Chapter 5
Motivation: Concepts and Theoretical
Perspectives
2
The Motivation Process
• Motivation: Forces from within individuals that
stimulate and dive them to achieve goals
• Motivation is a process by which behavior
is:
1. Energized: meaning we have the strength to
keep going even when things aren’t going our
way
2. Directed: meaning the efforts we invest in our
work which also benefits the employer
3. Maintained: meaning our intention to work for
some period of time to achieve objectives
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The Motivation Process
• Motivation is defined as the processes that
account for an individual's intensity, direction,
and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal. The level of motivation varies both
between individuals and within individuals at
different times.
• The importance of motivation
– Job performance (P) depends upon
motivation (M), ability (A), and
environment (E)
 P=M×A×E
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Elements of Motivation
• The three key elements in motivation are :
1.Intensity: It describes how hard a person tries. This
is the element most of us focus on when we talk
about motivation.
2.Direction: High intensity is unlikely to lead to
favorable job-performance outcomes unless the
effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the
organization. Therefore, the quality of effort as well
as its intensity matters. Effort directed toward, and
consistent with, the organization’s goals is the kind
of effort once should be seeking.
3.Persistence: It measures how long a person can
maintain effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task
5
long enough to achieve their goal.
The Motivation Process
This framework provides a useful way to see how motivational
processes occur. When people experience a need deficiency,
they seek ways to satisfy it, which results in a choice of goaldirected behaviors. After performing the behavior, the
individual experiences rewards or punishments that affect the
original need deficiency.
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The Nature of Motivation
• The motivational framework
• How motivational processes occur
 Need: anything an individual requires or wants
 Need deficiency: triggers attempts to satisfy the need
 Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy
their need deficiencies
 Rewards and punishments are consequences of the goaldirected behavior
 Reassessment of need deficiency: an assessment of the
extent to which the outcome addressed the original need
deficiency
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The Nature of Motivation CONT
•
Early perspectives on motivation
– The traditional approach

“Scientific Management”- Approach to motivation that
assumes that employees are motivate by money
– The human relations approach- Suggests that
fostering a sense of employees’ inclusion in decision
making will result in positive employee attitudes and
motivation to work hard
– The human resource approach - Assumes that people
want to contribute and are able to make genuine
contributions
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Needs Theories
• Needs motivation theories are divided into two
categories:
Content theories explain why people have different needs at
different times and how these needs motivate behavior. In
other words, what are the types of factors that motivate
people? There are four main content theories: Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s
need theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
Process theories describe the cognitive processes through
which needs are translated into behavior. Simply put, process
theories look at how our needs drive, influence, and
sustain our behavior. The process theories we investigate in
this chapter are equity theory, goal-setting theory, and
expectancy theory.
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Needs Theories
• Content Theories:
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Physiological, safety,
love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization
• ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs,
growth needs
• Herzberg’s two-factor theory: Hygiene factors and
motivators
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Needs Theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs consists of five
basic categories of needs.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a content
theory. Maslow’s hierarchy is based on the
belief that successfully accomplishing the lower
level needs leads to the achievement of higher
level needs such as gaining confidence, selfesteem, and finally self-actualization.
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
theory in the workplace
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Two-factor theory OR called
Motivation-hygiene theory
• Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg
when he investigated the question, “What do
people want from their jobs?”
• Herzberg asked people to describe situations
in which they felt exceptionally good or bad
about their jobs. These responses were then
tabulated and categorized.
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Two-factor theory OR called
Motivation-hygiene theory
•
The two-factor theory
–
–
Identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction,
and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction
Development of the Theory


Motivation factors — Are intrinsic to the work itself and
include factor such as achievement an recognition
Hygiene factors — Are extrinsic to the work itself and
include factors such as pay and job security
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Needs Theories
Two-factor theory OR called
Motivation-hygiene theory
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Needs Theories
Two-factor theory OR called
Motivation-hygiene theory
The traditional view of satisfaction
suggested that satisfaction and
dissatisfaction were opposite ends of
a single dimension. Herzberg’s Two
Factor theory found evidence of a
more complex view. In this theory,
motivation
factors
affect
one
dimension, ranging from satisfaction
to no satisfaction. Other workplace
characteristics,
called
“hygiene
factors,” are assumed to affect
another dimension, ranging from
dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.
