This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the information in books and make it universally accessible. https://books.google.com Nedll transfer ||||| E O Fu F HN | T H E EP H R A | M. G IFT W. OF G U R N E Y, (Class of 1852), PROF ESS OR OF HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY, 20 April, 1871. : o A. - COMPLETE GREEK GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF LEARNERS. BY JOHN WILLIAM DONALDSON, B.D., HEAD-MASTER OF KING EDWARD'S SCHOOL, BURY ST. EDMUND’S. LONDON : JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. M. DCCC.XLVIII. KD (22772 –Z/3 & 4, #- -- HARWA * LibRARY /97), º&20. yº ^, ; : × <!/2 G. // gºv, *% ... 3& 2 Cº., W ".^: 3ºzºc, . (****) (Cambritiqt : printtu at the Qanibersity press. HARVARD UNIVERSITY in D a ºf APR 2 1922 TO THE REVEREND WILLIAM HEPWORTH THOMPSON, M.A., SENIOR TUTOR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. MY DEAR THOMPSON, A Mong those who are engaged in the great business of education, I know no one who is doing more than yourself for the promotion of Classical Scholarship, in its widest range and in its highest applications. You cannot therefore view without interest any attempt to add strength to the foundations of a superstructure, which owes so much to your lectures at Trinity; and I feel assured that you will give a friendly welcome to this little Book, which exhibits, in a concise form and for the use of learners, some of the results of those studies and employ ments which have occupied my time during the long period of our intimacy. Believe me, my dear Thompson, Always sincerely yours, J. W. DONALDSON. !!!!! (!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!---- P. R. E. F. A. C. E. RATHER more than eighteen months ago, I was informed by the London Publisher of the New Cratylus that another edition of that work would be required, and it naturally became a subject of con sideration, how I could best avail myself of this renewed oppor tunity of carrying out the objects for which that book was originally written. Its title had announced it as an attempt to contribute to the more accurate knowledge of the Greek language, and it sought to apply the principles of comparative philology, considered in its fullest extent, not only to Greek Grammar, properly so called, but also to Greek Lexicography, and to the criticism and exegesis of Greek authors. Now, as it was obvious that the Second Edition must be at least as comprehensive as its predecessor, and must therefore include all three departments of Greek scholarship, the only mode of proceeding, in regard to the grammatical division of the larger work, which seemed likely to lead to practical results, was the separate publication of a complete Greek Grammar, which would adapt the conclusions of the larger philological treatise to the use of younger students. It appeared to me that the publication of such a work would be little less than a necessary prelude to the re-appearance of the New Cratylus. There are many things, which must be stated for the information of a learner, but which it would be superfluous to detail in a work addressed to the more finished scholar; and, on the other hand, it would be premature to state, in a work designed for beginners, the higher processes of investigation by which the general results have been obtained. Reserving, therefore, for the forthcoming new edition of my larger vi PREFACE. work, a fuller discussion of those philological principles, without which, as I believe, there can be no true exposition of Grammar, I have thought it my duty to undertake the additional labour of compiling an elementary treatise, for general use, and as an abridged introduction to a higher range of study. Setting aside the reasons, which particularly applied to my own employments, the time seemed to demand such an effort. For although many Greek Grammars have appeared during the last ten years, there has been scarcely any attempt' to connect the teaching of the language with a recognition of those general principles which are obtaining every day more and more acceptance with all scholars who are worthy of the name. Even Mr. Jelf has felt it necessary to follow closely in the steps of Kühner, whose etymological system rests upon an unsound basis: and other grammars recently published have so little reference to comparative philology, or linguistic science of any kind, that it would be difficult to acquit their authors of neglecting much that they might easily have known. The objections made to the introduction of a higher and more philosophical tone into books designed for learners, and the counter-pleas set up in favour of the old-fashioned Grammars, generally resolve themselves into appeals to the impracticable nature of the boyish mind, and therefore too often into admis sions of the teacher's indolence or incompetency. No one who has had any large experience in teaching will deny that the school * It may be proper to mention the apparent exception furnished by a Grammar, published in Dublin, in which a number of passages ex tracted verbatim, and in most cases without acknowledgment, from the New Cratylus, have been engrafted on “Wright's Rudiments of the Greek Language.” I must take the liberty of suggesting to Mr. G. B. Wheeler, the editor of the book in question—i.e. of the ninth Edition, Dublin, 1844, that he might have availed himself, in a more legitimate manner, of “the leading theories of modern philologists,” and I must, for the future, reserve to myself the right of abridging my own works. There was a somewhat similar use of the compiler's scissors in the case of a reading book entirely composed of selections from Wordsworth's poems, in which the Laureate very good-humouredly acquiesced. PREFACE. VII boy, as such, is obstinately inattentive, that there is the greatest difficulty in inducing him to concentrate his thoughts on any given subject, that he is unwilling to reason, and that the only mental application which can be expected from him, in the first instance, is the humblest exercise of his memory. But why is this Simply because he is uneducated; because his mind is un trained and undisciplined; because he has not yet attained to that habit of methodically arranging his thoughts, which it is the busi ness of his instructor to impart to him, by an active system of logical teaching. With the great majority of boys in this country, the Grammars of the classical languages and the Elements of Euclid are the first and last text-books of reasoning which are ever placed in their hands; and to argue that no attempt is to be made to render them better fitted for this purpose, by re-arrangement or fresh elucidation, simply because the pupils, for whose use they are designed, have to take the first step in mental discipline, is to ignore or nullify the most important task which devolves upon an instructor. It is true that we must begin with relying on the learner's memory; it is true that there are differences of intellectual capacity which no amount of instruction will equalize, and that of many, who start together, very few will attain to a distinguished developement of the logical faculty; but it is not less true, that all men are capable of mental cultivation, and that the feeblest reason ing powers will, to some extent, admit of that educational organi zation which is conspicuously deficient in the most robust of un trained understandings. Believing, as I do, that Grammar and Geometry are still the best vehicles for conveying to the youthful mind the first rudiments of a liberal education, I am anxious that the method of teaching them both should be as rational and as perfect as possible; and I am not deterred by the paucity of able pupils from submitting all learners to that system of instruction which will be most consistent with the ulterior progress of the few who are likely to become original philologers or mathematicians. If I may be allowed to refer to my own experience, I would bear my viii PREFACE. testimony to the fact, that the memory of boys is as tenacious of rational explanations as of arbitrary rules, and that any boy, not absolutely deficient in the ordinary powers of acquisition, any boy, in fact, who could learn his grammar, and retain it according to the old system, may be brought, by the diligence of a competent instructor, to understand the grammatical theorems which he enun ciates, as well as the propositions of Euclid, which he demonstrates by rote; and that all those who are capable of the farther progress in classical and mathematical learning, which is generally tested by success in the University Examinations, are, in the same proportion, capable of understanding and applying the higher reasonings of scientific philology. This would be confirmed by the experience of others, if examiners were as earnest in insisting upon this more certain exhibition of intellectual progress, as they are in probing the extent of the competitors' acquaintance with their Latin and Greek Vocabulary, or their proficiency in some other branch of knowledge, which depends upon the strength of their memory alone. In calling this a complete Greek Grammar, I need hardly say, that I did not intend to put it forth as containing all that ought to be written about the Greek language. The fact, that it is intro ductory to a much larger work by the same writer, is sufficient to show that it merely professes to include all that ought to be comprised in an elementary work for the use of younger students. There are, however, some persons who seem to be unable to dis tinguish between the eatent of a work, and its completeness, in reference to a particular object, and who will say, that if this little book is a complete grammar, the more voluminous works of Matthiae, and others, must contain much that is superfluous. I have stated, in p. 4, art. 14, 15, my ideas respecting the complete ness of a Greek Grammar, and I think that any grammar, however extensive, would be deficient, as a manual for learners, if it did not comprehend a sufficient account of the subjects discussed in the six parts of the present volume. But I do not, on the other hand, say that the more bulky works, bearing the same title, are super PREFACE. ix fluous. At the time when they first appeared, they were most valuable contributions to our collective knowledge of the Greek language; and though much that is contained in Buttmann's elaborate Formen-lehre, and in Matthiae's copious Syntax, is now more appropriately drafted into lexicons of the language, there is still a limited demand for such a Thesaurus, or store-house of facts grammatically arranged. It must be recollected, however, that if the work commenced by Buttmann were carried on and completed in the same spirit, and with reference to our greatly-increased materials for a survey of the different dialects; and if to this were added a Syntax amounting to a grammatical commentary on all the authors, and a Prosody which entered into all the details of metre and music; we should have a work even more bulky and voluminous than Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik. No one will suppose that such an extensive book of reference is indispensable to the ordinary student of any language. A great deal must necessarily be left to the Lexicon, the Commentary, and the oral expositions of the teacher: or if the student is to study at an early period some larger work on the subject of grammar, it should rather be one which dwells on the principles of philology than a treatise on dialects, or idioms, which he will learn more gradually and better by a perusal of the most important of the Greek authors, and by well-regulated practice in Greek composition. For these reasons, I have, in common with many previous grammarians, written with especial reference to the Attic dialect only; and in every part of the following work have sought rather to exhibit those phenomena which are suggestive, and illustrative of general principles, than to accumulate forms of words and examples of construction. The whole of this book presumes a reference to what I have already published in some form, and with more or less of complete ness. The first four parts rest upon the New Cratylus. The Syntax is a new edition, considerably enlarged, of a little work published three years ago, in Latin, under the title, Constructionis Graeca Praecepta. Although I have reproduced these rules in En X PREFACE. glish, in order to make the present book uniform, I do not abandon any of the arguments which induced me originally to write them in Latin; and I shall probably reprint them in that language, for the use of those schools in which they are already employed. As the present work is intended not only for schools, but also for private students, I have thought it reasonable to enter upon fuller explanations than were necessary in a mere outline of the subject; and having set forth the principles of Syntax at sufficient length in the present book, I shall still farther reduce the Latin Praecepta, if any future edition is required, by omitting all the connecting remarks, and so leaving only a frame-work of rules, which may serve as a lesson book to be committed to memory. The doctrine of metres, which forms the sixth part of this work, is a developement of the hints thrown out in certain passages of a book called Varronianus, which I published in 1844. But although this work lays claim to originality in regard to the principles on which it rests, the arrangement of the materials, and most of the characteristic details, it will be taken for granted, that I am indebted to some, at least, of the many previous labourers in the same field. Indeed, in some particulars, such as paradigms of declension and conjugation, lists of irregular nouns and verbs, &c., all grammars must have a good deal in common, and it matters not from what source we derive the details, in which we must all agree: so that an outward appearance of uniformity in these mat ters ought rather to be sought than avoided. The following are all the grammars which I have consulted during the composition of my book, or with which I had previously made acquaintance. (1) A Copious Greek Grammar, by AUGUSTUs MATTHIAE, translated by E. V. Blomfield”. Fifth Edition. London, 1832. * This work may be regarded as the first commencement of improved Greek Grammars in this country. If the life of the translator had been spared, we should have been indebted to him also for anticipating by about twelve years, the Greek and English lexicography which has lately done so much to facilitate the labours of the young student. PREFACE. xi (2) A Greek Grammar for the Use of Schools, abridged from the Greek Grammar of A. Matthiae, by C. J. BLoMFIELD, D.D., Bishop of London. Seventh Edition. London, 1845. (3) Ausführliche Griechische Sprachlehre von PHILIPP BUTT MANN. (4) Berlin, 1830. Second Edition. Griechische Grammatik von P. BUTTMANN. Berlin, 1833. Fourteenth Edition. (5) Buttmann’s Larger Greek Grammar, translated by E. RoBINSON. Andover, U. S. 1833. (6) Méthode pour étudier la Langue Grecque, par J. L. BUR Nour. (7) Paris, 1814. Second Edition. . Graeca Grammaticae Rudimenta (auct. C. WoRDsworth) Oron. 1844. Fifth Edition. (8) A Grammar of the Greek Language, chiefly from the German of R. Kühner, by W. E. JELF. Oxford, 1843—5. (9) Griechische Grammatik von Dr. MEHLHoRN. 