A: Reform and Reaction, 1855 – 1881
Explain why Alexander II emancipated the serfs. (12 marks)

Liberal upbringing – agree with Western observers that serfdom was morally
wrong

Serf revolts – serfs dissatisfied with their lot, fear of further revolts

Defeat in the Crimean War –
◦
Urgent need for change
◦
Back structure and performance of the Russian army (Russian army outdated
+ inefficient)
◦
Reforms on basis of conscription, aim for more professional, better-trained
army
◦

Backwardness in relation to other Great Powers
Agricultural backwardness – structure of serfdom and lack of incentive for
development

Industrialisation – need mobile labour force
Explain why Alexander II decided on policy of reform in Russia. (12 marks)

Same as above, plus:

Military – tied to social reforms, learn lessons from Crimean war

Legal – to be seen as fair + free of government

Educational – develop better educated ruling + administrative class

Local administrative – compensate for decline in nobility influence + importance
Explain why many Russians were dissatisfied with the decree emancipating the
serfs in 1861. (12 marks)


Nobles
◦
Against the reform to start with – social system served them well, reform risky
◦
After - in debt, lost free labour + influence in countryside + local government
Peasants
◦
Terms of emancipation – complicated + spread over stages lasting more than
2 years
◦
Economic situation of peasants – didn't change much, land belonged to
nobles so peasants had to buy land they were used to, still had to pay
redemption fees
◦
Household serfs – freed but landless, had to seek labour
◦
Freedom – limited, subject to dictates of mir
Explain why Alexander II slowed the pace of reform from the mid-1860s. (12 marks)

Assassination attempts – 1866 + 1867, deterred from further reforms

Duty to retain autocracy – felt need to resist rise of radical groups like Populists

Public response – disappointed that response was not more positive

Intellectual/peaceful criticism – more threatening + even violent e.g. 1863 Polish
revolt

withdrew from public life – influence to more conservative ministers e.g. Tolstoy,
the new Education Minister

Vera Zasulich – acquittal alarmed authorities into repressive measures such as
censorship

BUT reform didn't die out completely – Tsar was contemplating some limited
constitutional reform at time of assassination
Why did Witte promote industrialisation in Russia? (12 marks)

Still agricultural, peasant-based society, boom in railway, iron + oil industries but
most industry was small-scale, conservatives opposed industrialisation as
disruptive force/not traditionally Russian, peasants still tied to land

Business + railway background, retained links with industry

Maintain power in eyes of other Great Powers, might fall further behind the more
advanced West

1899 memorandum on Industrial Development, Russia must industrialise through
attracting foreign investment + government intervention

More powerful Russia would strengthen autocracy
How important was backwardness of agriculture in contributing to weaknesses in
the Russian economy in the years 1881 to 1914? (24 marks)
1. Intro: land was unproductive, there was drought + extremes of temperature, lack
of fertilisers + machinery, low + unpredictable yields, population growth → even
more pressure on land holdings, reduction in size, industry backward but
attention from Government, agriculture neglected except as source of exports to
pay for imports
2. Until 1905, food only just kept pace w. population so increase in grain exports
meant less food for peasants + famine
3. Land captains enforced payment of debts, sometimes violent
4. Peasant discontent despite concessions e.g. 1905 revolution, so law in 1905
cancelling of redemption payments as of 1907 onwards, 1906 Stolypin introduced
law so peasants can separate their land from commune + can consolidate,
wanted to encourage class of well-off + loyal peasants but by 1915 only 22%
households had individual ownership
5. Conclusion: agricultural economy remained poor + backward, progressed at
slower pace than industry
How successful was Alexander II in overcoming opposition to his regime? (24
marks)
1. Intro: consider what opposition is → Most Russians had specific grievances e.g.
ex-serfs unhappy with terms of emancipation, nobles dissatisfied but little actual
opposition
2. Other reforms had little impact on stimulating opposition, though disappointment,
no parliament/mass media as outlet for discontent
3. Liberals + students wanted reforms but not revolutionaries
4. Active opponents minority e.g. anarchists + populists (v. unsuccessful)
5. Conclusion: regime still in control, even though repression relaxed compared to
later, Alex II didn't have to work v. hard to overcome opposition
How successful was the tsarist regime in overcoming opposition in the years 1863
to 1894? (24 marks)
1. Intro
2. Successful:

