Page |1
What makes the Middle Ages theologically interesting?
The Middle Ages describe the period between the fall of the Roman empire and the
Renaissance period. It is often characterised by wars not just between countries but also
instigated by faiths as the case of the crusades. It was also an illuminating time for some to
challenge the existence and norms of the church as was the rise of the reformists.
After the fall of the Roman empire, no nation or government could unite the people
who lived on the European continent. Instead, the Catholic Church became the
most powerful institution of the medieval period which due to its elevated power
and influence on both economics and the society took this role . In fact kings,
queens and other nobility derived much of their power from their alliances with
and protection of the Church 5 .
The clergy and monarchy worked together to regulate beliefs and behaviour. During the
Middle Ages, the Church prosecuted heretics, sinners, and clerical offenders alike, both
through its system of ecclesiastical courts and through institutions such as the Inquisition. Sin
and crime were not distinct in the early Middle Ages, as they offended God and man alike
hence keeping with the view of Theo centricity. Theo Centricity puts God in the centre of life
where God is the foundation of everything and in charge of all things. Medieval Theology is
radically theocentric.8 Such an approach to theology stems from how theologians conceived
human rationality for they pointed to intelligence not just from a point of reason but also from
an intellectual side.
“If reason is to be rational it has to have an openness
towards that which transcends reason; and reason
transcends itself by becoming intellect” 8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A Brief history of apologetics, Bible.org, accessed 09/01/2022
https://bible.org/seriespage/2-brief-history-apologetics#P69_36939
Alistair E McGrath Christian Theology an introduction 5th Ed 2011 Oxford United Kingdom Wiley Blackwell.
Avery Cardinal Dulles 1999 A History of apologetics Ignatius Press San Franscisco.
Britanica, Apologetics, accessed 19th December 2021
https://www.britannica.com/topic/apologetics
Introduction to Historical Theology, The Middle Ages and the Renaissance (c. 500 – 1500)
apuritisanmind.com, accessed 19th December 2021 Introduction to Historical Theology – The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
(c. 500-1500) Reformed Theology at A Puritan's Mind (apuritansmind.com)
Philip Edgumbe Hughes, Calvinism in Great Britain Today, Christianity Today Volume 3 No 9 February 16, 1959 accessed 02nd
January 2022
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1959/february-16/calvinism-in-great-britain-today.html
Modern European History Lecture 5 The Catholic Reformation, historyguide.org accessed
22 nd December 2021
http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture5c.html.
Rik Van Nieuwenhoven 2014 An Introduction to Medieval Theology, United Kingdom 2014 2nd Ed Cambridge Press.
Shari Boodts Augustine and the Master of the Sentences Medievalists.net, accessed 20th December 2021
https://www.medievalists.net/2019/03/augustine-master-sentences/
Page |2
A number of key theological developments occurred during medieval times. First, there was
the consolidation of the Patristic Heritage of which Peter Lombard’s Sentences was a
compilation of patristic quotations and was the most widely theological book read during that
time. Secondly, the exploration of the role of reason in theology took a turn to organize and
expand what Christian theology was all about. Here one encounters the theory of method
emerging, and the initiation of the term “apologetics”.3 Apologetics refer to the intellectual
defence of the truth of the Christian religion. During these times, the focus of the apologetics
was on the superiority of the Christian religion over other religions particularly Judaism and
Islam. However, Thomas Aquinas developed an influential defence of belief in God based on
the theories of the philosopher Aristotle “first cause” of the universe.8
Thirdly, there was the increasing development of theological systems emerging. These were
considered by scholastics as “cathedrals of the mind.” Etienne Gilson compared the great
system of scholastic theology to cathedrals of the mind. A powerful image which portrays
solidity, permanence, structure and organisation. Such qualities were essential for the authors
of that period as it demonstrated that theology had a distinctive and coherent structure3.
Fourthly, there was the rise of sacramental theology which also grew during this period, as
well as, fifthly, a theology of grace and the doctrine of grace returning to the teachings of
Augustine, and subsequently the Bible. Lastly, there came about, because of the “ad fontes”
trend, a critique of the Vulgate translation of the Bible (the Latin vulgate was a translation
done of the Bible, and of the apocryphal books by Jerome, and used heavily by the Roman
Church.2
Concerning the Eastern church two notations are of importance firstly the controversy over
images, or the iconoclastic controversy raged from 625-642. Emperor Leo III (c. 616-642)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A Brief history of apologetics, Bible.org, accessed 09/01/2022
https://bible.org/seriespage/2-brief-history-apologetics#P69_36939
Alistair E McGrath Christian Theology an introduction 5th Ed 2011 Oxford United Kingdom Wiley Blackwell.
