of the data
 Median is a better description than the mean of the majority when the
distribution is skewed
 Example
 Median of 11, 13, 15, 21,and 45 is 15 (numbers are arranged in
increasing/decreasing order; there are 5 numbers, thus the midpoint is
the 3rd number which is 15)
 Median of 11, 13, 15, 21, 25 and 45 is 18 (numbers are arranged in
increasing/decreasing order; there are 6 numbers, the midpoint is
between the 3rd and 4th numbers; thus 15+21 =36; 36⌯2=18)
o Mode
 most frequent score
 Example
 Mode of 2, 2, 3, 5 and 6 is 2
Correlation
 describes the degree of relationship between two variables
History and Philosophy of Science
 Prehistoric Times
o Stone Age: Paleolithic Age(3000-1000 BC & Neolithic Age (9000-5000 BC)
 Stones
 Used for chopping, cutting or digging
 Fire
 Used to warm their body and cook their food
 Containers of food
 Cooking of food using fire
o Bronze Age 3500(3500-2500 BC)
 Creation of the First Alloy
 Bronze- combination of copper and tin
 Ancient Civilization (3500 BC- A>D> 1200)
o Sumerian Civilization -Sumer, is the cradle of the world’s earliest known civilization
 Standardized Measurement following the sexagesimal system (using number
60 as base). They divided the circle into 360 degrees, an hour into 60
minutes and a minute into 60 seconds)
 Canals, dikes, wires and reservoirs
 Potter’s Wheel
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Wheeled Vehicle
Sailboat
Systematized Farming
Irrigation system –constructed canals for irrigation
Bleaching, dyeing, preparing paints, cosmetics and perfumes
Materia Medica- Compilation of prescriptions for different diseases made from
assorted botanical, zoological, and mineralogical ingredients.
 First writing system called cuneiform which is a set of word pictures depicted in
symbols pressed into wet clay tablets and then sun dried
Babylonian Civilization
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon
 Sun Dial
 Calendar
 Developed an elaborate irrigation system of canals
Egyptian Civilization
 Hieroglyphics
 Papyrus- first paper
 Early weather forecasting
 Astronomy
 Production of Bread and Beer
 Henna
 Embalming
 Metallurgy
Minoan/ Cretan Civilization
 Drainage System
Greek Civilization
 Logical Thinking
 Astronomy
 Atomic Theory
 First Classification of Living things
 First accurate measurement of the earth’s diameter
 Archimedes Screw
 Dissection of Animal corpses
 Geometry
Persian Civilization
 Common Calendar
 Postal service
 Uniform system of gold and silver coinage
Roman Civilization
 Installation of public toilets
 Adapted Greek teachings
Arabic/ Islamic Civilization
 Alchemy
 Numerical System
 Glass lens for magnification
 Produced the first gun
Chinese Civilization
 Lacquer
 Silk Production
 Records on eclipses
 Apothecaries and acupuncture
 Paper Making
 Gun Powder
 Printing
Indus-Hindu Civilization
 Developed metallurgy
 Accuracy in measurement
 Prevention and treatment of ailments
The Middle Ages
 Algebra was organized and expanded
 Comprehensive medical encyclopedia-Canon of Medicine
 Introduction of the Hindu Arabic system
The Renaissance
 Improved process of paper making and printing
 Scientific method
 Microscope
 Age of exploration
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