Disappointment with Alex II's reforms e.g. peasant riots after emancipation,
but little serious opposition BUT liberals felt reforms didn't go far enough

Alex II's regime survived several assassination attempts in 1860s + Polish
revolt

Although growth of opposition groups e.g. Populists/anarchists/terrorist
groups, didn't stir up much trouble, although Alex II made some concessions
e.g. zemstvos an attempt to give nobles more power after emancipation

Alex III heavily used repression e.g. censorship and secret police, educational
restrictions + Land Captains
3. Unsuccessful:

Alex II assassinated

Opposition not entirely eradicated under Alex III, just further underground

Long term – increasingly difficult to resist opposition e.g. 1905 + 1917
revolution
4. Conclusion: similarities + differences of Alex II + Alex III, dissatisfaction +
outright opposition?
How far had Alexander II fulfilled the hopes of reformers in Russia by the time of his
death in 1881? (24 marks)
1. Intro
2. Fulfilled:

Serfs emancipated – satisfied serfs wanting freedom, intellectuals who felt
serfdom was immoral, reformers who wanted to modernise Russia

Army reforms – those wanting more modernised, humane + efficient army, fix
the deficiencies obvious during Crimean War

Educational reforms, establishment of zemstvos + legal reforms –
modernisers
3. Not fulfilled:

Emancipation didn't improve condition of many serfs + nobles dissatisfied

Flaws in reforms e.g. zemstvos had restricted powers

Alexander II reversed lots of reforms after Polish Revolt + assassination
attempts

Radicals + Slavophiles not happy Russia still autocracy
4. Conclusion: reforms whetted the appetite of some for more change but
disappointed nobility who felt left out or those who wanted more political, social
+ economic change, reforms reinforced the opposition/radical opponents like
Populists, but showed Tsar had potential for change
How successful were Alexander II's reforms in modernising Russia before his death
in 1881? (24 marks)
1. Intro: consider the extent Russia was actually modernised, politically still
autocrat, economically agriculture still unproductive + industrialisation early,
socially Russia still v. rigid with separate classes
2. Reforms limited in impact e.g. political trials independent of normal courts,
assassination attempts + Polish revolts led to Tsar reversing some reforms,
control over universities tightened + censorship tightened
3. Conclusion: impact of modernisation quite limited, essentials of economy, society
+ government still in intact in 1881
How far was Russia a modern industrialised state by 1914? (24 marks)
1. Intro
2. Modern + industrialised:

Vyshnegradsky + Witte used tariffs on imports both to raise revenue + protect
Russian industries

Witte put rouble on gold standard to give foreign investors more confidence in
Russian industry

Encouraged industrial development + railway building, stimulated related
industries e.g. iron, coal + engineering

Witte led to considerable growth in productivity in late 19th century e.g. iron +
railways
3. Not modern + industrialised:

Russia's industrial ranking compared to other Powers actually fell, though by
1914 Russia had firm industrial base though small (only 18% pop. urban, only
20% national income comes from industry)

Industry concentrated in certain areas e.g. Southern oilfields + large cities like
St. Petersburg + Moscow

Russia still very rural-based, less efficient than its counterparts in some
economies e.g. Germany + USA
4. Conclusion: significant advances in some industries, but overall result was
limited, therefore Russia not a 'modern industrial state' by 1914
B: Political reaction; social and economic change, 1881-1904
Explain why Russian governments promoted economic development in the years
1881 to 1904. (12 marks)

Remained agriculturally based, people dependent on land

Innovation not encouraged

Mir decided on what would be cultivated + redistribution of land

Little incentive to farm efficiently

Government regarded agricultural reform big task, focussed on industry instead

key to Great Power + wealth

Vyshnegradsky + Witte e.g. Witte's 1899 memorandum stated that industry must
develop with help from government for Russia to stay independent, great power
Explain why liberals were dissatisfied with the Tsarist autocracy in 1881. (12 marks)

Liberals – wanted Russia to develop like Western European countries +
establishment of civil liberties, disliked autocracy as no real influence