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Needs Theories
McClelland’s acquired needs theory
• Content Theories:
• McClelland’s acquired needs theory: needs shaped over
time
– Centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation,, and
power.
– need for achievement

The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively
than was done in the past
– need for affiliation

The need for human companionship
– need for power

The desire to control the resources in one’s
environment
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Needs Theories
ERG theory
• ERG theory
– Describes existence (E), relatedness (R),
and growth (G) needs
– Assumptions
 More than one need may motivate a
person at the same time
 Satisfaction-progression and frustrationregression components
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Needs Theories
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Needs Theories
• Money as a motivator
• Money sits with lower level needs.
• Money is not the most important or effective
motivator.
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Process-Based Perspectives on
Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory
• Developed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham
• Human performance is directed by conscious
goals and intentions.
• Employees are motivated by:
• Clear goals
• Appropriate feedback
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Goal-Setting Theory
• Specific goals (S.M.A.R.T.): Research has shown that
people respond more to clear, well-defined goals, and
produce better results than vague, or “Do Your Best,”
goals
• Difficult goals: Researchers found that goals set at a
high but not unreasonable level of difficulty produce better
results than less challenging or easier goals
• Goal acceptance and commitment: Employees who
accept and commit to goals set by or developed in
participation with their managers have higher levels of
performance and are more motivated to achieve the
objectives
• The Goldilocks Rule: The Goldilocks theory states that
goals should fall somewhere in the middle in terms of
difficulty (just right) in order to be achievable
• Feedback: Goals that are accompanied by regular
feedback are more likely to motivate employees.
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Goal Setting Theory
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Equity Theory
• Motivation is based on our perception of how fairly
we are being treated in comparison with others.
• Fair = more motivation
• Unfair = demotivated
• O/I ratio (outcome/inputs)
• People tend to compare their own perceived O/I
ratio to their perceptions of the0 O/I ratio of referent
others, or people whose situation is comparable to
their own. As long as the ratios are similar, there is
no problem, but someone who perceives the other
person’s ratio as greater than his or her own will feel
an inequity.
Q. Examine equity theory in the context of
organizational justice and distinguish among the
predictable outcomes of perceived inequity
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Equity Theory
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Responses to Perceptions of
Equity and Inequity
People
form
equity
perceptions by comparing
their situation with that of
someone else’s. If they
perceive equity, they are
motivated to maintain the
current situation. If they
perceive inequity, they are
motivated to use one or
more of the strategies shown
here to reduce the inequity.
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Equity Theory
• Change inputs: Unmotivated because you find out your coworker with the
same job makes more than you so you slack off; as a manager in this
situation, you need to find out what your employee thinks is unfair and
restore their perception of fairness.
• Attempt to change outcomes: You find out you are underpaid so you talk
to your manager and ask for a raise.
• Carry out cognitive reevaluation: Finding out your coworker earned an
MBA which changes how you perceive their inputs.
• -Attempts to change inputs or outcomes: Asking your manager to cut
their pay to match yours or asking coworkers who make more than you to
increase their inputs (these are not realistic).
• Pick another “other:” Choose a coworker who has a more similar
educational or experience level with whom to compare yourself.
• Leave the field: If inequity is so severe, employees will quit.
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Equity Theory
• Organizational justice: What people perceive as fairness in
workplace practices
• There are four main kinds of organizational justice:
distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational.
• Distributive justice is the degree to which people perceive
outcomes to be fairly allocated. For example, employees doing
the same job as others expect to be compensated equally.
• Procedural justice is the degree to which people perceive the
implementation of company policies and procedures to be fair.
• Interpersonal justice refers to the level of dignity, politeness,
and respect employees receive by supervisors during change
implementation.
• Informational justice refers to the degree of access people
are given to information and the explanations provided to
convey that information regarding why certain decisions are
being made.
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Expectancy Theory
•
The expectancy theory of motivation
– Expectancy theory — Suggests that People are
motivated by how much they want something and
the likelihood they perceive of getting it
– Key components
•Effort-to performance expectancy
•The perceived probability that effort will lead to
performance
•Performance-to-outcome expectancy
•The perceived probability that performance will lead to
certain outcomes
•Outcome
•Anything that results from performing a behavior
•Valence
•The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value)
that a particular outcome has for a person
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The Basic Expectancy Model
•
The Basic Expectancy Model
– Victor Vroom is generally credited with first
applying the theory to motivation in the workplace
– The model’s general components are effort (the
result of motivated behavior), performance, and
outcomes.