Avery Cardinal Dulles 1999 A History of apologetics Ignatius Press San Franscisco.
Britanica, Apologetics, accessed 19th December 2021
https://www.britannica.com/topic/apologetics
Introduction to Historical Theology, The Middle Ages and the Renaissance (c. 500 – 1500)
apuritisanmind.com, accessed 19th December 2021 Introduction to Historical Theology – The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
(c. 500-1500) Reformed Theology at A Puritan's Mind (apuritansmind.com)
Philip Edgumbe Hughes, Calvinism in Great Britain Today, Christianity Today Volume 3 No 9 February 16, 1959 accessed 02nd
January 2022
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1959/february-16/calvinism-in-great-britain-today.html
Modern European History Lecture 5 The Catholic Reformation, historyguide.org accessed
22 nd December 2021
http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture5c.html.
Rik Van Nieuwenhoven 2014 An Introduction to Medieval Theology, United Kingdom 2014 2nd Ed Cambridge Press.
Shari Boodts Augustine and the Master of the Sentences Medievalists.net, accessed 20th December 2021
https://www.medievalists.net/2019/03/augustine-master-sentences/
Page |3
decided to destroy all images and icons because he thought they were barriers to the
conversion of the Jews and of Muslims. Some theologians fought to return these images to
assist in the devotion of the masses. Whilst others wanted the images destroyed in believing
that it is a sacrilege5.
During the medieval period a number of theologians appeared who tried to answer questions
which concerned both the church in general and God. To mention a few Thomas Aquinas
regarding the existence of God, and Peter Lombard. Lombard’s “Sentences” was a
compilation of patristic quotations which ended up being the most widely read theological
book of the era9.
Thomas Aquinas argued that if something exists, then something exists necessarily. Aquinas
argued from a point of necessary being to demonstrate the order and need for a Creator of the
universe based on order. As the cosmos is in motion, there must have been something that
started this motion. Aquinas talked that everything moved by something, except the first
cause of the movement that is now in motion. Aquinas produced five points to “prove” God’s
existence8:
1) movement,
2) causation,
3) existence of contingent being,
4) human values
5) theological consideration.
Lombard is best remembered for his work the sentences which consists of four books. “The
sentences is very much at the services of the church and the defence of the faith”.9
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A Brief history of apologetics, Bible.org, accessed 09/01/2022
https://bible.org/seriespage/2-brief-history-apologetics#P69_36939
Alistair E McGrath Christian Theology an introduction 5th Ed 2011 Oxford United Kingdom Wiley Blackwell.
Avery Cardinal Dulles 1999 A History of apologetics Ignatius Press San Franscisco.
Britanica, Apologetics, accessed 19th December 2021
https://www.britannica.com/topic/apologetics
Introduction to Historical Theology, The Middle Ages and the Renaissance (c. 500 – 1500)
apuritisanmind.com, accessed 19th December 2021 Introduction to Historical Theology – The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
(c. 500-1500) Reformed Theology at A Puritan's Mind (apuritansmind.com)
Philip Edgumbe Hughes, Calvinism in Great Britain Today, Christianity Today Volume 3 No 9 February 16, 1959 accessed 02nd
January 2022
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1959/february-16/calvinism-in-great-britain-today.html
Modern European History Lecture 5 The Catholic Reformation, historyguide.org accessed
22 nd December 2021
http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture5c.html.
Rik Van Nieuwenhoven 2014 An Introduction to Medieval Theology, United Kingdom 2014 2nd Ed Cambridge Press.
Shari Boodts Augustine and the Master of the Sentences Medievalists.net, accessed 20th December 2021
https://www.medievalists.net/2019/03/augustine-master-sentences/
Page |4
Peter Lombard’s Book of Sentences are a compilation of glosses and anthologies arranged
into four books: on God and the Trinity, on Creation, on Christ and on the Sacraments. “The
sentences is very much at the services of the church and the defence of the faith 9. Lombard’s
objective was to write a book which brings together the views of the fathers in a collection of
sentences so that the one who seeks then shall find it unnecessary to rifle through numerous
books.9
Despite these theological and organisational formations others considered that the church was
moving away from its precepts.
During the 12th Century the people observed that a change was taking place within the church
where the clergy was moving to a lifestyle more similar to that of the monarchs. Some
intellectuals together with members of the clergy who opposed such lifestyle expressed that a
change was necessary within the church structure who was moving a way from its focus of a
theocentric believe which placed God in its centre to a church dominated by a greed for
superficial things, land and power not inherently of the church. This led to the rise of the
protestant reformation of 1516.5
The objective of the reformist was to send a message, that the people desired the church to
reform itself and be again religiously oriented keeping with the teaching of its foundation.