Initially welcomed Alex II's reforms but reforms had limitations + didn't reduce
power of autocracy, reforms later dried up or modified

Alex II had no intention of conceding power until assassination, successor v.
against reform
How important was the work of Vyshnegradsky + Witte in the development of the
Russian economy in the years 1881 to 1904? (24 marks)
1. Intro: textiles + sugar industry already developed, railways already expanded
through private enterprise e.g. Trans-Siberian Railway, state bank already
created, Russian industry protected against foreign competition + foreign
investment (esp. French)
2. Important:

Vyshnegradsky – public expenditure restrained, new taxes + tariffs

Witte – promotion of Trans-Siberian Railway: expenditure over 5 times greater
than under Vyshnegradsky, involved 25 factories producing railway materials

1900-1914 over 30% Government spending on railways + vodka monopoly

Promoted French alliance of 1894 + rouble on gold standard 1897 – foreign
investment encouraged, 1900 nearly 50% investment from abroad
3. Not important:

Growth rates declined 1900-1905, international recessions

Russian interest rates rose + output in coal, iron + oil fell
4. Conclusion: only partially successful, Witte didn't change basic structure of
Russian economy but was stronger when he was in office
How successful was the tsarist regime in overcoming the economic backwardness
of Russia in the years 1881 to 1914? (24 marks)
1. Intro
2. Successful:

From 1880s Government made decision to promote industrial growth, esp.
Witte – higher tariffs to protect Russian industry, put rouble on gold standard,
foreign investment + build railways

Growth rate before 1900 of up to 8% per year, slump 1899-1906 but better
later, some industry not dependent on foreign investment

Russia by 1914 had good base for further industrial development

Some improvement to agriculture, esp. after Stolypin
3. Unsuccessful:

Economy still mainly agriculturally based compared to others

Stolypin's reforms limited: agriculture still primitive + minority helped by
Stolypin

Didn't catch up to other great powers

Growth unbalanced – outlying areas neglected, Siberia rich in natural
resources not exploited

Communications still v. poor, living conditions of peasants + workers still low
4. Conclusion: economic growth unbalanced + still had weaknesses, exposed in
1914 war
C: Russia in Revolution, 1904-1906
Explain why the Russian Social Democratic party split into Bolsheviks and
Mensheviks in 1903. (12 marks)

Lenin wanted small, professional and revolutionary party, led by intellectuals but
Martov wanted mass party

Lenin focussed on revolution,not reforms or attempt to get laws passed

Martov thought Lenin wanted to be dictator

Political theory differed
Explain why Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto in 1905. (12 marks)

Threat to regime from 1905 revolution:
◦
Dissatisfaction with living + working conditions
◦
Failure of autocracy to reform

Revolutionary activity

Desire of liberals for constitutional governments

Minister Witte persuaded Tsar

Appease liberals – political concessions e.g. civil liberties + state Duma elected
by universal male suffrage
Explain why revolution broke out in Russia in 1905. (12 marks)

1905 not real revolution at all, just series of events that had similar discontent but
not co-ordinated + not motivated by same aims

Economic downturn + slump

Dissatisfaction from middle class – want say in political system

Social Revolutionaries + Democrats (more active afterwards)

Russo-Japanese War – incompetence + poor judgement of Tsar

Government trying to maintain autocracy in time of economic + social change
D: The Tsarist Regime, 1906-1914
Why did Tsar Nicholas II summon a Duma to meet in 1906? (12 marks)

Trying to appease opposition

Persuaded by Witte that concessions necessary – divide the opponents

Isolate moderate liberals from radical revolutionaries

BUT then issued Fundamental Laws so Tsar fine with a slight concession + later
sacked Witte
Explain why, in the years 1906 to 1911, Stolypin attempted to reform agriculture. (12
marks)

Re-establish loyalty – peasant uprisings during 1905 Revolution – showed
difficulties e.g. land hunger + famine

Current agricultural techniques primitive + unproductive, prevented innovation

Create new class of wealthy peasants – prevent recurrence of unrest/revolution

Peasants majority of population, comparatively neglected group

More grain for exports
How successful was Stolypin in strengthening the Tsarist regime? (24 marks)
1. Intro: Stolypin= strong + intelligent, but unpopular
2. Successful:

No effective organised opposition 1906-1911 – leaders in exile + martial law

Dumas – not serious threat to tsar’s authority, compliant third Duma

Aimed to create wealthy peasant class – regime more secure

Peasants freed from redemption payments not threat to regime
3. Unsuccessful:

Reforms only partially successful, minority of peasants left mir + consolidated
holdings

Fundamental problems

After Stolypin, ministers less effective + dissatisfaction
4. Conclusion: Stolypin strengthened regime short-term but no long-term solution
How important were the Dumas in contributing to stable government in Russia in
the years 1906 to 1914? (24 marks)
1. Intro: Dumas had little impact on government (discriminated in favour of
landlords + peasants, against workers) first Duma too radical → led to
dissolution, second Duma only lasted 5 months, third Duma compliant so lasted 5
years (Octobrists) but even that broke off co-operation
2. Important:

To appease liberals + win back support
3. Not important:

Duma not a success for those who wanted representative government
4. Alternative:

No unified spirit of revolutionaries, lack of effective opposition

Stolypin = repression + reform

Traditional loyalty to tsar + support of military

Economic growth
5. Conclusion: role of Dumas not big, so other factors more important in stabilising
government
How successful was the Tsarist regime in restoring stability to Russia between
April/May 1906 and the outbreak of war in 1914? (24 marks)
1. Intro: discuss how 'unstable' the regime had actually been beforehand
2. Successful:


Opposition largely crushed after 1905 (“Stolypin's neck-tie”)
◦
Summary courts-martial + executions in countryside
◦
Activists in exile
◦
Police kept close scrutiny on opposition groups
Manipulation of Dumas – Government still in control (first two Dumas
dismissed within months)

Limited reform after 1905

Economic boom 1909-1913

1906-1911 peasants allowed to leave mir, consolidate holdings, abolished
redemption payments 1907
3. Unsuccessful:

Upturn in militancy from 1912 – Lena Goldfields massacre 1912
◦

Political strikes, general strike in St Petersburg in July 1914
Stolypin's reforms had mixed success – only minority took advantage
4. Conclusion: growth in revolutionary consciousness amongst workers, but
opponents limited in threat + only war brought regime down
How successful was Nicholas II in overcoming opposition to his regime in the years
1905 to 1914? (24 marks)
1. Intro:
2. Successful:

Survived 1905 revolution – concessions e.g. October Manifesto

Retained army loyalty

Stolypin good minister – reform + repression

Radical opposition weak, leaders in exile

Third + fourth Duma relatively compliant

Gained from economic development (but not consistent)
3. Unsuccessful:

Opposition never absent e.g. first two Dumas

Stolypin assassinated 1911, reforms had limited effect

Lena Goldfields massacre – major discontent

Liberals + middle class disappointed with lack of influence

Increase in strike activity after 1912
4. Conclusion: Wave of patriotism in 1914 but Tsar was storing up trouble for future
How important were government concessions in enabling the tsarist regime to
survive in the years 1905 to 1914? (24 marks)
1. Intro: revolution failed because regime survived + in power 1914, patriotic surge
at start of war
2. Important:

October Manifesto (civil rights + Duma) - split liberals (constitutional reform)
+ revolutionaries (overthrow autocracy)

Preliminary censorship abolished + trade unions legalised → allowed
opposition newspapers to be published (although sometimes suppressed)
3. Not important:

Fundamental Laws re-established Tsar's powers + dismissal of Witte

Dumas manipulated – first two dismissed as they were too radical
4. Alternative:

Force used to crush disturbances – revolutionaries hunted down

Bulk of population remained loyal
5. Conclusion: combination of concessions + repression which enabled regime to
survive beyond 1905, as well as absence of any coordinated opposition
E: The First World War and the Revolutions of 1917
Explain why Russians were increasingly dissatisfied with Nicholas II's wartime
leadership in the years 1915 to 1917. (12 marks)

Military defeats esp. after taking commander-in-chief

Tsarina + Rasputin left in charge
◦
suspicion of German Tsarina
◦
Rasputin's infamous reputation

Refused political concessions

War production co-ordinated by Duma + zemstvos

Generals refused to support Nicholas II by 1917
In what ways was military failure important in the collapse of the Tsarist
government in February/March 1917? (12 marks)