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Expectancy Theory
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Expectancy Theory
• The expectancy theory is the most complex
model of employee motivation in organizations.
the key components of expectancy theory are
effort-to-performance expectancy, performance
to- outcome instrumentality, and outcomes,
each of which has an associated valence.
These components interact with effort, the
environment, and the ability to determine an
individual’s performance
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Chapter 7
Teams
35
The Difference Between
Teams and Groups
• Successful organizations value and understand
teams
• Teams help organizations meet growing demands
of customers
• Decentralization promotes creativity and innovation
• Collaboration also promotes creativity; can happen
in person or remotely
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The Difference Between
Teams and Groups
• Teams and groups have subtle differences
• A group usually consists of three or more people who
work independently to attain organizational goals
• Teams consist of a number of people, usually between three and
seven, who use their complementary skills to collaborate in a joint
effort.
Q: Distinguish between teams and groups
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Are Teams Effective?
• Effectiveness depends on management
• Most effective team members:
•
•
•
•
Are clear about their goals and roles
Attach personal meaning to their work
Understand the impact of their work
Have psychological safety: which is a shared
belief held by team members whether it is safe
enough to trust each other well enough to take
risks.
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Are Teams Effective?
• Psychological safety benefits include:
• Open communication
• Knowledge sharing
• Greater reporting of errors
• Improved learning behaviors
• Ability to learn from failure
• Increased creativity
While psychological safety may sound similar to trust,
there is an important difference. Trust focuses on how one
person might perceive another, but psychological safety is
more focused on how team members perceive the
behaviors of the team as a whole.
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Are Teams Effective?
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Are Teams Effective?
• How to build an effective team:
• 1. Nurture relationships: It’s not always easy to get along
with everybody on the team, but investing in relationships
builds trust and loyalty--both of which are key to a highperforming team.
• 2. Honest Feedback: Some leaders tend to shy away from
giving “bad news” or negative feedback. Learning how to
give honest feedback is a skill, but one that must be adopted
to cultivate a culture of openness.
• 3. Identify common goals: Effective leaders identify and
prioritize common goals to solidify the team--the message
being that the team will only succeed if everyone works
together. However, teams can fail if they are mismanaged; if
they are not implemented properly, they can cause more
harm than good.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
• Tuckman’s Five Stages of Becoming a Team:
•
•
•
•
•
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjourning
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
• Forming: Meet together for the first time and
discuss what lies ahead
• Storming: Tensions arise and conflict occurs
• Norming: Resolve conflict and become
cohesive
• Performing: Team becomes invested
• Adjourning: Successful completion of project
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
• Team norms and cohesion
• Norms are ground rules that impact team functioning.
• The effectiveness of many teams depends on it
norms, or the informal rules of behavior that govern
the team.
• Team norms can be more important than team smarts
when it came to successfully completing an
assignment.
• Teams that adhere to norms are more cohesive.
• Too much cohesion can have negative impact. 45
A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
• Cohesion is the degree to which team members
connect with each other. A cohesive team is more
motivated, communicates better, and reports
higher levels of satisfaction than less cohesive
teams.
• An overly cohesive team may be prone to
inflexibility or resistance to change. It may also
limit team members’ ability to express their own
personal thoughts and feelings for fear of upsetting
the group dynamic. Too much cohesion can also
lead to lack of accountability and decision making.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
• Team charters:
• A charter is a type of document that outlines the
purpose of the team, the benefits of the project, the
required objectives, and expected timeframe.
• Ensure good communication
• Create positive work cohesion
• Should be created in early stages of team formation
Managers are responsible for ensuring that team
members have been given clear direction and feel
confident enough in their roles in order to achieve
the goals of the project described in the charter
efficiently and effectively.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
• Teams perform better when they have good
synergy.
• More committed to goals
• Apply diverse skills and abilities to tasks
• Willingness to share information and knowledge
• Process gains: which are the degree to which
certain factors contribute to team effectiveness
• Social facilitation: which occurs when
individuals perform tasks better in the
presence of others, can contribute to group
effectiveness.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
• Bad team synergy can lead to toxic negativity
• One member can impact entire team
• Process losses :the factors that detract from team
effectiveness. Process losses include personality clashes or
unproductive conflict; and the inability to focus on certain
tasks.