1845. (First Part). Halle, (10) Griechische Sprachlehre für Schulen von K.W. KRUGER, Berlin, 1846. (11) Syntaac der griechischen Sprache von J. N. MADvig Braunschweig, 1847. The proper mode of using this book must depend upon the number of classes in the schools by which it may be adopted. After learning the declensions and conjugations, the pupil should proceed to the Syntax. If he can be made to understand the difference between a definite and indefinite antecedent, he need fear no difficulties in Greek construction. The particulars to which his Some time ago the Bishop of London allowed me to inspect at my lei sure the MSS. of his brother's adaptation of Schneider, and I can thus speak, from my own knowledge, of the advantages which would have been secured to an earlier race of scholars, if Mr. E. W. Blomfield had been permitted to complete what he had so well begun. xii PREFACE. attention must be especially directed, in the first instance, are the distinctions between the different kinds of predicates (404); the tenses (431, sqq.); the cases with and without prepositions (441, sqq.); the four classes of conditional expressions (502); and the negative particles (528, sqq.) When sufficiently conversant with these rules, he ought at once to commence the composition of short sentences, and the rest of this book will then serve as a manual of reference for the learner, or, at any rate, will suggest questions to the teacher. J. W. D. King Edward's School, Bury St. Edmund's, September 15, 1848. E. R. R. A. T A. Page 7, line 5, bottom, for “the combination,” read “in this combination.” ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 81, 171, 172, 173, — — 192, 208, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11, top, for ", read Î. 1, top, for 486, read 489. 1, top, for 597, read 600. 15, top, for 597, read 600. 19, top, for 596, read 599. 5, bottom, for 494, read 497. 16, top, for 'Eis, read Els. 8, top, for i read ei. C O N T E N T S. Articl INTRODUCTION. cie 1 THE Greek Language and its Dialects .................... PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 16 Alphabet...... .................................................. 17 Pronunciation ................................................... 19 Division of the Letters...................... 25 Origin and Arrangement of the Letters .... is Cºntractions and Abbreviations................... 29 Syllables.......................................................... 33 Prosody. a. Quantity....................................... 40 £. Accents....................................... - 56 Stops................................................... ......... PART II. ETYMOLOGY. 57 Divisions of the Subject.............................. ........ 58 Classification of Words ............................... ...... 63 Analysis of Words............................................ 78 Pronominal Words and Forms ............................. 79 Root-words. ................................................... 80 Pathology A. Affections of Consonants ................ B. Affections of Vowels ...................... 122 Contraction ..................................................... 130 Crasis............................................................. 135 Svnizesis......................................................... 119 138 141 £j. Ectasis.................... ...................................... - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- PART III. IN FLEXION. CHAPTER. I. DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 146 General Remarks .............................................. 152 Substantives .................................................... 158 First Declension in -a ........................................ 166 Second Declension in -o ............................... ...... 172 Third or Consonantal Declension ......................... Page l xiv CONTENTS. Article 178 179 180 a. Labial Nouns.............................................. b. Guttural Nouns ........................................... c. Dental Nouns.............................................. 183 186 194 195 d. Liquid Nouns.............................................. e. Nouns in F, as represented by -i or -v. ............. f. Derivatives in -ms, -eos .................................... Adjectives. Of Three Terminations ....................... 217 225 226 245 — Of Two Terminations......................... Of One Termination ... Pronouns declined as Nouns.......... ..................... Numerals........................................................ Page 48 49 - 52 53 55 56 65 66 - 73 253 Cardinals and Numeral Signs............................... 75 254 260 77 Ordinal Numbers.............................................. Adverbs........... ....................................... ...... 269 Degrees of Comparison ............. ... ...................... 284 Undeclined, Irregular, and Defective Nouns ............ 78 82 85 CHAPTER II. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 285 288 292 Differences of Voice........................................... Differences of Tense or Time.................... ........... Differences of Mood.......................................... 297 Different Classes of Verbs ................................... 304 306 319 330 334 Differences in the Person-endings .......................... Differences in the Augment and Reduplication.......... Paradigms of Regular Verbs. (A) Verbs in -ui.......... (B, a). Barytone Verbs ...................................... General View of the Cognate Tenses in the Different Conjugations of Barytone Verbs....................... 340 344 (B, b). Circumflexed Verbs ............................... Anomalous Verbs........................................ ..... - 346 Anomalies of Signification........................... 355 89 - 92 94 96 98 99 113 122 127 131 --------- - Anomalies of Form ........................................... 136 356 List of Defective and Irregular Verbs...................... - PART IV. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 357 Prefatory Remarks............................................ 358 157 Derivation....................................................... - 359 A. Derivative Nouns......................................... 366 B. Derivative Verbs............................... .......... 160 369 Composition.......................... ... 370 Synthetic Compounds ................. 377 Parathetic Compounds........................................ . ... - 162 - 164 CONTENTS. XV PART V. SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. CHAPTER I. ON THE PROPOSITION IN GENERAL, AND ON THE SUBJECT IN PART CULAR. Article 379 General Considerations .................. 386 The Article and Relative .................................... --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Page 165 166 398 Use of the Article Proper..................................... 169 405 The Relative and its Attraction .............................. 171 413 General Cautions Respecting the Relative and its An tecedent ...................................................... 173 CHAPTER II. ON THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PREDICATES. 414 416 420 429 436 440 General Principles ............................................. 174 Primary Predicates. (a) Nouns ........ Primary Predicates. (b) Participles ....................... 175 Primary Predicates. (c) Tenses of the Finite Verb .... 177 Secondary Predicates. (a) Adverbs ..................... 180 Secondary Predicates. (b) Cases of Nouns .............. 181 441 a. The Nominative................................. . . .. - - 448 B. The Genitive......... .... 455 y. The Dative................ 187 400 189 185 °. The Accusative................................................ 489 Contrasted Meanings of the Oblique Cases ............... 190 470 Secondary Predicates. Supplement to the Cases. Pre positions .................................................... 474 476 477 478 481 a. fl. Y. 3. e. - Prepositions with the Genitive............................. 191 Prepositions with the Dative............................... 192 Preposition with the Accusative ......................... Prepositions with the Genitive and Accusative....... — Preposition with the Dative and Accusative ......... 194 - 482 & Prepositions with three Cases............... ..... 488 Quasi Prepositions.................... 489 Tertiary Predicates............................................... • - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - -- 195 199 200 CHAPTER III. ON THE HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON THE MOODS, AND NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 499 General Principles.............................................. 500 Conditional Propositions ...... * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * 203 - xvi CONTENTS. Article Page 509 General Rules respecting the Use of the Moods in Conditional Propositions.................................. 2O6 513 The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional Propo Sitions . . . . . . . . . . .......................................... . . . - 519 The Imperative in Conditional Propositions................ 209 526 The Infinitive as a Substitute for the Imperative ........ 211 528 529 Negative Particles................................................. Mn in the Protasis....... ............................ ... 530 Ov in the Categorical Proposition or Apodosis...... 212 213 - 531 Oi and ui after Relatives and Relative Particles......... 214 534 OV, when it negatives the primary notion of a word or phrase......................... 535 Os and um in Interrogations....... 538 Mii after Verbs of fearing, &c... 540 Construction of oil uſ ................... --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 215 ... — ... 216 217 - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - CHAPTER IV. ON CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 546 Recapitulation and Definitions ........................... .... 549 Copulative and Disjunctive Sentences ...... ... 559 Distributive Sentences .............. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 573 Temporal Sentences........................................... 584 Objective Sentences................... 220 221 224 Illative or Consecutive Sentences ... ... Final Sentences .................. ... Causal Sentences ................................................. Concessive Sentences........................... ... 227 232 235 238 241 243 624 Conclusion. Irregularities of Construction................ 244 ----------- 595 605 615 621 - - - - - -- w 631 PART VI. METRE. Definitions....................................................... 639 Equal Rhythms. A. Dactylic Verse .... 647 —— B. Anapaestic Verse...... 651 Double Rhythms. A. Trochaic Verse.... 656 661 ... — B. Iambic Verse ................... Hemiolian Rhythms.................. -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 663 Asynartete and Antispastic Verses .. 666 a. Asynartetes...................... 672 b. Antispasts................. ..... - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - APPENDIX A................................................... — B.................................................... 247 250 253 256 258 261 263 - 266 269 270 INTRODUCTION. THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. Art. 1 THE GREEK LANGUAGE (pavn (EAAmvikſ) is that which was anciently spoken throughout the whole extent of Greece or Hellas (EAAds), a term which included all the Greek colonies (Herod. II, 182). But there were two countries to which this name was applied,—that which still bears the name, and which was distinguished as i apyaſa ‘EAAds (Plut. Timol. c. 37), or Gracia Antiqua; and the south-east of Italy with Sicily, which was called ripeydan'EAAds (Strabo, p. 253) or Graecia Magna. 2 It was in the former of these, or Greece Proper, as it is sometimes designated, that this language was formed by a fusion of different tribes; and though the colonists in Asia Minor and Magna Graecia contributed largely to the developement of Greek literature, the intellectual energies of the people, and consequently the living excellence of the language, were always most conspicuous in the mother country; and, in the end, all the scattered Greeks had learned to speak the language of Attica. 