The church started offering indulgences which led the rich to buy their way to paradise rather
than to live according to the sacraments and commandments. The attitude of the clergy
towards the people became indifferent as they concentrated more on the wealthy of society.
Many people used the church’s officially legitimated faith in the power of saints’ relics to
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A Brief history of apologetics, Bible.org, accessed 09/01/2022
https://bible.org/seriespage/2-brief-history-apologetics#P69_36939
Alistair E McGrath Christian Theology an introduction 5th Ed 2011 Oxford United Kingdom Wiley Blackwell.
Avery Cardinal Dulles 1999 A History of apologetics Ignatius Press San Franscisco.
Britanica, Apologetics, accessed 19th December 2021
https://www.britannica.com/topic/apologetics
Introduction to Historical Theology, The Middle Ages and the Renaissance (c. 500 – 1500)
apuritisanmind.com, accessed 19th December 2021 Introduction to Historical Theology – The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
(c. 500-1500) Reformed Theology at A Puritan's Mind (apuritansmind.com)
Philip Edgumbe Hughes, Calvinism in Great Britain Today, Christianity Today Volume 3 No 9 February 16, 1959 accessed 02nd
January 2022
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1959/february-16/calvinism-in-great-britain-today.html
Modern European History Lecture 5 The Catholic Reformation, historyguide.org accessed
22 nd December 2021
http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture5c.html.
Rik Van Nieuwenhoven 2014 An Introduction to Medieval Theology, United Kingdom 2014 2nd Ed Cambridge Press.
Shari Boodts Augustine and the Master of the Sentences Medievalists.net, accessed 20th December 2021
https://www.medievalists.net/2019/03/augustine-master-sentences/
Page |5
develop patterns of dealing with God that according to the protestant reformers, detracted
from the uniqueness of Jesus Christ as the only agent of salvation.
Another reason why the reformation took place was that the merchants and traders considered
that the church had become corrupt and wanted the clergy to revert back to humility and
modesty. Of the main reformist Martin Luther refuted and questioned several actions
developed by the church such as the sale of indulgencies and ecclesiastical authority. He
proclaimed this in his 95 thesis which he posted at the castle church in Wittenburg Germany.
The population gradually became aware and opened more to issues related to being, which
led to the strengthening of the cultural renaissances and eventually to the Italian humanism
leaving aside the theo centric world view6.
The church tried to ignore the ideas of Luther and those of John Calvin, but their beliefs
spread quickly across Europe especially the North. Support for Luther’s claims was found by
the nobles of Germany who even offered Luther protection as by doing so they tried to get
back lands which were owned by the church. Whilst John Calvin was leading the work of the
reformation in Switzerland and France, others like Thomas Cranmer, Nicholas Ridley, and
Hugh Latimer were doing the same in England, and John Knox in Scotland.
Attempts by the church to organise itself and fight the reformist were organised. One
instrument that the Catholic Church had at its disposal was censorship. During 1520, the
Church censored and burned books which could have spread the Protestant Faith. The Church
intended to destroy all heretical literature, this included he destruction of the works by
reform-minded Catholic humanists such as Petrarch and Erasmus.6
Founded in 1534, the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits were founded in 1534 to form the
backbone of the church Counter Reformation strategy. The Jesuits combined the ideas of
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A Brief history of apologetics, Bible.org, accessed 09/01/2022
https://bible.org/seriespage/2-brief-history-apologetics#P69_36939
Alistair E McGrath Christian Theology an introduction 5th Ed 2011 Oxford United Kingdom Wiley Blackwell.
Avery Cardinal Dulles 1999 A History of apologetics Ignatius Press San Franscisco.
Britanica, Apologetics, accessed 19th December 2021
https://www.britannica.com/topic/apologetics
Introduction to Historical Theology, The Middle Ages and the Renaissance (c. 500 – 1500)
apuritisanmind.com, accessed 19th December 2021 Introduction to Historical Theology – The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
(c. 500-1500) Reformed Theology at A Puritan's Mind (apuritansmind.com)
Philip Edgumbe Hughes, Calvinism in Great Britain Today, Christianity Today Volume 3 No 9 February 16, 1959 accessed 02nd
January 2022
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1959/february-16/calvinism-in-great-britain-today.html
Modern European History Lecture 5 The Catholic Reformation, historyguide.org accessed
22 nd December 2021
http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture5c.html.