• Social loafing : also known as “free riding” which is the reduced
effort people exert in a team compared to the amount they supply
when working independently.
• Cyberloafing : is also a process loss, or accessing the internet for
personal use while pretending to be working, such as checking
Facebook or playing YouTube videos.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Processes and Outcomes
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Types of Teams
Four Types of Teams
Q. Compare the various types of teams in organizations
today
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Types of Teams
• Virtual teams: is a group of
individuals who work together
from
different
geographic
locations
and
rely
on
communication technology such
e-mail,
video
conferencing,
instant messaging, and other
electronic media, to collaborate.
• Virtual teams save on travel
costs--communication
and
cultural
understanding
are
important
to
operating
a
successful virtual team.
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Types of Teams
• Self-managing: is a group of workers who manage
their own daily duties under little to no supervision
• Grow faster, more productive
• Can struggle with internal conflict and trust
• Problem-solving: consists of a small group of
workers who come together for a set amount of time
to discuss and resolve specific issues.
• Cognitively diverse teams are best for this type of team
• Cross-functional: is comprised of a group of workers
from different units with various areas of expertise to
work on certain projects.
• Can be effective in small and large companies
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
• Team contextual influences:
• Team resources
• Task characteristics:
• Organizational systems and structures
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
• Team resources
adequate resources are needed. All work teams
rely on resources outside the group to sustain it.
Lack of resources impedes the team’s ability to
do their work, so it’s imperative that
organizations support their team with the right
amount of funding and tools for the job.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
• Task characteristics
Interdependence is the extent to which team
members rely on each other to complete their work
tasks.
• There are three levels of interdependence:
• Pooled interdependence occurs when each team
member produces a piece of work independently of
the others.
• Sequential interdependence takes place when one
team member completes a piece of work and passes
it on to the next member for his or her input, as on an
assembly line.
• Reciprocal interdependence happens when team
members work closely together on a piece of work,
consulting with each other, providing each other with
advice, and exchanging information.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
• Organizational systems and structures
• Team members should always agree on the work that
is to be done and who is doing it. Team members
should all contribute equally and share the workload,
they should determine schedules, any training
needed and so on. If they are a self-managed team,
they can agree by whatever means they determined
decisions might be made, and move on to next steps.
Teams don’t have to have leaders, but if they do, they
should be careful not to obstruct progress and expect
great things from this team.
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
• Team composition depends on:
• Size : A recent study by management consulting firm
Bain shows that decision-making effectiveness is
reduced by 10% when more than seven people join a
team.
• Skills and abilities: It’s the way talent interacts in the
context of team processes that brings results.
• Personalities Teams typically need a balance between
extraverts and introverts
• Diversity of its members: Ensuring diversity on a
team can be a challenge.
• ASA model
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A Model of Team Effectiveness:
Context and Composition
Psychologist Benjamin Schneider’s attractionselection-attrition (ASA) model (see Figure 7.8)
states that people are functions of three
interrelated
dynamic processes: attraction, selection, and
attrition, all of which influence organizational
culture.
This theory explains why team members who
are perceived as sharing similarities are
selected as a good “fit,” while those who do not
fit in tend to leave the team. However, there
must be a balance between diversity and
similarity, because too many people behaving in
a similar way can stunt growth and have a
negative effect on insight and creativity due to
the lack of unique viewpoints.
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Team Decision-Making
• One approach to team decision-making is the
concept of brainstorming, which is generating creative,
spontaneous ideas from all members of a group without
making any initial criticism or judgment of them. Studies
have shown groups who brainstorm together are less
productive--try brainstorming alone at first.
• Brainstorming alone: is a useful way of coming up with
new, creative ideas without being influenced by the
group. Once everyone brainstorms alone, they can get
together to compare and build off of ideas.
• Slow down the creative process: Some members want
to skip brainstorming in order to reach closure but
slowing down the creative process helps ensure enough
ideas are generated to find the right solution to the
problem.
• Start drawing: Drawing is useful because it helps
describe ideas that are difficult to explain in words, and
also appeals to part of the brain dedicated to visual
processing. It is also helpful to include words in sketches
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or diagrams to aid interpretation.
Team Decision-Making
• The nominal group technique is a structured way for
team members to generate ideas and identify
solutions. Each member is asked the same question in
relation to a work issue and requested to write down as
many solutions as possible. Answers are read aloud
and recorded for discussion. Then the ideas are put to
the vote. Useful for bigger groups.
