THE 25 GROSS ERRORS TO AVOID IN ESSAY WRITING, RESEARCH
PAPERS AND DISSERTATIONS.
SENTENCE COSTRUCTION AND PUNCTUATION SECTION
THIS SECTION HAS FIVE UNITS, ALL OF THEM DEALING WITH
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION AND PUNCTUATION.
1. Incomplete, Fused and Run on Sentences
Lesson Objectives
The lesson is designed to inculcate the ability to:





Differentiate between a subject and a predicate
Expand the sentence subject
Expand the sentence predicate
Recognize a complete sentence
Correct fused sentences appropriately
1.1 The Incomplete Sentence or Sentence Fragment
This first unit will look at sentence structure and how to strive for accuracy in that most important aspect of
writing. The sentence is the group of words in which the meaning of your writing is contained. The sentence,
therefore, has to be a complete, independent, and logical thought; otherwise all meaning in your ideas will be
lost. No sentence can exist without both the subject and predicate. The subject is the person, process, event,
incident, or object being talked about, and the predicate is what is indicated or said about the person, object or
event. Suppose, for example, that someone speaks the name Aurora. He has not spoken a sentence, because a
person has only been named, but there is no predicate. If someone else utters the word laughs, there is no
sentence either, because there is no person or thing to link the word to. It is only when the two words are joined
together that there is a sentence; Aurora laughs. The sentence now becomes a complete thought with a full
meaning. The subject can be enlarged; Aurora, the funniest clown in Boswell’s circus, laughs.
The predicate can also be enlarged. Aurora laughs mockingly, bitterly, ironically.
Both subject and predicate can be enlarged. Aurora, the funniest clown in Boswell’s circus (expanded subject)
laughs mockingly, bitterly and ironically.(expanded predicate)
Most sentences in written work contain only the expanded subject, so they are fragments e.g.
Aurora, the funniest clown in Boswell’s circus.
The beautiful girl of the fairy tale, who was ordinary by day and a princess at night.
When we were walking down our street one dark and terrifying night.
Just after the car rounded the bend at high speed.
While I was busy studying and minding my own business.
These sentences are incorrect because they need predicates as shown below.
The beautiful girl of the fairy tale, who was ordinary by day and a princess at night,(Subject) finally married
prince charming.(Predicate)
When we were walking down our street one dark and terrifying night,(Subject) we heard an ear-splitting roar
ahead of us.(Predicate)
Just after the car rounded the bend at high speed,(Subject) it skidded off the road and hit the guard
rail.(Predicate)
While I was busy studying and minding my own business, (Subject)Cherry started throwing paper missiles at
me.(Predicate)
Each of the sentences now contains both a subject and a predicate, and it is complete.
1.2 The run on sentence.
A sentence is a complete clause containing a subject and a predicate as we indicated earlier, or a subject and
verb.
Aurora (Subject) laughs (verb)
If two or more of these complete clauses are crammed together without any punctuation or with incorrect
punctuation, the logical flow of ideas will be disturbed. At times, students join two main clauses with a comma
instead of a full stop. This is a serious error called the comma splice, and it comes from failure to differentiate
between the comma and the full stop. Such incorrectly joined sentences are called run-on sentences. At other
times, students do not put any punctuation at all between two main clauses. Such sentences are called fused
sentences. They are corrected in four ways; by using full stops; inserting semicolons where the comma is; using
coordinating conjunctions together with the comma or using subordinate conjunctions.
Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances:
1.2.1
When the second independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was said in the
first independent clause:
i.
Uncle John is on his way, you should put his books away.
ii.
Aunt Mary says she misses us, we should call or write to her.
iii. You made a mistake in this sentence, you should correct it immediately.
iv. There is an error on your purchase receipt, you should go and speak to the manager
immediately.
v.
This report contains a lot of information, you should give yourself time to go through it.
All these sentences can be corrected by using either one of the four methods indicated e.g.
Use a period
There is an error on your purchase receipt. You should go and speak to the manager immediately.
OR use a semi colon
There is an error on your purchase receipt; you should go and speak to the manager immediately.
OR use a coordinating conjunction
There is an error on your purchase receipt, and you should go and speak to the manager
immediately.
Or use a subordinate conjunction
Since there is an error on your purchase receipt, you should go and see the manager immediately.
1.2.2
When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression (conjunctive adverb)
such as however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise.
I should have registered for my favourite course, however, I could not make the grade.
He should have been here with the report a long time ago, however, he is stuck in traffic.