3 The ancient Greek language is a member of the great Indo-Germanic family, and is therefore intimately connected with the old languages of the Indians, Persians, Celts, Sclavonians, Germans, and Italians. It belongs to the science of Comparative Philology to point out the nature and extent of this connexion. 4 Confining our attention to the Greek language, we find that this language, as we have it, consists of two ele ments—the Pelasgian and the Hellenic; and Herodotus has informed us, that the Hellenes or Greeks owed their great ness to a coalition with the Pelasgians (I, 58. Varronianus, p. 14). The Pelasgians (IIex-agºyoſ, or IIéAores, “swarthy Asiatics,” or “dark-faced men.” Varron. p. 24. Kenrick Phil. Mus. II, 353) were the original occupants civi * I). G. G. 2 INTRODUCTION. lizers of the Peloponnese, which was called after their name, and also of many districts in northern Greece. These were afterwards incorporated with the Hellenes ("EAAnves, “the warriors:” comp. the name of their god'AréAAww, Müller, Dor. II, 6, § 6), a cognate martial tribe from the mountains in the north of Thessaly. In proportion as the Hellenic or Pelasgian element in this admixture predominated in particular districts, the tribes were called Dorians (Awpleſs, “Highlanders,” from ēa and 6pos, Kenrick, Herod. p. LXI.), or Ionians ("Iwwes, “men of the coast,” 'Hiovia; also Aiya Aéïs, “Beach-men,” or 'Axaloſ, “sea-men:" Kenrick, Phil. Mus. II, p. 367). And these appear in historical times r the two grand subdivisions of the Hellenic race (Herod. , 56). 5 When, however, the Dorians or “Highlanders” first descended from their mountains in the north of Thessaly, and incorporated themselves with the Pelasgians of the Thessalian plains, they were called Æolians (Aloxeſs, “mixed men”), and this name was retained by the Thessalians and Boeotians long after the opposition of Dorian and Ionian had established itself in other parts of Greece. The legend states this fact very distinctly, when it tells us that “Hellen left his kingdom to AEolus, his eldest son, while he sent forth Dorus, and Xuthus, the father of Ion, to make con quests in distant lands,” (Apollod. I, 7, 3, 1. Thirlwall, 1, p. 101). 6 Hence we find that of the Greek colonies settled on the western coast of Asia Minor, the earliest and most northerly, which started from Boeotia, called themselves AEolians; that those who subsequently proceeded from Attica, and occupied the central district, called themselves Ionians; while those who finally sailed from Argos, and took possession of the southern coast, bore the name of Do 7°00708. 7 The cultivation of Lyric poetry by the AEolians of Lesbos, the choral poetry of the Dorians, and the epic poetry * The proper meaning of AióAos is “particoloured,” and it is used especially to designate alternations of black and white in stripes: thus, the cat is called alkoupos (alóNovpos) from the stripes on its tail: and for the same reason alóAos is a constant epithet of the serpent. It is the opposite of darkows: so Athen. XIV, 622, c. dºr M ovu fiv6 udv Xéovres at 6Aq MéAet. We do not agree therefore with Dr. Thirlwall, (I, p. 102) that AlóAos is a by-form of "EAAmv. 3 INTRODUCTION. of the Ionians, gave an early and definite expression to certain provincial varieties which were called Dialects (?id Aekrol), and the energetic and intelligent branch of the Ionian race which occupied Attica (Arrikº or ’Akriki, “the Promontory-Land"), subsequently gave such a distinctive character to their own idiom, that the Attic (ri’Arðſs) was considered a fourth Dialect by the side of the Doric (i Awpts), the Æolic (i Atoxis), and the Ionic (ri'Ids). 8 As every dialect or provincial variety is such with reference to some standard of comparison, and as the Attic in the end became the general language, or “common Dia lect” (kown Čudaekros) of all the Greeks, Grammarians have always estimated the AEolic, Doric, and Ionic dialects by their deviations from the Attic standard. 9 Considered, however, in themselves, the four Dia lects may be divided into two groups, corresponding to the two main divisions of the Hellenic nation (art. 4). For there is much truth in Strabo's remark (p. 333), that the ancient Attic was identical with the Ionic, and the AEolic with the Doric. 10 The Doric and Æolic Dialects agreed in represent ing the Pelasgo-Hellenic language in its first rude state of juxta-position. And if, on the one hand, the Hellenic element was more strongly pronounced in its roughness and broadness of utterance, on the other hand, the pecu liarities of the Pelasgian, which were lost in the further developement of Hellenism, were still preserved in the AEolic, and to a certain extent in the Doric also. 11 Although the Ionians, as such, contained the Pe lasgian element in greater proportion than the AEolo-Doric tribes, their language gives less evidence of the lost Pelas gian idiom than those of the more northern tribes. The reason of this is plain. In their case there was no longer juxta-position, but fusion; and the irreconcileable pecu liarities of the Pelasgian and Hellenic idioms had been mutually resigned. The Ionians, whose ear did not repu diate a concurrence of vowels, omitted the harsh consonants of the Pelasgian idiom, and the Athenians carried this a step further, by contracting into one the syllables which produced an hiatus. 12 The Attic Greek is the richest and most perfect language in the world. It is the only language which has 1–2 4 INTRODUCTION. attained to a clear and copious syntax, without sacrificing its inflexions and power of composition. It is the language of Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Plato. It had become the language of Herodotus; and even Homer's Poems, as they have descended to us, are to a large extent Atticized. It is this language which, following the example of previous grammarians, we propose to teach in the following pages. 13 Those who learned Attic Greek as a foreign or obsolete idiom, were said to Atticize (dirtikíčew), and there is a large class of later writers who are called Atticists (Atrikigºraſ). But those foreigners who spoke Greek from the ear, and without any careful observation of the rules of the Attic idiom, and who consequently mixed up with their Greek many words and dictions which were of foreign origin, were said to Hellenize (£AAnvíčew), and there is a large class of writers, including the authors of the New Testament, to whom we give the name of Hellenists (EA Anvirtaſ). It is the object of the Greek scholar's studies to make him not a Hellenist, but an Atticist, in the highest sense of the word. 14 A critical and comprehensive Greek Grammar should contain all the information which is needed by a modern student of the ancient Greek writers, and while it should aim at teaching the art of writing Attic Greek both in verse and prose, it should develope those etymological principles which have been derived from comparative phi lology, or the philosophical examination of all languages of the same family, and by the aid of which the dialectical and other changes in the language of ancient Greece are easily and safely explicable. 15 Such a Grammar should consist of the following different parts:— i. Orthography and Orthoëpy, which give the rules for the accurate writing, punctuation, accentuation, and pronunciation of ancient Greek. ii. Etymology, which explains the analysis of indi vidual words, divides them into different classes according to this analysis, and points out the affections or anomalous structures which result from the contact of consonants or vowels with one another. iii. Inflexion, which applies the rules of etymology to the motion of nouns through their cases, numbers, and INTRODUCTION. 5 genders, and of verbs through their persons, numbers, tenses, and voices. iv. Composition and Derivation, which show how two or more forms may be united in the same word, and how one form may be deduced from another. v. Syntax or Construction, which examines logically the conjunction of words in a sentence, and the mutual dependence of sentences. vi. Metre, which points out the connexion between the quantity of syllables and their rhythmical arrangement in verse composition. These six parts fall into two main departments—the first four referring to the Word itself, and the last two to the logical and rhythmical arrangement of words in sen tences and verses. PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. § I. Alphabet. 16 THE ordinary Greek Alphabet consists of the fol lowing twenty-four letters (groixeſa): Capitals. Small Letters. English Names. Pronunciation. 8. Alpha "AApa Beta Bºra b g(hard) Gamma Taupo g d AéAta d Latin Transcription. A a B T 3& yſ A E 3 e ë (short) E-psilon "Ev'rixóv Z čğ Z b Delta Zeta H n ë (long) Eta 6 09 I K A k A th i k l Zºra "Hra Theta 63riºra Iöta 'Iora 0. e 2, ss, di, j 6 th i Kappa Karºra Lambda Adu/33a c, g, k l Mu Nu Xi M5 N5 772. Ef a; M. p. In N v In 3 : X O II o ºr ar ū (short) O-micron "O ukpóv 0 P. p6 r p Pi Rho II? "Pó % p r and rh or > #} or, when at of - z Sigma 2íyua 3. Tao t ç T +7 t Tau Y v U1 q q. ph U-psilon "Y Vºixów y Phi Q? ph X X ch(hard) Chi Y \!, ps Q wo Ö(long) O-méga 'Quéya Psi X? *I'ſ ch ps o § II. Pronunciation. 17 We have given the usual pronunciation of these letters as they are articulated in England. At the revival ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 7 of letters there was a considerable controversy on this subject, especially between the followers of Reuchlin, who was guided by the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, and those of Erasmus, whose method rests upon internal evidence, and is also supported by the Latin transcription. Few modern scholars will doubt that the latter is the more reasonable procedure. According to this method, 6, 7, 8, 6, K, A, u, v, o, ºr, or, T, X, W, to were pronounced as they still are in England: a was the English a in father, or mat, according as it is long or short; e was the short e in met, n the long a in mate, or the long e in there; was the i in machine, or pin, according as it is long or short; and v was pronounced softly, like our u in cube or Cupid. It will be observed that e and v are called Nziądv, i.e. “unaspirated.” The reason of this is that e, as we shall soon have occasion to observe, was originally the mark of aspiration: and v never occurs at the beginning of a word without a rough breathing. Similarly, p is always hr or rh. Philology has taught us that the compound letters, Č, Š, and ºp had other sounds than those which Erasmus attributed to them. At one time, the Greeks had a Xav as well as a Zñra, just as the Hebrews have Zain by the side of Tsade: the former was a hard dental sibilant, and the latter appears to have corresponded very nearly to the soft French j. Although the letter Xav fell out of use, it appears that one of the values of Znra represented its pronunciation oré, and that the other value of Znra was a substitute for the com bination of y(k) or 3 (r) with . Similarly, there were two articulations of Ei : the hard sound ks or Xs, and the softer sound sh, resulting from the transposition of Xs into ox, and corresponding to the articulation of its parent the Hebrew Shin. With regard to pi it is doubtful whether it ever had the pronunciation f, and whether it was not always pronounced like p-h in hap-hazard. 18 Some of these letters would change their sound when doubled, or in contact with others. a. Y followed by another y, or by k, x, 5, represents an original v, and the combination is pronounced ng : com pare dyyexos with angelus. b. C is often written for y, 81, the pronunciation of which it represents: also for oré. c. t before approximates to o, and sometimes is 8 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. changed into that sibilant: compare flavariuos and TAovolos with 6avaros and traoûros. d. 9 when followed by a vowel, if not combined with it, may be pronounced like our w. e. e before o, ø, is often pronounced like our y. f. 3, 0°, p seem to have approximated in pronuncia tion to one another, and to the sibilant or, for which they are often substituted in writing: but although ri may be changed into ori, o is not changed into t except in the diplasiasmus org, which is written rr in later Attic. The interchange of or and 0 is most common in the combi nation or = 0s, e.g. orids = 6eos; and 6 becomes 3 most frequently in the combination 6 = 8. It is to be remarked that not only do -6 as = -óias become -0ns, -ēns, but the dentals are occasionally omitted. g. p and A sometimes meet in a mixed pronunciation, and are accordingly interchanged. h. As the Greeks could not pronounce 30-, 30-, or 00-, and were particularly attached to the combination a 6-, we often find this as a substitute for the other combinations of dental sibilants. j. Some of these and many other changes of pronuncia tion may be traced to the double value of F, the cau or Digamma, which was originally the sixth letter of the alphabet, and was a compound of the two consonants, one of which represented the guttural, the other the labial in its ultimate state. These two consonants are s (some times reduced to h) and c : and from their combination, and the different changes which they separately and toge ther admit of, arises that great variety of letters which are traced to an original identity. In most cases, this so or ho represents kp; when a dental appears, it has arisen by a fault of articulation from the sibilant (above f). The fol lowing is the regular series of transitions: the guttural may pass through k, q, 9, j, 8, h to our i or y : the labial through * In Joannis Cheradami Introductio Alphabetica same quam utilis Graecarum Musarum adyta compendio ingredi cupientibus, Dionysiae, 1535, the following definition is given of the pronunciation of 3 and 6: “Delta non prorsus ut Latinis D, sed producta sensin per dentes linguà aliquanto minus quam. Thita aspere pronuntiatur. Thita prolata per dentes lingua aliterae quidem r prolatione incipit, sed vehementius quam Delta in anserinum sibilum exspiratur.” On the change of R and D in Latin, see Varronianus, pp. 51,207. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 9 p, b, m, ph, v, to u. And either element may be dropt. See below 74, 107, 117, and elsewhere. § III. Division of the Letters. 19 The consonants (consonantes litterae, otoixeſa oriu ºptova) are divided a. According to the organ with which they are pro nounced, into Labials, or lip-letters.............£8, r, p, u Dentals, or teeth-letters......... 8, t, 6, v, A, p Gutturals, or throat-letters......y, k, x and Sibilants, or hissing letters......o, Č, Š, Nº. b. according to their power, or capacity for independ ent articulation into i. Semi-vowels (riuſquova), which form a syllable, whe ther the vowel precedes or follows, and these are a. Liquids A, 11, v, p A. Sibilants o, (, ś, Jr. ii. Mutes (āqova), which do not properly form a syl lable unless a vowel follows them, and these are distin guished according to the breathing with which they are uttered as a. Rough, aspiratae, Saoréa, p, X, 6) 3. 3. Smooth, tenues, Jr.Adi,21ſ, R, ºr /. y. Middle, media, pºéora, 20. Vowels (vocales littera, groixeia divided into two classes. a. Those which are the residuary forms of breathings, and these are a from the lightest, e from the heaviest, o from the middle breathing. We say, conversely, that a is the heaviest, e the lightest, and o the middle vowel in point of weight. The meaning of this is, that in words from the same root a appears in the lightest, e in the heaviest forms, and o in the forms of intermediate weight. Thus the root rap-appears unaffected in the 2 aor. e-tap-ov, but assumes the form o and e in the 10 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. successively heavier words réuo-s, réu-v-w. This is par ticularly the case in the perfects of verbs, when the weight of a consonant is taken off from the vowel by the attrac tion of the consonant into the following syllable. Thus, in otpéqui and réutu, the first syllable is necessarily a Tpeºp-, Teutr-, but in the perfects -atpo-pa, ºrérou-pa, the p is drawn off to represent the lost guttural of the affix. (Be low 291, 300.) A comparison of such words as Adyos, Aéyw, orpoºn, orpépw, will shew us that the verb has lost a strengthening affix, probably ia, which contributed to throw back the last consonant of the root on the pre ceding vowel. b. Those which are the residuary forms of mutes: • from the dentals and gutturals, v from the labials (above 18 j.) 21 Vowels of the former class, when prefixed to vowels of the second class, may be pronounced in one breath, and are then called Diphthongs (3ſq607)a), or double sounds. The diphthongs with their English pronunciation, and Latin transcription, are as follows: English Pronunciation. Cºt et ot Latin Transcription. ai in aisle 00 ei in height oi in noisy O6 3 or e Cruz au in cause 020 ev eu in eulogy e?& ou ow in thou i. 22 The long vowels n and w are supposed to represent ee and oo, and generally involve an aspirate, or resolved guttural, or labial. In fact, n is considered etymologically equivalent to taº, of which ee is a fainter articulation, and * It has been mentioned above that m is equivalent to our long a Anglo-Saxon ii., The passage from wa to this sound may be seen in a comparison of the German ja with our yea. That it had this sound is proved by the definition: Öel rô m pièv čkqwwouvra umküveuv rô orröua is étri Ta dra ékatépw0sv, rô 38 tº Škºpovouvra umküvew Tä et\m as étri riiv giva kai tow trajywva (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 797), and by the passages from Cratinus (Etym. M. 196, 7): & 3' j\{0ios wortrep trpáBarov 37 37 Aéywv Bačíget: and Aristophanes (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 86): 6áew ue ué\\et kai kexeijet 37 Aéyeuv. Cf. Hesych. s. v. Bij Aéyet. BAmxāral i 66eral (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Ant. p. 40.) º ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 11 to ei or i as the contraction of ee. In Doric n is represented by a, and in Boeotic by et; and although e is lighter than o, n is heavier than w on account of the guttural thus represented by ; thus, from Tarmp we have atráTwp, from ppriv, orºgºpov; and we have the heavier words, 'Iraxtºrms, orrparturns by the side of troAirfrns. When these long vowels are prefixed to v, it can hardly be said that the result is a diphthong: on the contrary there is reason to believe that in nu, wu, the v was not sounded (Varronianus, p. 219). Thus aov is contracted into w, and not into ww. At any rate, when a, n, w are prefixed to , the latter is so completely absorbed that it is not generally written in the same line, but becomes what is called Iota subscriptum, or “Iota underwritten:” thus, g, n, ºp. This iota, how ever, is placed on the same line when it follows a capital: thus, "AIAHX = Atóns = ºns. 23 Some grammarians give the name of diphthong t to the combination vi ; but whenever this combination is a monosyllable, it is clear that it becomes so by the resump tion of a consonantal value on the part of the v, i.e. v is pronounced like our w. How the Romans pronounced their quadrisyllable Ilithyia, from Eixeſºvia, we do not know: but the analogy of fio and fui would lead to the conclusion that yi became in effect a long i. In general, it is not easy to recover the true pronunciation of the diph thongs, whether proper or improper. It is probable, that et and ev were articulated nearly as in English, but that av, oi, ov were sounded like the German au, 6, ou, or the English ow, e, 00 in how, mere, choose. A dog in Aristo phanes (Vesp. 903) barks ač, a 5: the bird's note på or pºwee, as in pewit, is written troſ (Aves, 227); and our natural exclamation ugh is expressed by the common interjection tou. 24 On the employment of a and e to represent vowels, the breathings were expressed by the first or second half of H written over the vowel affected by it: this notation has been revived by the Oxford press; but generally the smooth breathing (spiritus lenis, tvejua Nrixóv) is marked *; and the rough breathing, (spiritus asper, rvetua Čaoiſ) is marked.". If the word commences with a diphthong, the breathing is placed over the second vowel; not so when the second vowel is Iota subscriptum, or absorbed: com 12 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. pare ëyuſ, oios with "Aléns and #30. When a word or syl lable begins with p the rough breathing is always placed over that letter: when p is doubled, the first p takes the smooth breathing according to a general principle, which will be explained in its proper place (97): compare firitwp, rhetor with IIºjos, Pyrrhus. § IV. Origin and Arrangement of the Letters. 25 Mythology attributes to the Phoenician hero, Cad mus, the introduction into Greece of an original alphabet of sixteen letters; and the old grammarians have supposed that these sixteen were the following:— a, {3, Y, 3, e, , k, A, u, v, o, ºr, p, q, r, w (Schol. Dion. Thr. p. 781). There can be little doubt that the Greek alphabet is of Semitic origin, and there is every reason to believe that it originally consisted of four quaternions of letters: but it is a sound theory, which has been confirmed by the independent in vestigations of at least four or five different scholars, that for t, k, p, and v in the above list we must substitute n, 6, and the two obsolete characters' F (3a) and Q (kátºra), which are still retained as numerical signs after e and ir respectively, and that the original arrangement of these sixteen letters was as follows: A. BITA. E. F.H6. AMN. X. O. IIQT. This order is artificial and systematic, as we shall see, if we consider the original value of these characters. For A, E, and O, were originally the representatives of breathings of which A was the lightest, E the heaviest, and O of intermediate weight: F was an aspirated labial, H an aspirated guttural, and 6 an aspirated dental : so that the nine mutes stood thus, each set being preceded by its appropriate breathing or vowel:— Breathings, afterwards vowels. E O Labials. B F II Gutturals. T H Q Dentals. A 6 T Mediae Aspiratae Tenues * They are still found in inscriptions, the 8a0 before both consonants and vowels (Böckh. C. I. No. 11), the kórra only before o (id. ibid. No. 29, 37,166.) - ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 13 and the liquids A, M, N, X stood between the aspiratae and the tenues, because they probably completed a still shorter Semitic alphabet of only twelve characters. 26 When Ffell out, and H, the double aspirate, was taken to represent the double e, the first letters added to the above were v and p, two representatives of F, and x, the substitute for H in its original use. The other ad ditional letters were borrowed, as their names denote, from corresponding letters in the Hebrew alphabet, and from this was also taken the obsolete Xav, of which we have spoken above. The Greeks added, for their own convenience, a double o (called tº uéya, and written w), and two combina tions of Xſyua or Xav with II, in one of which the r pre ceded, while in the other it followed the sibilant. These combinations were called Yi and Xapart, and were repre sented by the same sign in different postures. YT preceded and Xapart followed "Q. Under the form TN, the Xapart was used to represent the number 900. 27 The Ionians in Asia Minor were the first to adopt the complete alphabet of twenty-four letters, arranged as we now have it. The Samians have the credit of being the earliest employers of this extension of the written charac ters, and it was from them that the Athenians derived the additional letters, although they were not used in public monuments until the Archonship of Euclides, Ol. 94, 2. B. c. 403. Hence we read of td. Ypdupara ºrd dir' Of course Herodotus, who was an important contributor to the literary intercourse between Samos and Athens, had brought the improved alphabet into use among men of education at a much earlier period, and Euripides expressly distinguishes between n and e as vowels in spelling the name engews (apud Athen. p. 454 c.). 28. The earliest extant approximation to anything like a handwriting is the inscription on the prize vase brought from Athens by Mr. Burgon, which cannot be later than 600 B.C. The only abbreviation observable in this is the Eikaeftov &pxovros. omission of e in the termination -6ev. The later Greeks used a number of contractions in their MSS., the commonest of which are given in the accompanying table. 14 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. CONTRACTIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS. M é ºw TOt Tat >:i pov Tris Tov os Tou ou Tou º ouk 7p r :: Trapa Tp Tep Tøv Trept Tov Tp ut Tpo uly y '677 e Trt pi wrep ep eu orðat ort : \ or 7t w Kott org" w ko. Tot or T : ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 15 § W. Syllables. 29 A syllable (orvXAaſri) is simple when it consists of a single vowel with or without a breathing. It is com pound when it consists of a vowel or diphthong with one or more consonants. A word (Aéis) consists of one or more syllables. No syllable or monosyllabic word contains more than six or seven consonants, as in aTpayå. 30 In regard to words of more than one syllable, the following rules apply to the division of the syllables: a. A solitary consonant, whether single or double, be tween two vowels, properly belongs to the second of them : as in e-xet, cº-pia, i-ka-vév, Ü-Nºn-Aos. £3. Two consonants are divided between the syllables which precede and follow, except in the case of a tenuis or aspirated mute followed by any liquid, or a medial mute followed by p, when, as the articulation is not divided, the compound sound passes on to the following vowel; thus we divide words as follows: d-trply-86-tank-ta, ś-pag-Xa-Ata ôn, Ba-pu-3p3-pos, #3-Aa-Nze. For the application of this rule to the quantity of syllables, see below 36, 37. 7. The first of three consonants belongs to the syllable which precedes; thus we divide as follows: éo-0A0s, éx (pós, òu-rvri, pudk-tpa, &c. 31 Etymology sometimes interferes with this rule respecting the division of syllables. In regard to the roots of verbs, the vocalization will often show that one or more consonants have been thrown back upon the root syllable. Thus a comparison of otpépw and réutro with their per fects &ortpopa, Tétropºpa, will show us that the first syllable of the present must be atpeºp-, repºr-, and the second syl lable of the perfect orpo-, trou- (above 20). For the same reason, compound words are divided according to their con stituent parts: as in kvvás-oupé, ék-tíðmu. 32 By a special rule the converse is made to apply to compounds with eis, é, trpás, 8vo-, which carry on their final sibilant to the next syllable when it begins with a vowel: thus they divided €-āyew, §v-ordpertos (Bekker. Anecd. p. 1128). But the correctness of this rule may be doubted. 16 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. §. VI. Prosody, or the Quantity and Accentuation of Syllables. a. Quantity. 33 Prosody (ºrpor:pāta), teaches, besides the breath ings (above 24), the quantity of syllables, or the time (Xpd vos) occupied in their utterance, and the accentuation of syllables, or the tone (róvos) with which they are pro nounced. 