• The Delphi technique is a method of decision-making
in which information is gathered from a group of
respondents within their area of expertise.
Questionnaires are sent to a select group of experts,
whose responses are collated and reviewed, and then
a summary is returned to the group with a follow-up
questionnaire. Again, the experts provide their
answers. The process continues until the group agrees
on a common answer and a decision is reached.
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Team Decision-Making
• Advantages of team decision-making:
• Increased staff engagement
• Consensus decisions
• Better decisions
• Disadvantages of team decision-making:
• Time-consuming meetings
• Group think: One important factor that can
negatively affect team decision making is
groupthink, a psychological phenomenon in which
people in a cohesive group go along with the group
consensus rather than offering their own opinions.
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Chapter 12
Leadership Perspectives
What Is Leadership?
• A process of providing general direction from a
position of influence to individuals or groups
toward the successful attainment of goals
“As a leader, it’s a major responsibility on your
shoulders to practice the behavior you want
others to follow.”
—Himanshu Bhatia, Rose International, Inc
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Formal and Informal
Leadership
• Formal Leaders: A formal leader is officially
designated by the organization, such as when
the board of directors appoints a CEO.
• Informal Leaders: An informal leader does not
receive a title but is perceived by others as a
leader.
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Formal and Informal
Leadership
• Leadership: Creating a vision, introducing
change and movement, and influencing others
to achieve goals.
• Managers: Maintain the status quo, promote
stability, and ensure the smooth running of
operations.
• Not all managers are leaders.
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Formal and Informal
Leadership
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Basic Leadership Types
Four distinct types of leadership behavior, originally proposed by
Charles C. Manz and Henry P. Sims, Jr., and later refined by other
leadership theorists, are directive leadership, transactional
leadership, visionary leadership, and empowering leadership
(also known as “superleadership”):
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Early Leadership Perspectives
• Trait Leadership Perspective
• Behavioral Leadership Perspective
• Contingency Leadership
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Model
• House’s Path-Goal Theory
• Substituted for Leadership Model
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Early Leadership Perspectives
• The trait leadership perspective is a theory
that explores the relationship among leaders,
personal qualities, and characteristics and the
way their traits differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
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Early Leadership Perspectives
Behavioral Leadership Perspective
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Early Leadership Perspectives
Behavioral Leadership Perspective: Ohio State
University Studies
• Initiating Structure: is a behavior demonstrated
by leaders who define the roles of the
employees, set clear guidelines and
procedures, and establish distinct patterns of
organization and communication
• Consideration: is a behavior demonstrated by
leaders who develop mutual trust and respect
and actively build interpersonal relationships
with their followers.
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Early Leadership Perspectives
Behavioral Leadership Perspective: University of
Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert 1950)
• Job-Centered Leadership Style: a behavioral
leadership style that emphasizes employee
tasks and the methods used to accomplish
them
• Employee-Centered Leadership Style: a
behavioral leadership style that emphasizes
the personal needs of employees and the
development of interpersonal relationships
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Early Leadership Perspectives
Robert R. Blake and Jane S.
Mouton
Leadership grid, an approach that
plots concern for production on the
horizontal axis and concern for people
on the vertical axis. Each axis is a scale,
with 1 representing the least concern
and 9 the most. The five leadership
styles are: country club, produce or
perish, impoverished, middle of the
road, and team leader.
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Early Leadership Perspectives
• Leaders who get a low score for production and a high score
for people are known as “country club” leaders.
• “Produce or Perish” leaders emphasize production over
people and lead with an authoritarian rule, using punishment
as a motivator.
• “Impoverished” leaders have very little concern for
production or for people, which means they are ineffective for
the most part.
• Leaders who are “middle-of-the road” appear to have
achieved the right balance between concern for people and
concern for production, but this requires compromise; the
problem with compromise is that the needs of both factions are
not fully met, resulting in an average performance.
• Finally, the “team leader” rates production needs and people
needs equally highly. According to the Blake-Mouton model,
the team leader is the ideal leader, because he or she creates
an environment in which teams are motivated and committed
to furthering the success of the organization, leading to high
production and satisfied employees.
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Early Leadership Perspectives
• The Fiedler contingency model: effective group performance
depends upon the proper match between the leader’s style of
interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the
situation gives control to the leader.