The weather dissuaded me from my morning run, moreover, I had other things to do.
Our landlady does not allow pets in the house, otherwise, I would have bought the cute cuddly puppy that
my neighbour was selling.
We can put our personal information online to get jobs, nevertheless, it is not safe
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The best way to correct these is to use a semicolon.
1.2.3
When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects
it to the first independent clause.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The church choir members practise every night, they practise for two hours
We are all supporters of soccer at our school, there is no other sport.
I have two German shepherd puppies, they are good dogs.
We all love the French teacher, she is always well dressed.
We all drive cautiously on the road to the mall, it is full of speed humps.
These sentences can also be corrected by using the four methods I indicated at the beginning.
1.3 The fused sentence
1.3.1. These are sentences that are smoothed together with no punctuation at all. They also typically occur in
the same circumstances as run on sentences.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Eleventh century Scotland was a violent and troubled country Macbeth was born into this violent world
in 1005.
He was the son of a great family that ruled Moray and Ross his own father was murdered by his cousin.
Macbeth married Gruach granddaughter to a high king of Scotland they had no children of their own.
Duncan’s rule had been ineffectual and unpopular he was thirty-eight when he was killed possibly by
Macbeth.
Macbeth ruled for seventeen years as a competent reforming king he gave Scotland a long period of
comparative peace and stability.
The fused sentence should be corrected in the same way as the run on.
Keep these three things in mind when you use a semicolon:

The two main clauses that the semicolon joins should be closely related in meaning.

Don't capitalize the word that follows the semicolon unless that word is a proper noun,
one that is always capitalized.

Limit your use of semicolons; you should not wantonly scatter them throughout your
writing.
Consolidation Activity
Correct all the sentences that are indicated as incorrect in this unit. Just remember to number them correctly and
show the section clearly.
2. OMITTING OR MISPLACING THE COMMA
The comma separates sentence elements; it is the most frequent, and the most wrongly used, of the internal
marks of punctuation. Omission or misplacement of the comma can completely change the meaning of a
sentence. For example, the sentence, Lets share women, sounds as if there is a group of perverts who would like
to share women. If I use a comma, the meaning changes completely. Let’s share, women. It is now clear that
there is something that needs to be shared amongst the women. In some instances, it is best to leave the comma
out. The sentence Stop killing rhinos is best left without a comma. If one is used, it becomes Stop killing,
rhinos; which is a plea to the rhinos to stop killing. This is the reason it is extremely important to use the
comma correctly.
Lesson Objectives
The lesson is designed to inculcate an awareness of:
 how to use the comma to create clearer meaning in writing
 the six most important places to use the comma
 the instances that the comma should not be left in writing
2.1 The comma should always be used where two independent clauses in a sentence are linked by a
coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. For example,
A rabbit’s foot may bring good luck to you, but it brought little to the rabbit.
The comma has been omitted in these sentences, and so they are incorrect.
i.
The beach is a lot of fun but the mountains are even better.
ii.
All of us went to the movie and we agreed it was enjoyable.
iii. I needed a pair of winter socks so I went to the mall to get some.
iv.
There are no dangerous animals in the national park or so our guide tells us.
v.
He could have married for status to please his family yet he chose love and lost his inheritance.
2.2 The comma should always be used to separate words, phrases, or clauses in a series of three or more
items.
E.g. It has just occurred to me that in my writing, I must be accurate, creative and imaginative.
These sentences are incorrect.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
I gave them my love my unwavering commitment and my dedication.
We should make sure we exercise eat healthy foods and meditate for physical and spiritual wellness.
In the great wars millions were killed many towns destroyed and huge amounts of money wasted.
People settle where there is good land clean water and reliable transport.
We have destroyed the earth the ozone layer and our polar ice caps.
The results are catastrophic in that habitats have been lost land is barren and there are droughts.
2.3 There should always be a comma between adjectives, each of which modifies the noun individually
e.g.
He was a brilliant, articulate, and forthright speaker.
These sentences would be incorrect.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The car is fast roomy and spacious.
They need to state their position clearly succinctly and concisely.
The accident happened because he was tired sleepy and stressed.
After the storm our dirt road was wet slippery and dangerous.
The place was noisy crowded and dirty.
2.4 There should be a comma to set off a long adverbial clause or phrase coming before a main clause e.g.
When a book about the Literature of the eighteenth century was given by Mr Holbrook to the world, I looked
eagerly in the index for war poetry.