Patriotism at start of WWI

Great power status deceptive


◦
Economy – inflation + fuel/food shortages due to transport system
◦
Demoralisation
◦
Casualties + defeats e.g. Tannenburg
Nicholas' reputation
◦
As commander-in-chief
◦
From Rasputin – who convinced Tsar to go the Front
◦
Tsarina – German
Military failure – loss of land, casualties

Inflation, shortages + breakdown of transportation system
Explain why Nicholas II was forced to abdicate in February/March 1917. (12 marks)

Dissatisfaction growing from revolutionaries, liberals + middle class

Disappointment at Dumas + distrust from 1905 revolution

Leadership of army

Influence of Tsarina + Rasputin in Government

No concessions

Defeats in war, casualties, economic problems

Nicholas' incompetence – losing support of army + nobility + peasants
Explain why Lenin issued the April Theses in April 1917. (12 marks)

Lenin didn't agree with the current Bolshevik views (support PG as belief that
proletariat revolution would come)

Lenin wanted Bolsheviks to revolt now, not to co-operate with PG

Establish control over Party (because he'd been in exile)

Outline philosophy + put forward slogans e.g. Peace, Bread + Land and 'All
Power to the Soviets' to attract supporters
How important was political opposition to Nicholas II between 1914 and the
February/March 1917 Revolution in bringing about the fall of the Tsarist regime?
(24 marks)
1. Intro:
2. Important:

Both reformers + radicals disappointed with lack of reform

Dissatisfaction with regime due to military defeats + casualties, economic
problems e.g. inflation + shortage of fuel + food

Nicholas' war leadership, Rasputin + Tsarina discredited government

Supporters less inclined to help him

Army refused to support Tsar
3. Not important:

Radicals such as Bolsheviks had little influence
4. Alternative:

Combined with pessimism + lack of faith
5. Conclusion: failures in war + associated domestic problems, not organised
opposition
How far were the weaknesses/weakness of leadership of the Provisional
Government responsible for the Revolution of October/November 1917? (24 marks)
1. Intro
2. V. responsible:

Continued war – loyalty to Allies, establish authority + prestige through victory

Postponed reforms e.g. land reform + Constituent Assembly

Underestimated threat of Bolsheviks

Non-representative character + competition from Soviet (Order No.1)
◦
Lacked authority

Divisions between socialist + liberal members

Handled Kornilov coup badly

Seemed unable to radical opposition

Weak leadership
◦
Kerensky – June offensive (failure)
3. Other factors:

Strength + activity of Lenin + Bolsheviks

War
◦
Existing problems continued e.g. shortages, casualties, demoralisation

Growing disillusionment in the army

Power vacuum in Russia
4. Conclusion: Weaknesses brought down Provisional Government but may have
continued if it were not for the strength of the Bolsheviks as they were about to
hold an election
How far was popular dissatisfaction with the Provisional Government responsible
for its overthrow in October/November 1917? (24 marks)
1. Intro
2. Significant:

Delayed elections + land reform

Continuation of war

Self-appointed so no legitimacy

July days

No support when attacked by Bolsheviks
3. Insignificant:

Leadership of Bolsheviks – capable of filling power vacuum

Arming Bolsheviks during Kornilov coup

Economy not fault of PG
4. Conclusion: revolution caused by many factors, included popular dissatisfaction
but also other factors
How important was the role of Lenin in bringing about the collapse of the
Provisional Government in October/November 1917? (24 marks)
1. Intro
2. Important:

Leadership decisive – against PG

April Theses – propaganda + clear plan of action, policies of peace and land

Theorist + man of action

Triumph in internal party discussions on timing of Revolution
3. Alternative

PG made many mistakes
◦
Continuing war
◦
Postponing reforms
◦
Underestimating Bolsheviks
◦
Kornilov coup

PG power limited + competition from Soviet (Order No. 1)

Continuation of war

Luck e.g. military + economic situation in 1917, opportunity to act, activities in
Petrograd, Trotsky organised takeover, failure of PG to summon troops
4. Conclusion: Lenin was important but would not have succeeded if not for the
other factors occurring at the same time