– The least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire:
 The purpose to measure whether a leader is Task- or
relationship-oriented.
 Assumes leadership style is fixed.
 The scale asks you to think about the person who you've
least enjoyed working with. This can be a person who
you've worked with in your job, or in education or training.
 The questionnaire contains 16 contrasting adjectives (such as
pleasant-unpleasant, efficient-inefficient, open-guarded,
supportive-hostile).
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Fiedler contingency model
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Fiedler contingency model
• Defining the Situation
– Contingency dimensions:
 Leader–member relations—the degree of confidence,
trust, and respect members have in their leader.
 Task structure—the degree to which the job
assignments are procedural.
 Position power—the degree of influence a leader has
over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline,
promotions, and salary increases.
The next step is to evaluate the situation in terms of these three
contingency variables. Leader–member relations are either good
or poor. Task structure is either high or low. Position power is
either strong or weak. Fiedler states the better the leader–member
relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the
position power, the more control the leader has.
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Early Leadership Perspectives
(Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership Model)
• Developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard,
The Situational Leadership Model proposes
that leaders should adapt their leadership
style based on the types of people (readiness)
they are leading and the requirements of the
task.16 Drawing from the findings of the Ohio
State studies, Hersey and Blanchard applied
concepts similar to “initiating structure” and
“consideration” to the following four main
leadership styles:
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Early Leadership Perspectives
(Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Model)
• Telling (S1): Telling is a directive approach in which leaders give
clear instructions and guidance to followers, informing them exactly
how and when to complete the task. This leadership style works best
within environments that have high initiating structure and low
consideration, where the completion of the task takes precedence
over the relationship with employees.
• Selling (S2): Leaders who adopt the selling style provide support to
followers through communicating and “selling” the goals of the task in
order to gain commitment. This style is appropriate for issues with
high initiating structure and high consideration.
• Participating (S3): Leaders and followers work together and share
in the decision-making responsibilities of the task in the participating
style. It works best in situations where there is low initiating structure
and high consideration.
• Delegating (S4): Leaders give most of the responsibility to followers
in the delegating style yet still monitor progress. Delegating occurs in
instances of low initiating structure and low consideration.
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Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Model
• Posits four stages follower readiness:
– The term readiness refers to the extent to which
people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a
specific task.
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Early Leadership Perspectives
House’s Path Goal Theory
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Early Leadership Perspectives
House’s Path Goal Theory
Leaders should motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals
The leader’s style should correspond to:
The characteristics (needs) of the subordinates and
The work setting (environment).
Theory suggests that effective leaders motivate workers
to achieve by:
1) Clearly identifying the outcomes workers are trying to
achieve.
2) Reward workers for high-performance and attainment.
3) Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals.
4) Remove obstacles
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Early Leadership Perspectives
• House describes how leadership effectiveness is influenced by the interaction
between the four main leadership styles:
• Directive leadership--Leadership behavior characterized by implementing
guidelines, managing expectations, setting definite performance standards, and
ensuring that individuals follow rules. This type of leadership is appropriate in the
military, where commands are expected to be followed immediately and without
question.
• Supportive leadership--A type of leadership behavior characterized by friendliness
and concern for the welfare of others. For example, a leader might work with
followers struggling with a task until they feel empowered enough to carry out the
task themselves.
• Participative Leadership--Leadership behavior that consists of consulting with
followers and considering their input in decision making. For example, a marketing
leader might gather his or her followers to collect input about the possibility of
launching a new product or taking a product off the market.
• Achievement-oriented leadership--Leadership behavior characterized by setting
challenging goals, improving performance, and assisting in employee training. This
style of leadership is often used by football quarterbacks, who are expected to direct
the team to perform certain plays at the right time in order to win the game.
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Early Leadership Perspectives
Substitutes for Leadership Model:
• Proposes that certain characteristics of individuals,
the job, and/or the organization can act as
substitutes for leadership or neutralize leadership
impact altogether.
• neutralizing
means
replacing
leadership
attributes that do not affect followers’ outcomes.
• A team that is well-run, experienced, and
organized might substitute for or neutralize the
need for a task-oriented leader because the
team already knows how to carry out the
requirements of their roles
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
• Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
• Transformational leadership
• Charismatic leadership
• Follower-Centered Leadership Perspective
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Contemporary Theories of
Leadership (1 of 12)
Exhibit 12-2 Leader–Member Exchange Theory from
Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives (Leadership–Member Exchange
(LMX) Theory)
• The Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) theory20 builds on the idea that
leaders develop different relationships with different followers. The
quality of the relationship determines whether the leader (often
subconsciously) places the follower in the “In-Group Exchange” or the
“Out-Group Exchange.”