These sentences are incorrect.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
As things stand you have not yet reached the target.
In the final analysis it was not a very impressive presentation.
After we had seen that it was of no use, we left the scene.
Since there was no sign of danger we dismantled the shelters.
Unless we want to miss the train we should get going.
2.5 There should be a comma to set off an introductory verbal phrase e.g.
To see infinity in a grain of sand, one needs vision rather than eye sight
These sentences are incorrect.
i.
To gain respect one needs to conduct oneself in an appropriate manner.
ii.
To conquer challenges in life it is important to mentally shrink them.
iii. To achieve set goals one needs to work out the appropriate steps to the outcome.
iv.
To succeed in life the main principle is to look ahead.
v.
To understand life we need guidance from the wise.
2.6 There should be a comma to set off an absolute phrase in any part of the sentence e.g.
Perhaps we are wasting time, since there is not much rain in winter, in setting up rain shelters.
These sentences are incorrect.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The driver of the car who was not wearing a seat belt was not injured.
Eating unhealthy foods though it might not kill us will lead to illness and disease.
The campus atmosphere though vibrant at times is always scholarly.
Teaching students though challenging at times is a rewarding career.
The special food which has been prepared for the visitors is in the warmer drawer.
Consolidation Activity
Correct all the sentences that are indicated as incorrect in this unit. Just remember to number them correctly
and show the section clearly.
3. USING SMALL LETTERS IN PLACE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
Lesson Objectives
The lesson is designed to inculcate an awareness of:
 The six most important places to place a capital letter
 The implications of using small letters in certain contexts
 The effects that writing in small caps has on meaning in sentences
Capital letters should be used at the beginning of every sentence that you write. There are various other places
in your writing where capital letters are required because if they are replaced by small letters, meaning will be
lost or compromised. At times, it is plain rude to use small letters especially when writing about people in
authority e.g his excellency the president of the republic of south africa.
Lesson Objectives
3.1 You should use capital letters in showing proper names; Andrew Jackson, Texas, England, Oxford and
in showing proper adjectives; Jacksonian, Texan, English, Oxfordian, the titles of books, films and musical
compositions; Eyes Wide Shut, The Bloodline .
He comes from Texas, so he is Texan.
He speaks English, so he must be from England.
These sentences are incorrect
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
horace nimblefingers, the world famous concert pianist, started his programme in the aula concert hall
in pretoria with beethoven’s moonlight.
dr adams, who is professor of mathematics at the university of the western cape, has just been invited to
give a lecture to university students in the united states.
though britain is smaller than france, the two countries fought on and off for years.
we went to watch a movie called dumb and dumber
bonn,madrid,rome, lisbon and paris are capital cities of countries in europe.
3.2 You should use capital letters in showing races, ethnic groups and religions; Caucasian, African,
Catholic; Buddhist, as well as in indicating deity; God, Jehovah, His Word and any other deity.
These sentences are incorrect
I.
II.
III.
IV.
the resources were from Africa so they should have been used for the benefit of Africans.
i used to belong to the catholic faith but now i go to a pentecostal church.
i believe that there is only one god, but other people think there are many gods.
the buddhists believe in interbeing which means that everything under creation is linked.
V.
people should not believe in the bible, but in the truth of his word contained therein.
3.3 You should use capital letters for days and months; Monday, October, as well as holidays; Christmas,
Easter,
These sentences are incorrect
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
the de bruins will be overseas from just after easter until christmas.
december, january and february are very hot months in the cape.
studets in the united states go for summer holidays from may to September.
people think Mondays are blue, but to me every day of the week is joyful.
very soon shops will start holding sales for the christmas season.
3.4 You should use capital letters for courses and subjects; English, Maths, History, Geography.
These sentences are incorrect
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
i was happy to hear that ms keats would be taking us for english poetry.
in primary school, my favourite subject was mathematics.
i am not sure I understand why we should continue to study subjects like history.
there are very few career opportunities for graduates of social work.
mr pillay took us to the ngezi waterworks for our geography excursion.
3.5 You should use capital letters for geographical divisions; the Hudson River, the West, Pike’s Peak, the
Curzon line, the Equator; compass points, East, West, North, South.
These sentences are incorrect
I.
II.
III.
IV.
3.6
the aircraft that fell into the hudson river hit four other cars on the bridge.
the west got its resources from africa during the colonial era.
there is a very high beacon on pike’s peak.
the curzon line divided polish from russian territory after the second world war
V.
the equator is the boundary between the northern and the southern hemispheres of the globe.