34 The shortest time in which a syllable can be pro nounced is called a mora, or single time. A short syllable has one mora: a long syllable contains two mora. 35 The quantity of syllables is determined either by the nature of the vowel, or by that of the consonants which follow : in the former case the quantity is said to depend on the nature of the vowel; in the latter, on the position of the consonants. 36 A Syllable is long by nature, when it contains a long vowel or diphthong; by position, when it is followed by a composite consonant—K, #, or Nº-or by two or more in which the articulation is divided (above, º 30 (3) 37 A Syllable is short when it contains a short vowel, and is followed by a single consonant, or by two consonants, in which the articulation is not divided (above, 30 (8.) Practically we find that while a short vowel is almost always short before Tp, *p, Tp : pp, Xp, 9p : 8p, Yp, 3p, generally short before TA, KA, TA: pā, XA, 8A: rv, kv ; Xv, 0w: Tu : rarely, if ever, short before (3A, YA; ºu, uv; all of which may begin a word; a short vowel may retain its quantity in the same word before ku, Xu, 6a, tv, pv, which cannot begin a word. This is simply the result of more or less facility of articulation. 38 . The natural quantity of the vowels e, o, is distin - - - guished by a difference of characters: for e, o, are always , short; m, w, always long by nature. 39 The quantity of a, , v is determined by etymology, and learned by experience. When they involve an absorption or contraction, they are necessarily long; when they repre ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 17 sent a mere residuum of articulation, they are necessarily short. In the dialects a frequently stands for an original n: in this case it is necessarily long. But in process of time, usage introduced pronunciations which violate these rules: thus kaAds, from kač-Ads, ought to be long by nature; but it is invariably short in Attic Greek: the comparative ending in -itov ought to be long by nature; but it is invari ably short in Epic poetry. £3. Accents. 40 The accent is the sharp or elevated sound with which some one of the last three syllables of a Greek word is regularly pronounced, and is called accordingly the “acute accent,” accentus acutus, dºeſa ºrporpèta, döös révos. It is indicated by a line sloping to the right over the vowel, or second vowel of the diphthong, by which the accentu ated syllable is articulated. 41 Every other syllable is supposed to have the “grave accent” (3apeſa Tporpéta), which, when expressed, is marked by a line sloping to the left. 42 The acute accent may stand on the ultima, penul tima, or antepenultima of a word. 43 Words are called oayton when the acute is on the ultima, as kpitifs; paroa/ton, when on the penultima, as Aóyos; and proparoayton, when on the antepenultima, as - Tvrtopuevos. 44 Paroxyton and proparoayton words are called barytons. 45 When an oayton word occurs in the middle of a sentence, its last syllable becomes baryton, and the accent is sloped to the left; thus we write: ei ºn pºntpvin rept Kaxxis Hepigota. These words are said to be “inclined” (3/k\ivöueva, Anecd. Bekker. 1142), and must be carefully distinguished from the enclitics (éykAttika), of which we shall speak directly. 46. The only other case, in which the grave accent is expressed, is when it is combined with the acute in a con tracted syllable, made up of two vowel-syllables, the former of which has the acute accent. Thus, if pixáo is contracted into pixò, or pºojaa into pixotoa, the grave of the second, as well as the acute of the first vowel, is expressed in the circumflex which is placed over the contracted syllable. D. G. G. 18 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. This combined accent is written" or", and when the ori ginal form was paroayton, the resulting word is called peri spomenon(trepigrºuevov); when proparoxyton, the new word is called properispomenon ("potrepio trajuevov). 47 In proparowytona, and therefore in properispomena, the last syllable is always short: and if the last syllable is short, and the penultima, being long by nature, is also accentuated, the word must be properispomenon. 48 In reference to accentuation, at and ot are con sidered short, except in cases where etymology teaches that there was an original longer form, as in the infin. -éval for -éueva!, and the optat. -at for -ele. 49 When the last syllable is long by position only, and the penultima long by nature, it is held that the word may be properispomenon, although, under the same circum stances, it could not be proparoa'yton ; thus, we might write Amuſovač, but not 'It triavač. 50 The accentuation depends upon the etymology or form of the word. For example, the sharp sound produced by a consonantal affix is naturally marked by the acute accent. Thus, the accentuation discriminates the root in 8tk-n and 70-km. 51 The following are the chief rules for practice in the accentuation of inflexions. a. l In Nouns, the accent of the oblique cases is always on the same syllable as in the nominative, unless some one of the general rules prohibits this. Thus we have orðua, adjuatos, but rougtov; divöpwros, dvěpatrol, but dvdpuitov, dvdpºrov ; éAtris, éAríčos, éArſèes, éAríðwv; and so forth. a. 2 In the first declension the gen, plural is always perispomenon, because -ów is here a contraction from dov. a. 3 For the same reason, the gen. and dat. of all numbers are perispomena in the first and second declen sions, when the nom. is oayton ; for dp0ns, opóð, are con tractions from dp06-yds, dp06-l. a. 4 In the third declension, monosyllabic nouns are oxyton in the gen, and dat, sing, and in the dat. plural, and perispomena in the gen, and dat, dual, and in the gen. plural: the other cases retain the accent on the root-syllable: thus we have xeip, xepās, xept, xépa, xeſpa, Yepov, xeport. 19 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. The same rule often applies to polysyllables in -mp, -épos, when they drop the e. a. 5 If the noun be oxyton and of more than one syllable, the accent will fall on the penultima in the oblique cases, which will be paroayton or properispomenon, accord ing to the natural quantity of the penultima. If the noun be not owyton, the gen. dual and plural will be paroa.gton, the other oblique cases proparoa.gton. Observ. The student will do well to bear in mind that a contraction of the termination does not affect the accent of the previous syllable: thus we have reixos, retxeos, reixovs: épi\ee, éptAet. 52 . (3.1 The general rule for the accentuation of Verbs is the following: the accent falls as nearly as may be on the root-syllable. £3. 2. Accordingly, if the form has more than two syllables, and if the ultima is short, the verb will be pro paroayton; if the ultima is long, paroayton; if there is a contraction in the former case, properispomenon ; if in the latter, perispomenon. The special rules, which seem like exceptions to this general rule, are the results of absorptions, which etymology explains. They are as follows: a. The aor. infin. in -éabat, the perf. infin. in -éval, the aor. infin. in -oral, and the perf. infin, pass. in -0at (when in the two latter cases the penultima is not long by nature) are always paroayton. b. The aor. infin. in -eſv, and the aor. subj. pass. in -6, -às, -n, are always perispomena. c. The aor. and perf infinitives excepted in (a), and the aor. subj. pass. in -øuev, -nte, -tool, are always properis €720. Thus the student will distinguish between trouía at 3 sing. l aor, opt. act. (above, 48), tonga, l aor. infin, act.(c), and troing at 2 sing. 1 aor. imper. middle (general rule). The participles follow the rules of nouns in regard to their oblique cases: the active participles of verbs in -ui, the aorists in -ºv, -ets, and the perfects in -as, being always oayton in the nominative, and the perfect passive in -uévos being always parodyton. 53 It has been remarked above, that all oaytons are barytoned, when they appear in connexion with other 2—2 20 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. words in the middle of a sentence. Besides this connexion between the accentuation of words and the cadence of the sentence in which they appear, there are other peculiarities of accentuation which are explicable from the same prin ciples. We refer to the doctrine of proclitics and enclitics. These are certain little words, which so entirely take their colour from the sentence in which they appear, that they are not conceived capable of any separate existence. They are called proclitics, when they stand before, and enclitics, when they follow, the word on which they depend, and to which they are, as it were, attached. 54 The Proclitics are the cases of the article which terminate in a vowel: 6, 7, oi, ai, and the particles év, els (és), Čk (&), ou (ovk), wis. These little words are sup posed to form a part of the words which follow them: just as if we wrote dratrip, oùxnuſy, for 6 trarip, oux juïv. Pro clitics receive an accent when they become emphatic by post-position or otherwise: as kaków &#, or ot, Aéyw, tº dvěpes'Abnvaſol, où. Although the other prepositions may seem to stand in the same combination, as eis, év, and éð, with the cases of their nouns, their consonantal commencement, or heavier forms, exhibit them as orytons. 55 The Enclitics are: a. The pr. indic. of elui and pnuſ, except the 2 sing. el and pris. b. The oblique cases sing. of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd personal pronouns, and the oblique cases dual, with some of the plural cases, of the third personal pronoun. c. All cases of the indefinite tis, the interrogative be ing always accentuated with the acute, as though it were an initial syllable. d. The indefinite adverbs ºrds, ºri, trot, row, troët, Troffév, Toré. e. The conjunctions rai, Té, Toſ, flºw, Yé, ké (kév), vº (viv), Tép, fid. Of these roi is sometimes proclitic as well as enclitic: thus we have rot ydip rol. a. If an enclitic follows an oayton, the acute accent is restored: as dp06s tis. ſ3. If it follows a proparoayton, or properispamenon, it affects the last syllable with an acute accent: as gratoré ue, anxóv ros. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 21 'y. If it follows a proclitic, it affects it with an acute accent; as et ris, tºo trep. 3. If two or more enclitics occur in succession, an accent may be added for every three syllables: as et rep ºrís are uot pngiv troté, where et rep ris and ris ore pot are considered to be successive proparoxytona. § VII. Stops. 56 In addition to the accents, which depend both on the word and on the sentence, the Greeks have several other marks to assist the reader, some of which refer to words alone, and others to the members of the sentence only. These are a. for the word: The apostrophe, which marks an elision, as in dºr’ &AAww for dro &AAww. rd The coronis, which marks a crasis, as in rapyūptov for dpyüplov. The diaeresis, which marks a division between two vowels, as in diorow. b. for the sentence: The full stop, as in ºrpäyua. The colon, as in trpayua The comma, as in trpáyga, The interrogation, as in trpáyua; The names, kóAov (“limb,” “member”) and kāppa (“a section”) refer to the parts of the sentence over which the influence of the stop extends: for the same reason, the full stop, which governs the whole sentence, is called a period. A similar mode of speaking is adopted by the Jews, who call their accents, which are modes of punctuation, kings, emperors, &c., according to their domain in the sentence. PART II. ETY MOLOGY. § I. Divisions of the Subject. 57 IN Etymology three subjects come under discus sion. First, the proper classification of different kinds of words; secondly, the principles which guide the analysis or dissection of an individual word; and thirdly, the pathology of words, or the changes which are introduced into their structure by the contact of incompatible articulations. § II. Classification of Words. 58. In the Indo-Germanic languages all words may be comprised in two general classes: the PRONoUNs, or words which indicate space orposition (puncta, eatremitates, and lineamenta); and the worDS CONTAINING ROOTS, which express the positional relations of general attributes. 59 In the former class, we find words, declinable or indeclinable, as the case may be, without any admixture with the other element of language. Words of the latter class require the addition of at least one pronominal suffix to make them words. 60 For this reason, we term the PRONoUNs or positional words, the organizing, constituent, or formative element of inflected language, and the Roots the material element. 61 By pronominal additions of a perfectly analogous nature, the same root becomes either a Noun or a verB, that is, it expresses either a thing, or an acting, or result of acting. The only etymological difference between the noun and the verb is this—that the pronominal suffixes, which mark the inflexions of the noun, are fixed or adverbial, while those which mark the persons of the verb are themselves ca pable of inflexion. When they lose this independent power of inflection they become intermediate affixes, and the crude verb is then capable of receiving a set of case inflexions, so that it becomes a noun. This sort of noun is called a par ticiple. 23 ETYMOLOGY. 62 As, then, the noun and verb spring from the same roots, or material part of language, and as their pronominal or positional affixes are strictly analogous, it is unnecessary to consider them as different parts of speech in an etymo logical classification; and the eight syntactical parts of speech when thus considered will fall into two great classes, represented by the following table: Syntactical. Etymological. Preposition Formative element, or pronoun º} - ronoun Numeral Noun Material element combined with pronoun Verb - { Adjective Substantive { Participle Verb. The interjection is either an unmeaning cry or the vocative case of a noun. The adverbs are either pronomi nal words or cases of nouns. The numerals are adjectives in Syntax, though etymologically pronouns. § III. Analysis of Words. 