• In-group exchange: Typically, team members who are loyal,
trustworthy, and skilled have high-quality relationships with leaders. The
leader devotes more attention to this In-Group, assigns challenging
tasks, and often spends more one-to-one time with members. People in
this group are given more opportunities for growth and advancement
and often mirror the leader’s work ethic and characteristics.
• Out-Group exchange: People who are perceived to be incompetent,
unmotivated, untrustworthy team members have low-quality
relationships with their leaders. Leaders tend to assign simple, limited
tasks to this group, communicate with them only when necessary, and
often withhold opportunities for growth or advancement.
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
• Transactional leader: rewards or disciplines
followers based on performance.
• Transformational leader: inspires employees to
transcend their self-interests for the good of the
organization and commit to a shared vision,
while also serving as a role model.
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
The four dimensions of transformational leadership
are idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual
stimulation,
and
individualized
consideration.
• Idealized influence (also referred to as charisma) is behavior
that gains the admiration, trust, and respect of followers.
• Inspirational motivation promotes commitment to a shared
vision of the future.
• Intellectual stimulation encourages people to view problems
from a different perspective and to think about innovative and
alternative ways to address them.
• Individualized consideration creates mutual respect or trust
and a genuine concern for the needs and desires of others.
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
laissez-faire leadership, in which a leader fully delegates
responsibility to others. This type of leader has little
involvement with followers, almost no control over the task, and
little interest in making decisions unless forced into it. Investor
Warren Buffett is an example of a laissez-faire leader, who
prefers to give his management teams a lot of freedom to make
decisions rather than monitoring them to any great degree.
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
Charismatic Leadership
• charismatic leadership, which is the ability of
a leader to use his or her personality or charm
to inspire, motivate, and acquire loyalty and
commitment from employees.
• Place more emphasis on their own needs and
interests and become caught up in their own
hype.
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
Follower-Centered Leadership Perspective
• Followership is the capacity of individuals to
cooperate with leaders. The theory that studies
it stems from cognitive categorization theory,
which explores the idea that people tend to
label others on the basis of a first impression.
• The Follower-Centered Leadership Perspective
focuses on how followers view leaders and
how they view themselves.
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Contemporary Leadership
Perspectives
• There are two types of theories in this approach: implicit
leadership theories and implicit followership theories.
• According to implicit leadership theories, we have a natural
tendency to apply certain traits and attributes to others to
determine whether they are leaders, such as charismatic,
attractive, intelligent, dedicated, tyrannical, and strong. These traits
are called leadership prototypes and are behaviors we associate
with leadership.
• According to implicit followership theories, we have
preconceived notions about the types of behaviors that leaders
believe characterize followers and non-followers. Common
prototypes ascribed to good followers include enthusiasm,
industriousness, and being a good citizen. Ineffective or nonfollowers are seen as easily influenced, arrogant, uneducated,
slow, inexperienced, and rude. Like Leader-Member Exchange
(LMX) theory, which is build on the idea that leaders develop
different relationships with different followers, followership theories
show that opinions based on first impressions or very quick
judgments can prejudice our views of others and create negativity
within the group.
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Power-Distributing Leadership
Perspectives
The concept of “distributed leadership” has grown in
popularity over the last few years and serves as an
alternative to those theories that have focused on
leadership traits, characteristics, and behaviors.
Instead, distributed leadership calls for sharing the
power and influence within organizations. Let us return
to our case to further explore the three main facets of
power-distributing leadership: empowering, shared, and
self-leadership.
Q:Discuss
the
power-distributing
leadership
perspectives of empowering, shared, and selfleadership
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Power-Distributing Leadership
Perspectives
Empowering leadership:
• The practice of delegating power that
motivates employees and inspires them to
achieve goals
• Leading by example, coaching, participative
decision-making
• Informing
• Showing concern
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Power-Distributing Leadership
Perspectives
Shared leadership:
Shared
leadership
occurs when two or
more
members
engage
in
the
leadership of the
team in an effort to
influence and direct
fellow members to
maximize
team
effectiveness
(Bergman, Rentsch,
Small, Davenport &
Organizational Behavior, 2e. ©
Bergman, 2012). Neck, SAGE
Publishing, 2020.