You should use a capital letter every time you write the pronoun I even in the middle of a sentence;
e.g. I am what I am, and nothing will ever put me down.
These sentences are incorrect
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
i told them that i would need more time to complete the task
i am in the middle of something important, but i hope to finish quite soon.
they all liked the cookies that i made for the afternoon tea.
i was put in line for the writing award because i was one of a few with the ability to coin interesting
phrases.
it will be a restful day when i finally finish this work.
Consolidation Activity
Correct all the sentences that are indicated as incorrect in this unit. Just remember to number them correctly and
show the section clearly.
4. OMITTING OR MISPLACING THE APOSTROPHE
Lesson objectives
This lesson is designed to inculcate knowledge of
 The two places where the apostrophe is used and how it is used
 How to avoid using the apostrophe in plural nouns
 How to avoid confusing words that sound the same
It is important to remember that the apostrophe is used only in two ways: to show ownership or belonging and
to abbreviate or shorten words. The errors that are common in writing are that people use the apostrophe in
plural nouns that end with an –s, e.g. My fee’s, or in homophones of words that employ the apostrophe such as
You’re car is parked outside, They’re problem is getting worse, or leaving the apostrophe altogether and
changing the meaning of the word or the sentence, e.g. Its important to understand this.
4.1 The apostrophe is used to show possession and there are a few rules to keep in mind.
4.1.1. If the noun is in singular form, the apostrophe should come before the –s
the tree’s leaves (the leaves of one tree)
the boy’s pens (the pens belonging to one boy)
4.1.2. If the noun signifying the owner is in the plural, and ends in –s, the apostrophe comes after the –s.
The trees’ leaves (the leaves of more than one tree)
The boys’ pens (the pens of more than one boy)
4.1.3. If, however, the plural form of the noun does not end in –s, the apostrophe comes before the –s:
The men’s hats (the hats of many men)
The mice’s tails (the tails of several mice)
The children’s uniforms (the uniforms of many children)
4.1.4. If a noun is in the singular and ends in –s,‘s comes after the –s
Mr Jones’s dog (the dog of Mr Jones)
Michael Williams’s drawing (the drawing of Michael Williams)
Mr Richards’s diary (the diary of Mr Richards)
In these cases, it is common to write one –s only.
Mr Richards’ diary.
4.1.5. Where something belongs to more than one person or thing, the apostrophe comes after the last
owner:
The record belongs to Michael and Marcia = Michael and Marcia’s record
The opera composed by Gilbert and Sullivan = Gilbert and Sullivan’s opera
The company belongs to White and De Witt = White and De Witt’s company
These sentences are incorrect.
I.
I know its none of your’re business but I need you’re assistance.
If they’re car gets stuck, they will realise they’re error.
My mum went to buy some face cream’s yesterday.
The principal announced that many of the students owed a lot in school fee’s.
Our dog is fond of chasing it’s tail.
It was Dave’s and Fred’s composition, and we all enjoyed it.
All my cousin’s and my aunt’s were present for the family reunion.
I found my brothers pen under his car seat.
My fathers driver is Mr Smit.
The garage owners first and second wives attended the party.
Miemies Rolls Royce is in the shed.
Abduls car was beaten by Deons in the race.
A drivers license is required to move a vehicle on public roads.
Its unsafe to put ones personal information on the internet.
Half the people who came to my party were not on my friends list.
Its the place I grew up and shared wonderful memories in.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
4.2 The apostrophe is also used to shorten or abbreviate words. (omission)
I’m = I am
you’re = you are
o’clock = of the clock
we’re = we are
they’re = they are
it’s = it is
You will have noticed that the apostrophe takes the place of the letter or letters which have been left out
in the abbreviation.
Read the following sentences.
Fred is in the garden
Mum is lying down
The play is running for a week
Fred’s in the garden
Mum’s lying down
The play’s running for a week
Shortened forms should only be used in specified circumstances where the audience for your writing has
been named, e.g. in writing a letter to your friend, aunt, cousin, and also if the situation is informal. In
spoken English, it is also usual to use shortened forms. Provided below is a table of shortened forms of
words.