63 . The analysis of words depends upon our ability to discriminate between the positional and material elements of language. 64 Some of the roots are of positional or pronominal origin; but the analysis of a word does not inquire into the origin of its separate parts: it is satisfied with proving that they are separate. 65 In the Greek, as in other languages of the Indo Germanic family, the root is a monosyllable or quasi-mono syllable, which appears as the variable part in a number of - words which are otherwise identical. In compound words there are two or more of such roots, but their disintegration is a different, and easier, task than that which we are now describing. 66 We conclude à priori that the constant part in the identical forms, which are thus varied by differences of root, is of pronominal origin; and we find on examination that all the elements of it can be referred to one or other of the primitive pronouns. 24 ETYMOLOGY. 67 There are three primitive relations of position: here, near to here, and there, or juata-position, provinity, and distance. 68 The three primitive articulations, which are used to express these three relations of position, are the three primitive tenues II Q T, pronounced pa, qva, ta; which we shall call the first, second, and third pronominal elements. 69 Whatever syllable, in the constant or positional accompaniments of roots, either contains one of these ele ments, or can be proved to have been derived from it, is to be explained in the same way as the pronominal element itself. 70 The first pronominal element, denoting juata-posi tion or here, is used to express (a) the first personal pro noun; (b) the first numeral; (c) the point of departure in InOtlon. 71 The second pronominal element, denoting proacimity or nearness to the here, is used to express (a) the second personal pronoun; (b) the relative pronoun; (c) the reflexive pronoun. 72 The third pronominal element, denoting distance, is used to express the third personal pronoun; (b) nega tion; (c) separation. 73 . The first pronominal element appears in Greek under the forms tra and pa only. 74 The second pronominal element, being originally a compound of guttural and labial, may present any form of the guttural, and any form of the labial (see above 18 j) except ua, which is strictly appropriated to the first ele ment. The derivation is in each case so easy, that no con fusion can take place. The greatest apparent difficulty arises from the appearance of T, 6, or 3 only, instead of the combination Ti, 6, 8, representing the sound j. But this is only an apparent difficulty, for the original form presents itself in the first stage of the investigation. 75 . The third pronominal element appears only as ra or va, the remaining dental articulations being appropriated to replace the sibilants which result from the guttural part of the second element. The form va is sometimes transposed to av according to 19. b. 1, and the v often evanesces, according to 85, 106, 114. Ö 76 The dental sibilants, which have attached them ETYMOLOGY. 25 selves as secondary forms to the second element, obtain a fixed value in the articulations pa or Aa, which imply mo tion either to or from. 77 If any one of the elements of position is combined with paaXa, it indicates motion and continuation in a direction of which the element in question represents the point nearest to the subject; and by subjoining any one of the pronominal elements to any other of them, we denote a motion or continuation from the position denoted by the first of these combined elements towards that denoted by the second of them: and so on if there are more. 78 The following are some important exemplifications of this principle. Pronominal Words and Forms. tra-pa (= 1 + pa), “motion from here.” (482) w[a]-po-ti (= 1 + pa + 3), “motion from here to there." 483). ra-pa (3 + pa), “motion from thence.” ta-Fa (3 + 2) “motion from thence to this neighbourhood,” i.e. “approximation.” (This combination is used to express the number 2). Ta-Fa-pa (3 + 2 + pa), “motion from the point gained, as in the last combination.” (This combination is used to express the number 3.) Ta-tos (3 + 3), “thence to there” (used to express the superlative, as rapa expresses the comparative). pe-td (1 + 3), “companionship, or pursuit with a view to companionship.” à-ua (2 + 1), “conjunction.” Root-words. 79 In exemplifying the analysis of words containing roots, we may select one which will show to the student how the pronoun may become applicable to the formation of a root; and consequently how the formative element may resolve itself into the material. The first pronominal com bination mentioned above—namely, tra-pd—appears as the root of a large and important class of words, denoting actions which, in the strictest sense, imply and express their ema nation from the subject as opposed to the object. The full investigation of this and other like procedures, belongs to a 26 ETYMOLOGY. higher field than elementary grammar. It will be sufficient in this place to represent the facts as phaenomena. tra-pa, pronominal word or preposition, “from the side of.” ré-pa-v (1 + pa + 3 = A +3) adverb, “on the other side.” tre-pd-w, verb, “to pass over.” Tri-T-pd-okw, “to cause to pass over,”—“to sell.” T-pa-yos (A + 2 + 3), noun, “an outward action." T-pa-yya = ºrpärra (A + 2 + 2), verb, “to perform such an action.” ºr-pd-y-pa-T (A + 2 + [l +3].) verbal noun, “such an action considered in reference to its performance.” T-pa-y-ua-ti-kā-s (A + 2 + [l + 3 + 2), adjective, “a person capable of acting.” “tº (A + 2 + Él + 3 + 2]), subst, “proce ure. Tpāy-oris = ºrpääts (A + 2 + 2), “acting,” and so on. § IV. Pathology. 80 From this short specimen it will be seen that the analysis of words, or the search for roots, presumes some knowledge of the legitimate interchanges or commutations of letters. The explanation of this tendency to change is called the Pathology (; trafloxoºkri) of a language, or the doctrine of the affections (traffn), to which it is liable. 81 That letters pronounced by the same organ may be commuted for one another, is a fact which our daily expe rience teaches us: and no man can be acquainted thoroughly with his own language without having had his attention drawn to sundry changes resulting from dialectical differ ences of pronunciation, or an attention to what is called Euphony. The Pathology of the Greek language is not a treatise on Greek Dialects, but an explanation of phaeno mena in the language generally; a discussion which involves not only the question of dialects, but also those referring to the mutilations and corruptions which, according to the leading principles of Hellenism, may be expected to take place. A. Affections of Consonants. 82. A consonant may be changed either (I) at the end; (II) in the middle; or (III) at the beginning of a word. In the first of these cases, the change will proceed from some absolute law of the language operating on a previous ETYMOLOGY. 27 alteration: in the second, from the letters which precede or follow : in the third, generally some change within the word, which brings into operation the rules of the second CaSe. 83 (I) It is an absolute law of the Greek language that no word can end with a mute, or with any other con sonant than the three semi-vowels a, v, p. For those, which terminate in § and Nº, are always combinations of a guttural or labial with s. And if we meet with oux, oux, and ék, we must remember that the two former never occur at the end of a sentence, or before a consonant; and that the latter is always prefixed to some word beginning with a con sonant. In fact, ovk, or oux, is a mutilation of ow-ke, and ék or é of é-kis: and being thus affected by the words which immediately follow them, these monosyllables are proclitic (above 54). 84 Of the other three consonants which may be finals, v is often a representative of s, or contains it by absorption (95), and p is of comparatively rare occurrence. Moreover, when s is the final letter, it must not be preceded by a dental or the liquid v (92,93). 85 The letters v, s, which are of most frequent occur rence at the end of words, are themselves of such a weak and fleeting consistency, that they often become inaudible, and are omitted in writing. It is a rule that -vt- at the end of a word should become a, i. e. the T cannot stand, and the v evanesces: see below (106.) This is called apocopé (drokotri) or apobole (diroſłoxii). The moveable v is com monly termed v ćpeAkva:rików, or “w attached,” as if it were an arbitrary and secondary adjunct. But this is known to be an erroneous doctrine. We find a moveable v in a. datives plural in -iv, 3 p. pl. in -oriv, c. 3 p. sing, in -ev, b. d. in tauta-v, roorooro-v, rotooro-v. e. in the suffixes -giv, flew, pu, and in certain particles, such as kev, vvv, Taxiv, vörðu, everev, &c. f. in the numeral eikoaw. We find a moveable s at the end of éð, mentioned above, and in the following indeclinable words: drpépas, Šutras, ripégas, audis, uéxps, äxps, row\ikis, uéganºvs, ottws. 28 ETYMOLOGY. In the following there is generally a distinction of mean ing, when the s is omitted: dupis, évrikpus, eúðſs. . In the imperative, the 2. p. s. generally loses its s. But in axés, q'pés, and some verbs in pu, it is retained. It will be seen that the letters v, s become evanescent also in the middle and at the beginning of words (106, 114). 86 (II.) The Greek language does not tolerate the fol lowing combinations of consonants: pp, uM, (3v, 3M, px. Whenever they appeared in the Pelasgian language, we have in Greek the following substitutes: pſ3p or £3p for pºp, as in d-uſ?poros, and in Épotós for uoptos: and p/8A or for ux, as uéuſłAwka and 8Awakw from éuoxov : uv for £3v, as in orepºvds for ore/3-vás: and AA for 3A or p2, as in kax\ds, afterwards kaads, from kað-Ads. 87 Whenever a labial precedes p in the middle of a % word it is changed to p, as in Ypdºpw, ºpau-uń. 88 The diplasiasmus (8ttàaotaorugs), or doubling of the liquid, in the last two cases, is termed assimilation, and is of very frequent occurrence (100). 89 When a tenuis or aspirate guttural stands before p, it is often changed into a medial; as in TAéy-ua from TAéx-w. But there are exceptions, as depri. 90 Tenues and aspirate dentals remain unchanged only before the dental liquids A, v, p. 91 Before other dentals, and the labial liquid u, any dental may be changed into a as in ola-6a for olò-6a, do-um for 0.8-mm. But we also find such forms as kev6adv, trótuos. The combination a 6 seems to have been peculiarly pleasing to the Greek ear, and many structures are due to this predilection. We may also remark that or or 6 often intrudes itself before u in verbal forms, such as the noun in -uos, or the perfect passive in -uai. Compare 0eo-pids from Tíðnut (root fle), fiv6-16s from piſto, with fixov-o-pal, ſixoiſ o-0my from drovo, kéxpt-a-ual, éxpt-a-0ny from Xptw. In all these cases, it may be a question whether there was not a digamma still partially represented by or v. 92. Before or, the dentals are dropped; as Aamird-s for Aaptrae-s, orºua-ort for aduat-gi. 93 The same is the case with the dental liquid v; as in 8atuo-ort for Čaſuov-ori from 8aludv-tort. 94 But if a dental mute is omitted along with v before o, the absorption is represented by a lengthening of the ETYMOLOGY. 29 vowel, or by the substitution of et, ov for e, of thus for Tavr-gi we have Tá-ai; for a révô-ow, a retaw; for Túr Tovt-ori, Türtovori. 95 At the end of a word, -ov-s becomes -ov; -ovt-s either -wv or -ovs; -evs and -evts become -my or -eis, -For-s, or -Fo-s, becomes -os, -op-s becomes -top. Thus we have: Baiutov, Tvrtov, dēows, kreis, Tifleſs, Tervºpuis, Acºs, firſtep, for 6aiuovºs, Türtovt-s, 686vt-s, ktév-s, riflév-s, retupôt-s, Aarós, £ntop-s. Obs. There are some few exceptions to these rules, such as Trépay-gai from paiva, Auws for £Auv0-s, &c. which explain themselves. The preposition év, when lengthened by -s, becomes els: but when it precedes or or (in composition, it remains unchanged: the reason for this also is obvious. 96 When (3 and p, or y and X stand before or, they are changed into trand k respectively, and the compound sound is written N, or É. Compare the Latin scribo, scrip si, scrip-tum, and rego, reari, rec-tum. That the aspiration is lost, is clear from its transference to the beginning of the word: as in 6pévo, #w, from 7pépw, Éxw. This is due to the connexion between the aspirate and the sibilant, which may also explain the omission of a between two aspirated letters, as in Tétvq?-6e for Tétvq?-a-0e. 97 For the same reason an aspirate can never stand before another aspirate of the same organ, but is changed into the corresponding tenuis; as in the forms Bászos, Xatrºpw, III+0ews. 98 The same rule applies to two successive syllables, where the former is the result of reduplication; thus we have reqíAnka, Tíðmul, and not peºpſanka and 6:0mui. The formative syllable 0n of the l aor. pass. is retained, whether an aspirate precedes or follows it: thus we have riſq-0m-ri, éré-0m-v, and not riſmºrn–0, €6é-rmy or riſq,0m-6, 406-0mv. 99. With regard, however, to letters of different organs, the following rule applies without exception: a tenuis only can precede a tenuis ; a medial, a medial ; and an aspirate, an aspirate. Hence from étra, Škºro, we have effoopios, 3yêoos, with a double change: and hence the root-letter is changed by the termination; as in Ypartós, ypg|38mv from Ypdºw, and TAex0eſs, tuq,0eſs, from Taekw, Türtw. So also, in composition and synaloepha, we have éq6muepos from fºrta ritépal, and vix6" &Anv from vökta ÖAmv. :k 30 ETYMOLOGY. Obs. The proclitic preposition és, for €ks, in composi tion, is preserved from this change by the supposed inter vention of its original s : thus we have exteſval, ékéoùval, ék/3dAAéiv, Škyevéo-0a, Čkºpečyev, &c. 100 The consonants most frequently doubled are the liquids, and t as the representative of a. The doubling of these letters is generally indicative of assimilation. 