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Power-Distributing Leadership
Perspectives
Self-Leadership
• A process whereby people intentionally influence their thinking
and behavior to achieve their objectives. In other words, people
can deliberately guide themselves toward attaining favorable
outcomes.
• Three main categories
• Behavior-focused strategies: are targeted toward increasing our selfawareness and managing our own conduct. They include selfobservation, self-goal setting, self-reward, self-correcting feedback, and
self-cueing.
• Natural reward strategies: help us to find pleasure in certain aspects of
our roles, leading to an enhanced sense of competence, self-discipline,
and application.
• Constructive thought pattern strategies: focus on the modification of
certain key mental processes.
Mental imagery is one strategy we can use to shape our
thought processes, by visualizing the successful attainment of the
goal before we begin. This is a common technique among top
athletes; for example, Brazilian footballer Ronaldinho uses
mental imagery to prepare for a game and to plan his strategy
on
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the pitch.
Values-Based Leadership
Perspectives
Authentic Leadership
• A pattern of leadership behavior based on
honesty, practicality, and ethicality
• focused on empowering their employees,
forming meaningful relationships an trust, and
fostering an ethical environment.
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Values-Based Leadership
Perspectives
Spiritual Leadership
• A values-based style of leadership that motivates
employees through faith, hope, and vision and
encourages positive social emotions such has
forgiveness and gratitude.
• The concept of spirituality is not necessarily
connected with religion; rather it is communicated
in the workplace through shared values, attitudes,
and behaviors.
• . Spiritual leaders use their charisma to unite
followers and to encourage them to view their
roles as an opportunity for growth and meaningful
contribution.
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Values-Based Leadership
Perspectives
Servant Leadership
• A pattern of leadership that places an emphasis on employees
and the community rather than on the leader
• Servant leaders share their power and tend to “lead from
behind,” ensuring the team (not the leader) receives recognition
for hard work.Servant leaders are empathic and perceptive.
• They are usually empathic, good listeners, perceptive, and
committed to growth in the organization and the community.
Servant leadership has been connected with high morale, loyalty,
and ethics.
• EXAMPLE
• Richard Murphy (1944-2013) is a good example of a servant
leader. Murphy, at one time New York City’s commissioner of
youth services, founded the Harlem Children’s Zone in New York
and created numerous other community learning centers to serve
thousands of city students after school hours. He was also the
innovator of ground-breaking ideas such as a youth helpline.
Uninterested in earning profit or being in the public eye, Murphy
was primarily motivated to ensure the well-being of children in
disadvantaged areas. Behind the scenes, he championed and
supported other leaders and spent his life fighting for social
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change.
Values-Based Leadership
Perspectives
Ethical Leadership
• A means of influencing others through personal
values, morals, and beliefs.
• Importance of honesty, accountability, and
fairness
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Cross-Cultural Leadership
• The process of leading across different cultures
• Cross-cultural Leadership Dimensions:
• Charismatic/value-based: dimension captures the leader’s capacity
to inspire, motivate, and expect high-performance outcomes from
others.
• Team-oriented: highlights effective team building and the
implementation of a common purpose or goal among team members.
• Participative: dimension describes the extent to which managers
engage others in making and implementing decisions.
• Humane-oriented: dimension signifies supportive, considerate
compassionate and generous leadership was thought to be only a
moderate contributor to outstanding leadership across all the
cultures.
• Autonomous: describes independent and individualistic leadership.
Unlike the other dimensions, autonomous leadership is thought to
impede or only slightly facilitate outstanding leadership.
• Self-Protective: dimension describes the self-interests of the leader
in terms of face-saving, safety, and security and is generally reported
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to inhibit outstanding leadership.
Cross-Cultural Leadership
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Leadership and Gender
• Causes of inequality
•
•
•
•
Leadership style and expectations
Family and career demands
Professional networks
Discrimination and stereotypes
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Leadership and Gender
Ways to Challenge Patterns of Inequality:
• Minimize prejudice and
adjust culture
• Adjust evaluation
process
• Adopt open-recruitment
methods
• Redress the balance
• Encourage networking
• Keep the doors open
• Provide management
opportunities
• Establish family-friendly
practices
• Encourage men to use
family-friendly benefits
• Allow time to achieve
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