I+
I+ am = I’m
You +
We =
They +
+Not
+ No
(exceptions)
+ Have
I + had = I’d
I + shall =I’ll
You + are
= you’re
We + are =
we’re
I + have =
I’ve
You + have
=you’ve
We + have
=we’ve
You +had =you’d
You + will =
you’ll
We + shall
=we’ll
They + are
=they’re
Have + not
=haven’t
Can + not
=can’t
Would +
have =
They + have
=they’ve
Must + not =
mustn’t
Will + not =
won’t
Should +
have
They + had
=they’d
Could + not
=couldn’t
Do + not =don’t
We + had =we’d
Remember:
should/could
They + will
= they’ll
Would + not
=wouldn’t
would’ve
=should’ve
have/NOT
Could/Should/Must
of
This passage has many errors where you need to use the apostrophe.
“I dont believe in wearing seatbelts”, said Tony. “Theyre uncomfortable.” “You wouldnt say that if you had
had Maurices experience,” replied Fatima. “If he hadnt been wearing his belt, hed have been killed”. “What
happened to him?” “He was driving his fathers car to George over the Outeneique Pass. Itd been raining
and the roads were very slippery. His cars tyres skidded on the greasy road and before he knew whatd
happened hed gone over the edge.” “Wasnt there a guard rail?”asked Tony. “I dont know,’’ replied Fatima,
‘but the car rolled down the mountain and landed on its roof. If Maurice hadnt been strapped in, he wouldve
been thrown out when the drivers door burst open . As it was, he was shaken up, but he wasnt injured at all”.
“it mustve given him a nasty shock, though”, said Tony.
“All right, youve convinced me. Ill wear my seatbelt when Im driving from now on”
These shortened forms should, however, be avoided in formal, written English, e.g. an application
letter, a business proposal, any business correspondence, an essay, a research paper, a dissertation.
5.
LEAVING THE FULL STOP OUT OR PLACING IT IN WRONG
CONTEXTS.
The Full Stop
Lesson Objectives
This lesson is designed to inculcate an awareness of
 The four places where a full stop is used
 The common errors that occur in the use of the full stop
 The various methods that should be used to identify a full sentence
The main function of full stops, or periods, is to mark the end of sentences. All sentences should be terminated
with a full stop. Unfortunately, some people have difficulty in deciding when the sentence has come to an end.
The most common error is to write sentences that are fused together with no punctuation, or which are joined by
a comma. The comma splice and fused sentence were dealt with in another unit. The full stop, like the comma,
is an underappreciated piece of punctuation. Using this piece of punctuation wrongly can completely destroy
meaning in a sentence.
5.1 The full stop is used to mark the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. A declarative sentence is
one that states a simple fact or argument:
The Green Bay Packers are a football team from Wisconsin.
My brother is a doctor, and his wife works under him.
During the past six months, her life has been miserable.
An imperative sentence is one that gives a command:
Go to the store and buy a loaf of bread.
Take charge of your work and your life.
5.2 The period, another full stop, is used to mark the end of a declarative sentence, or an imperative that
issues its command mildly rather than forcefully e.g.
If a man holds up a mirror to your nature and shows you that it needs washing – not whitewashing - it is no use
breaking the mirror. Go for soap and water.
I keep reliving that moment. Over and over again
5.3 Full stops are also used in some abbreviations, for example etc., Dec., orp.m.:
The coffee morning will be held on Thursday 15 Sept. in the Waterfront Restaurant.
There’s a wide range of sandwiches, pies, cakes, etc. at very reasonable prices
Please note that these are not supposed to be used in formal writing.
5.4 The full stop is also used in website and email addresses:
www.history.com
NOTE: If an abbreviation with a full stop comes at the end of a sentence you don’t need to add another
full stop: e.g. N.B.C..
The main reason for failure to identify where to place the full stop is that students have not mastered the rules of
sentence construction. It is important to understand the parts of a sentence. There are some useful ploys that can
be employed though, such as reading the work aloud. If the work is read aloud, it should become apparent
where the full stop should be.
Consolidation Activity
Punctuate the following passage.
uncle john asked fred whether he was interested in farming fred replied that a farm was the only place where he
could ever be happy he added that farming was the life for him uncle john wanted to know if fred was
considering buying a lorry fred replied that he was uncle john also said that he was going to walk to the bottom
lands he asked fred to go with him fred said that by the time he left the natal agricultural college he had learnt
everything about farming that year he had studied various methods of cross breeding and cross pollination he
had also been taught about organic materials and had even been given a brief course on diesel engines he added
that he believed in mixed farming he had taken courses in poultry farming and bee keeping in the previous year
fred concluded by saying that he was sure he would make a success of the career he was going to take up the
guest speaker at the farmers meeting thanked the attendees for giving him the opportunity to express his views
he added that it was a great honour to be amongst such a large gathering of progressive farmers