Rik Van Nieuwenhoven 2014 An Introduction to Medieval Theology, United Kingdom 2014 2nd Ed Cambridge Press.
Shari Boodts Augustine and the Master of the Sentences Medievalists.net, accessed 20th December 2021
https://www.medievalists.net/2019/03/augustine-master-sentences/
Page |6
traditional monastic discipline with a dedication to teaching and preaching. All this as an
attempt to win back converts.
The Jesuits highlighted one central weakness in Protestant theology, that of predestination.
Predestination offered hopes of salvation for the literate and prosperous9. In response, the
Jesuits offered hope -- and that hope to the form of religious revival based on ceremony,
tradition in the power of the priest to offer forgiveness. In essence, the Jesuits made
Christianity more emotional. Keeping in mind, that one of the essential reasons why the
reformation took place was because the people wanted a more emotional and direct spiritual
life. The Jesuits urged princes to strengthen the Church in their territories. They even
developed the theology that permitted "small sins" in the service of a just cause. This meant
that it was find if one sinned only if it was done to bring a greater good9.
By the 16th century, the Jesuits had become some of the greatest teachers in Europe,
especially in France. They had also become one of the most controversial religious groups
within the Church. The Jesuits helped to build schools and universities, design churches and
even helped to produce the Baroque style of art and architecture.
The policies of the Counter Reformation related to education, church building, persecution,
preaching, and censorship was successful in bringing some people back to the Church. The
Council of Trent met to introduce concrete changes in policy and doctrine. Between 1545 and
1563, the Council modified and unified Church doctrine: it abolished numerous corrupt
practices and abuses and also gave final authority to the Pope. In general, the Council purged
the Church. It clarified issues like faith, good works, and salvation.
1. It passed a decree that said the Church would be the final authority in biblical matters.
2. The Council demanded that the Scriptures were to be understood literally.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A Brief history of apologetics, Bible.org, accessed 09/01/2022
https://bible.org/seriespage/2-brief-history-apologetics#P69_36939
Alistair E McGrath Christian Theology an introduction 5th Ed 2011 Oxford United Kingdom Wiley Blackwell.
Avery Cardinal Dulles 1999 A History of apologetics Ignatius Press San Franscisco.
Britanica, Apologetics, accessed 19th December 2021
https://www.britannica.com/topic/apologetics
Introduction to Historical Theology, The Middle Ages and the Renaissance (c. 500 – 1500)
apuritisanmind.com, accessed 19th December 2021 Introduction to Historical Theology – The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
(c. 500-1500) Reformed Theology at A Puritan's Mind (apuritansmind.com)
Philip Edgumbe Hughes, Calvinism in Great Britain Today, Christianity Today Volume 3 No 9 February 16, 1959 accessed 02nd
January 2022
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1959/february-16/calvinism-in-great-britain-today.html
Modern European History Lecture 5 The Catholic Reformation, historyguide.org accessed
22 nd December 2021
http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture5c.html.
Rik Van Nieuwenhoven 2014 An Introduction to Medieval Theology, United Kingdom 2014 2nd Ed Cambridge Press.
Shari Boodts Augustine and the Master of the Sentences Medievalists.net, accessed 20th December 2021
https://www.medievalists.net/2019/03/augustine-master-sentences/
Page |7
3. The Trent Council denied the Lutheran idea of justification by faith.
4. They affirmed the existence of Purgatory and the usefulness of prayer and
indulgences in shortening a person's stay in purgatory.
5. The Council also concluded and reaffirmed the belief in transubstantiation and the
importance of all seven sacraments
6. They reaffirmed the authority of both scripture the teachings and traditions of the
Church and the necessity and correctness of religious art.
The Counter Reformation took aggressive measures against the protestants. For individuals
unmoved by the appeal of the Jesuits and who still adhered to the Protestant dissent The
Church resorted to severe measures. The Inquisition, founded in the 13th century, expanded
its activities and heretics were subject to punishment, torture and death. This included even
those who kept adhering to the protestant teachings led by Luther and Calvin. Whilst at the
same time wherever Protestantism obtained official status such as in England, Scotland,
Geneva, Germany, and Scandinavia Catholics were persecuted
The medieval period was crucial for the development of theology understood as both an
academic discipline and a philosophical method of reflecting on divine revelation and leading
a religious or spiritual life. Medieval theology had an enormous impact not only for the
development of doctrine and ethics, but also for the formation of social, ecclesial, and
cultural institutions in the modern period.
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Page |8
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