101 Besides the cases already mentioned (above, 88), the following are of frequent occurrence. a. The former of two consonants is assimilated to the latter: a to v, as év-vvu for £o-vvut; k or x to o, as 8to-ords for 8ty-gos (3156s); YAda-ora, Attice y\otta, for y\ox-ora; 8, r, 0 to or, as reo-ords for treč-ords, pºéAto-ora for uéAut-ora, /3vo-ords for £3v0-ords. The assimilation in 'Arrikri for’Akrikri is peculiar. Before a guttural, v is invariably written y (above, 18 a); before a labial, it is always changed into p. ; and it is always assimilated to a following liquid. We find this chiefly in compounds with év, avy, and raxiv.; such as: êykaA6, Šupuavis, éAAdytuos; ovyyevris, orvuqépw orvégitta ; Traxtykoros, Taxipuljknk, &c. (see also below, 320). 102 (3. The latter of two consonants is assimilated to the former; as in 6A-Avui for 3A-vvut. The assimilation of a to a preceding p is regular in Attic Greek; thus we have dippnv for dpornu, flagfielv for flaporeſv, &c. 103 But this sort of assimilation is most usual when the second consonant is represented by a softened or vocal ized guttural, equivalent to our y, and expressed in Greek characters by e or . Thus for Yeved we have Yévva, for 0mAéo 64AAw, for Krávyw kºrévve, for &Atos &AAos, for poxtow pºov; so too uáAAov for pºdatov, moroſov for hklov, &c. And in a very large class of verbs, the sh or j, resulting from the combination of a guttural or dental with y, is ex pressed by org. Thus, from the gutturals with y, we have Tpdoorw, qappdorow, rapdoorw, TAñorato, &c. for Tpdyyw, ºpapudkyw, rapdxyw, TAñyyw, &c.; and, from the dentals with y we have tºdaaw, tudoow, kopſgow, &c. for TAditya, indvtya, kopſøyw, &c. In these cases the Attic substitutes Tr for oro. 104 By the side of this assimilation we often have a transposition or hyperthesis (109) of the 1, which represents this softened guttural. Thus, by the side of AAw, ktévvo, ºpdevvos, kpéa gov, Yéſipov, &c. we have elaw, ktetvw, pdet 31 ETYMOLOGY. vos, kpetootov, Yeipov, &c. In some words this double com pensation is always found, as in uéíčov for ueytov, and in others the transposition alone remains, as in Kaepa for Kapia, Yevéreſpa for Yeverepia, uéAava for ueAdvia, rºttes for riſm"reori. 105 The arbitrary doubling of liquids is due to the operation of a different principle of euphony: it is chiefly found in proper names; thus we have TIapóevvotraſos, though from tdp0évos, and 'Irröðappos for 'Introëapºos. So also fi is regularly doubled, when a simple vowel is placed before it at the beginning of a root, as in défferns or lodgāo tros from 5étro. 106 The liquids or and v have a tendency to become fleeting and evanescent when they are flanked on both sides by short vowels. The former is changed into the rough breathing, the latter into the nasal breathing, and thus they pass off from the want of characters to express them. Compare riſtºrm, rurreal with riflegal, and peſovs, pet(oes, with uetºoves. It is not unusual to find v repre sented by a before another consonant, or even at the end of a word. Thus we have retiſqatat for retiſºvral, ow {otato for ordſ' owto, rarepa for traitepv, &c. If the combination vºr is left at the end of a word it always becomes a. All neuter plurals are examples of this (156). So also 3é-ka for Fé-kev'r (below 245). 107 With regard to the interchange of particular con sonants with one another, it may be laid down as a general rule, that only those of the same organ are susceptible of this commutation. If it ever appears that a consonant has passed into one of a different organ, there must have been an original form which contained both consonants in combination (above 18.j). Thus kexatvös and uéAav spring from an original kuéâav. The most important instance of this apparent interchange is that between it, k, r in the relatives and relative particles. 108 The most common of the regular interchanges are those of the dental liquids A, v, p with one another, and of the sibilant a with v, p, and the dental mutes. Thus we have £3évriatos by the side of BéAttoros TAetſutov - kpi/3avos - - - - - - - Tveiſuov KA:flavos 32 ETYMOLOGY and r r ºrwarropuev for rurroues oríop – 6eds º r .orv - Tu. That the sequence of has an especial tendency to produce this last change, we have already seen (18 c). The Attic habitually substitutes TT for go : as in Tpdºr Tw, y\6tra for Tpdoorw, YAdorora (above, 100, 101, 103). 109 Liquids, aspirates, and the sibilants, are liable to a change of place which is called Metathesis (uetá0ers) when confined to the same syllable, and Hyperthesis (Utrépôeats), when it passes the limits of a single syllable. ' 110 The former is very common: thus we have kauvºo, kéxpnka ; 0\makw, flavov; 6dporos, 6pdaos; Épéal, Ééčai; &c. This sometimes occasions the insertion referred to above (86): as in hu-3-porov for huaptov, peanuſ?pia for péan riuépa, &c. 111 "The following are instances of Hyperthesis: 60yelos for voteios, rvić, gen. Trvkvds, truexos from TAvva, Karayåos from ékTAñorga, àx\os for 3Axos, &c. Hyperthesis very frequently occurs in regard to the aspirate and the letter , considered as the representative of a lost guttural; indeed, this is sometimes the rule (see 96, 104). We have an in stance of the latter hyperthesis in elv for éví, of the former in d ºppotºos for 6 Tpo děod, and of both cases in eſv -eka for evi ekot. 112 Prospective absorptions are referable, perhaps, to the same euphony. Thus we have 8torkos for 3ſk-akos, wdoxo for traff-a-ku, &c. 113 (III.) The affections of initial consonants are gene rally dependent upon some change within the word which brings into operation the rules applicable to consonants in the middle of the word. Thus we have 8porós for poptés, from the same metathesis and euphony which give us épéporos for duoptos; we have £3Adokw for uda-oko, just as we have péuſ?Awka for uépidAmra, &c. 114 The evanescence of or, or its subsidence into an aspirate at the commencement of a word, is almost a rule of the language when a vowel follows. We have sometimes both forms as in oils, Vs; ordaaraa or 6daaga'a for &Aarga by the side of dias. But more frequently we have an ETYMOLOGY. 33 aspirate in Greek where the cognate Latin words retain the s: compare WAFn with sylva', exas with secus, Épiro with serpo, Atos with sol, ÉÉ with ser, étra with septem, it vos with somnus, &c. The element va often appears as d-, when prefixed to nouns as a sign of negation, and it is always reduced to 3-, when prefixed to verbs as a temporal augment. 115 The same will sometimes apply when the or pre cedes a consonant, as in 3doklos for (dokios = orodoktos. 116 This moveableness of a at the beginning of a word has given rise to the opinion, that it is sometimes an arbi trary prosthesis, as in a-karta, by the side of köttw, a-keedv vvui by the side of keódvvvu, &c.; and so also when v evan esces: but in these cases we recognise fragmentary repre sentatives of lost prepositions, which also appear under the forms ar-, do-, or div-, dva-, softened into un-, v-, and d-. (See Pott, Et. Forsch. II. 127, sqq.) 117 The guttural mutes k, y, x, also subside into a mere breathing, and are lost at the commencement of a word, as in kaxw86 by the side of dauvè6, kapráApos by the side of dpiraxéos, kvépas by the side of vépos, yaſa by the side of ala, YAavkés by the side of Aevkós, x\iapós by the sides of Alapds, x\aſva by the side of Aalva, &c. The digamma contains a labial as well as a guttural (18.j); and hence we see that while the labial element is sometimes expressed by a consonant, it is sometimes lost with the whole com pound sound: as in pdoxos (for uðy-orkos) by the side of 3rkos (cf. veh-0, vac-ca), uta by the side of ſa, unpūo by the side of épúw, uov6oMeſo by the side of Öv6oxeſw, pºſpaś by the side of ºpač, 3p3?ov by the side of £6809, &c. 118. A denta sometime supersedes sibil l s the ant or probably through the former (above, 18 f); as in i . d'Aago a for ordaaaaa, BéAw for £Aw, Seſan from ean, &c. It may also be surmised that the dental liquids are subject to the same rule: cf. Aarºnpäs with alympás, Aeſ/30 with eiðw, AdXun with éxun, &c. The aspirated dental liquid p seems sometimes to involve a dental mute, and sometimes an aspirated labial; of the former we have instances in T-pi/30, 8é-pkw, 3-pérw, &c.; of the latter, in 3-pââov, mentioned above, in firiyvvut by the side off-rango, &c. * cröAn is found in the old compound Xkartn-gūMm, the name of a place in Thrace. D. G. G. 3 34 ETYMOLOGY. B. Affections of Vowels. 119 The affections of vowels may be divided into two classes: (1) those which arise from the contact and coa lescence of vowel-syllables, which also exist separately; (2) those which emanate from the operation of some etymo logical principle, whether it be the vocalization of a conso nant, or the subsequent hyperthesis of the consonant so vocalized. These are the only affections which take place within the sphere of a given word. The changes of the primary vowels according to characterize differences of form (above, 20 a.); and the diphthongal coalescence of these primary vowels with the residuary mutes i, u, can hardly be considered as a casual affection. There are, more over, vowel-changes, which are due to the caprices of provin cial pronunciation, and which mark differences of dialect. Such are the substitutions of a for an original m, which take place after a vowel or p in Attic (below, 161), and generally in Doric, as compared with Ionic. We have also p-à, A-à, where we should otherwise find o or e (181, 185). The Attic, however, retains the original m in old words, such as formul, Xpna.0al, &c. Other such changes are the substi "tution of eu for ov, o for a, el for n, a for ei, et for ol, nv for a and for ev, a for o, öny for Čop and 3a. Compare the AFolic éued with épov, the Boeotic ovéðelke for avéðnke, at for et, the Doric oikei for oſkoi, the Ionic ērvirtóunu for étiſ trouai, the Attic priv for uév, Ural for Utró, and kpſºa, kpupmööv, by the side of kptºnv. These varieties must be learned by a study of the authors and of inscriptions. . 120 The first class of vowel-affections, or the coa lescence of vowel-syllables, is called synalaphe (avva»oupſ), or “fusion.” 121 Of this synalaphe there are three principal varie ties. (a.) synaeresis (avvaſpearis) “contraction,” which com bines two successive vowel-syllables in the same sound. (b.) crasis (kpāoris), “mixing,” which combines two suc cessive vowel-syllables at the end of a word and at the beginning of a word which follows. (c) ecthlipsis (Éx0Avis), “elision,” which unites two successive words by omitting a short vowel at the end of the former of them. When synapresis or crasis, takes place in effect, without an actual expression in writing, it is called synizesis (avvíčnois), “sub sidence.” 35 ETYMOLOGY. Contraction. 122 a. There are two kinds of contraction: the pri mary, which is merely diphthongal; and the secondary, which substitutes a long vowel, or diphthong, for two vowels which do not admit of diphthongal combination. 123 The former has been already discussed under the head of pronunciation (21–23). 124 The secondary, which melts down two vowels into one vowel or diphthong, is guided by the following rule: ea = oo: E 3 2 ae = a l aa = a oto = to 7 ee E et to oe = ov eo E ou' oo E ou 5 4 an = a cro E 00 en = n eco E to oto - a) on = n Or to In the dual of the 3rd declension ee seems to be contracted into n; but this arises really from the original form in -ea: thus we have both retxea and reixee by the side of the contraction retxn. There is reason to believe that the con traction of ae into n is more ancient than that of ae into a . comp. Totnut, Ús, Xpnodal with tufts and Tuárðal. 125 If in the first three columns we add , the con tractions in col. 1 are all written at ; in col. 2, g and ol appear for a and ov, while et remains unchanged: in col. 3 p, oi, or appear for o, ov, ov. In columns 4 and 5, sub script is subscript also in the contraction. 126 If v is added to o in column 3, the contraction remains unaltered: for wu = 0 (above 22), and ovv = ov. 127 The following are examples: (A) Simple contractions. Col. 1. Adas = Aas 2. de6Rov = &0\ov #:: 6pm dºee = p(\et aiðda = atóð &n\dere = *n\oºre 36 ETYMOLOGY. 3. 4. Tudouev = tutºuev ‘ptAéopiev = q^i\oupev Tudn'te = Tipăre pixente = plante vods = vows dirAdn = dràn &nAdn'te = *n\tore 5. tudio = Tuđ ºpi\éw = p(A& xpvrów = xpvoº, 128 (B) Double contractions. l 2. xpúa'ea = xpvaaf tude - Tipá ºptAéet = p^eſ dºrAdai = dirAaſ on Nöel = &nxoſ 4. and 5. 3 Tudouev = tuguev pi\éouev = q^i\oſuév tudn = Tipá ‘plain = pi\n xpvrée &n\dot = n\of - Xpwgä arãon = dràn dràote = drag 129 The following are exceptions: deſpº - aipº deukſa = alkta pua 06m = uta:007. Crasis. 130 b. There are two kinds of Crasis. In the proper crasis there is a real coalition of two vowels in a lon vowel or diphthong, as in rotºros for to Éros, xi.; for kai 3, rapyūptov for to apºptov. In the improper crasis, the long vowel at the end of a word appears unchanged, and absorbs the short vowel at the beginning of the word fol lowing, as in m 'yū, 'i'un. 131 If the preceding word begins with a consonant, it is usual to place a coronis (56) over the new compound vowel, whether it was originally aspirated or not, the aspirate being indicated by the affection of the consonant in the preceding syllable; thus we write kouk and 6árepa for ka! ouk and ºrd repa. But if the preceding word is a mono syllable beginning with a vowel, it is sufficient to indicate ETYMOLOGY. 37 the breathing of that preceding monosyllable, as in durip for 6 durip. 132 When the first syllable of the second word has an accent, it is lost altogether in the improper crasis: thus we write un věov, not ºn"vöov. But in the proper crasis, the second vowel alone retains its accent: thus we write Tāaxa from ra &AAa, X&rav from kal &rav, rápa from rol dpa ; and when the second word is atonic, the crasis does not affect it with an accent; thus we have kei from kai ei. 133 Prepositions in composition are liable to crasis, because this is not considered as synthetic or true composi tion, but merely as a parathesis or juxta-position: thus we write ºrpoiſ0nkev for Tpoéðnkev, trpoºxoviras for trpoéxoviras. But an aspirate will hinder the crasis in this instance: thus we have trpoéoval by the side of rpoºxoval. 134 There are a few cases of double crasis: as karðA Awy for kał & 'Ardaxov, Hippon. Fr. XXIII (16), and xijöovis for kai d "Aéovis. Synizesis. 135 Synizesis may be considered as the incipient stage of synaeresis or crasis. It is in reality a synalaphe, but does not exhibit itself in the written forms. 136 As a substitute for synaeresis within the word, it appears most frequently in those cases where e before a, o, w is pronounced like our y; thus édiawkev is a trisyllable, 6eos a monosyllable, ºrdNews a disyllable. Sometimes we find the same value assigned to 1, after a guttural or dental, as when kapčía becomes a disyllable” (see above 17, 18). Sometimes o or v have the force of our w, as in 37800s and 8volv, which are disyllables and monosyllables respectively in Homer and Sophocles. There are some who would express the synizesis of e by elision within the word: thus Dindorf writes voxata in Eurip. Alc. 103. 137 As a substitute for improper crasis, we find syni zesis of n, et, w, before vowels, whether long or short, and even diphthongs; thus we have synizesis in un ov, Štre ov, &n oikriorov, tºrto Hpak\ns, 'Evva\tº dvěpeiçávril, and so forth. * Dindorf would write kapga in three passages of AEschylus (vid. Steph. Thes, 11, p. 1106 D.) 38 ETYMOLOGY. Ecthlipsis. 138 c. Ecthlipsis, or elision, properly speaking, applies only to a short vowel at the end of a word before a vowel whether long or short at the beginning of the word follow ing, and its proper mark is the apostrophe (56): thus we have Tax āv for Táxa div, oids + iv for oiás re ºv, dºp' of for dro ov, p 5 for ét} º, and so forth. Besides the apo strophe, a change of accentuation sometimes marks the eli sion, according to the following rule: if the elided vowel had an accent, it loses this in the case of particles: but nouns and verbs substitute an acute on the preceding syl lable: thus we have dir'âAAwv for dro àAAww, but Ért' #orav for étr+d £orav. 139 The following short vowels are not liable to eli sion: (a) e in the 3rd person, which adds an v, (b) o in the genitives in -oto, -ao, (c) in rept, ti, &ti, and the dative sing. of the 3rd declension. With regard to the latter, apparent exceptions belong to synizesis. Homer elides the final of the dative plural: not so the Tragedians. 140 The apparent elisions of -a belong to synizesis. Ectasis. 141 The second class of vowel-affections is known by the general name of ectasis (éktaris), productio, or “length ening.” It may generally be considered as a substitute for some lost consonant, and frequently appears as a transposi tion or hyperthesis. We have already considered this in its connexion with the assimilation of consonants (above 104). But, for the sake of system, the doctrine must be formally stated here, in its relation to the pathology of vowels. 142 Primary ectasis appears as a direct insertion of or v without transposition. Thus we have befovº by the side of 3éovs, riotºxav for rſynv, Šešidorów for Šešćg.00, and so forth. So also we have uovos by the side of uévos, vov oros by the side of vooros, oùAduevos by the side of 6Aduevos, and the like. But there are etymological reasons for these insertions of v. 143 This insertion of t (if it can be called an insertion, for strictly speaking it indicates the primitive form), very commonly represents itself under the form e, with that palatal pronunciation which so often yields to synizesis. In Boeotian inscriptions we have the forms dyww.offeriovros, ETYMOLOGY. 39 Xopayiovros, &c., for which the Ionians wrote, probably with symizesis, dyovo0eréovros, Xopayáovros, &c., and the Attics the contractions dywofferouvros, Xopayouvros, &c. Compare also repéðouai with deſpo = dépyw, mºre with evre, dAntºnín (pronounced dAnóñym) with dArifleia, &c. 144 As we have already seen, an apparent ectasis with ! is often nothing more than an hyperthesis of that letter. The same occasionally happens with v. Thus éAaúva (root éAa-) is to be explained by a transposition in the formative adjunct vu-. 145 This hyperthesis must be carefully distinguished from the strengthening of or v in the root, by the prefix e or o. Thus reiða, and wéro:6a exhibit modifications of the root trið-, found in 3-tº-ov; ortreſów and ortrovëri, kéAévôos and dróAov6os, point to lost rootsin which valone appeared: whereas ué\aiva and éAaúva exhibit transpositions of the and v. It is possible, indeed probable, that the e, o, pre fixed to the root-vowels , v, may have originated in hyper thesis, but, even then, this, as a transference into the root, must be distinguished from the other transferences which are more distinctly consonantal, and more formally termi national. In comparative grammar the strengthening of a root by prefixing e, o is known by the Sanscrit name guna, i.e. “corroboration.” The substitution of n (involving a vocalized guttural) for a is also a kind of guna, which ºl. half-way between the prefix e, o, and the hyperthesis Of t. PART III. IN FLEXION. CHAPTER I. DECLENSION OF Nouns AND PRONoUNs. * § I. General Remarks. 146 It has been already shewn that every noun and verb in the Greek language may be reduced, by stripping off an affix, prefix, or both, to some single syllable, which constitutes its meaning, and which is found also in other words of cognate signification. This ultimate element we call the root, stem, or basis of the word. 147 The prefix may generally be stript off at once, but the removal of the affix is often a double operation. To confine ourselves for the present to the noun, we find that almost every word of this kind ends with a short termina tion, often a single letter, which marks its immediate rela tion to the other objects in connexion with it, and which we call the case-ending. But in the majority of nouns, we find, between this and the root, an affix, consisting of one or more pronominal stems, which marks the definite class and quality of the noun, and points out the restriction with which the general force of the root is applied in the parti cular instance. When the case-ending alone is removed, the remaining part of the word is called its crude, or unin flected form, whether it has another pronominal affix or not. The affections of the uninflected form, as such, belong to a different subject—that of the formation of words by deriva tion or otherwise (Part IV). At present we are concerned only with the cases of the noun. 148 The Greek noun (8voua, nomen) is either sub stantive or adjective: the former expresses a person or thing; the latter expresses the quality of a person or thing; or, to speak more strictly, the former expresses an appro priated, the latter an unappropriated quality. º 41 INFLEXION. 149 The Greek noun has five cases (ºrridores, casus): three numbers (dpiðuot, numeri), singular, dual, and plu ral: and three genders (yevn, genera),—masculine, feminine, and neuter. 150 The five cases are the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. Properly speaking, the vocative (KAntikri) is not a separate inflexion, but is either the crude form, or the same as the nominative. And the nominative (suffeſa or dp0m, casus rectus) stands opposed to the geni tive (yevikſi, kºrn-rikri, "ratpukm), dative (êotikri, érioraxrikm), and accusative (alriatikm), which are called TAdytal trai gets, casus obliqui. The Stoics and Peripatetics differed as to the reason for calling these inflexions Trégets, casus, “fallings.” 151 The genitive may be translated by “ of, from, out of, by”: the dative by, “to, with, at, for": the accusative corresponds to our simple objective case. The use of the cases must be learned from the syntax. When a noun is used absolutely in an oblique case it is called an adverb (Griffnua, adverbium). § II. Substantives. 152 The following are the case-endings of the mascu line noun in the singular number. Comparative philology teaches us that the nominative case-ending of the noun, de noting the subject, is to be referred to the second pronominal element, which indicates relative proximity. To this the genitive, denoting removal from the subject, adds the third pronominal element under the form -v. The dative, which denotes juxta-position, repeats the second element under the form -i. The accusative, denoting the object, is con tent with the third element alone. Original Forms. N. G. -Q -orio-v, -6e-v (108) Existing Forms. -Q -io, -os, -ou (106) adv. -6ev, -wº D. -0, -$1, -1 -ºpi, -t, adv. -0, -ºpt -v, -a (106) 153 The plural is formed from the singular by the Acc. -t, -v addition of the collective -s. 42 INFLEXION. Original Forms. N. G. D. •ores A. -v-g Existing Forms. -es, - (106) -wv (106) --giv, -egoriv (91) -atov-s, -orww (95) t-ori-y -e-ori, -t-s -a-s, -ovº (95) 154 The dual presents abridged forms of the plural. N. and A. G. and D. or absorbed. •e •lly. 155 The feminine case-endings are generally distin guished from the masculine by the substitution of -ga- for -a-. Sometimes by a reduplication of this termination, as a for ta-ora, or -3-s for or-s. Comparative philology shews that this extension is due to the wish to express more strongly the relative and collective nature of things con ceived as feminine or maternal. Singular. Original Forms. Existing Forms. N. -ora, -6s, -ós, -ord, -ić, -a, -a, -s, (92) G. -ora-to-v, -ara-is -orms, -ias, -ms, -as, -os, -tos, D. -ora- -on, -ig, -n, -º, -, -ēl A. ora-v, -Oos -mv, -tav, -av, -a, -oa Plural. N. G. D. A. -ora-s -ora-tov-s ora-t-ori Gav-s -gal, -a, -a, -es, -óes -ordov, -gov, -tſov, -óv, -ëav -oratori, -tauori, -ators, -eoroi -eart, -ēeat -gas, -ias, -as, -ás, -óðs Dual. Terminations are absorbed, as in the masculine: N. and A. G. and D. -ora, -ēe, -a, -a. -oraw, -law, -aw, -čov, - Oly. 156 The neuter has, strictly speaking, no nominative, but uses for that purpose the accusative, originally in -r or -v: it has no plural of this case, but substitutes for the singular -T or -u, the combination -vir, which is invariably softened into -ă (106). In other respects, the neuter in flexions do not differ from the masculine. 157 The case-endings are differently affected by the different terminations of the crude or uninflected form. INFLEXION. 43 These differences are called declensions (KAforeis), and are three in number: (I) the -a declension, when the unin flected form ends in -a, or when the noun is feminine in -ga, -ia, -a : (II) the -o declension, when the uninflected form ends in of and (III) the consonant declension, when the uninflected form ends in a consonant, or in - or -v, which are ultimate states of consonants (above 20 b). FIRST DECLENSION in -a. 158 (a) Masculine Nouns. rapitas “a distributor.” Root, rep-, -tau-, “to cut or divide.” Uninflected Form, rap-aSingular. tapita-s tapitov (for rapu-á-o, -e-w, -e-o from taluid-giov) Tauíg (for rauta-1, from rauia-0) ; Tapuía-v V. Tapuſa. Plural. V. ; rapital (for rapita-ores) Taputov (for rapid-wv, from rapid-atov-s) tapital-oriv, (for rapid-i-aw), and tautais Tapias (for rapatav-s) Dual. N. A. V. G. D. rapiſa Tapiſaw 159 Sometimes-la- is, through -ea-, contracted into n. Thus: kpitris, “a judge.” Root, kpt- “to separate.” Uninflected Form, kpi-Téa- = kpi-Tya. N. G. D. A. W. Singular. kpitri-s (for kpuréa-s) kpitov Or kpitéw (for kpuréao, from Kpired-glov) kpitfi (for kpuréa-1, from kpuréabi) kpitri-w (for koiréa-v) kpité 44 INFLEXION. Plural. N. W. kpitat kpittov G. spiralow, D. kpitas A. (for kpuréa-oes) (for kpuredwu, from Kplted-glov-s) or xpiraſs (for Kpired--aw) (for kpuréav-s) Dual. 160 N. A. V. kpitá b. Feminine Nouns. G. D. kpitaſv. (a) In -arú. Mojoa, “a recollector,” and “deviser," i.e. “Goddess of memory and poetry.” Root, uo-, or ua = uev (106) “to recollect,” “contrive." Uninflected Form, udovt- or pudovt Singular. N.W. Mow-ora pow-ons (for udovr-ora) (for uoiſ-ora-ts) (for uoč-aa-1) G. D. poſſ-on A. uov-od-v Plural. (for udovr-ga-s) N. W. Moo-oral G. D. A. pov-ordov, uávorów (for novod-giov-s) pow-oral-gi, uoi-gais poiſoras (for uoč-orav-s) Dual. G. D. poiſoraiv N. A. W. Howara 161 Sometimes the termination -ora is written -pā, as in orpū-på for a quora, which substitutes a for n in the geni tive and dative: sometimes it is represented by a long a, and absorbed: this is always the case in the terminations -ta for ediora = yasa, and -pa for pāorá or -pia, as in p Aſa for pi\é-ga from p(\o-s, aloxpa for ataxpé-ra from aloxpo-s (119); and sometimes there is absorption by contrac tion, as in uvda, uvá; gen, pºvdas, uvās, &c. In these last three instances the a is retained throughout all the cases. There are also nouns in -età, -oud, which retain the short a in the accusative also : such are evač;3eta, “piety,” orifyyvola, “pardon:” but it may be laid down as a rule, that if there is a corresponding masculine form in -tos or -pos, the feminines in -ia and -pa will have the -a long, because in this case there is an absorption of the added element -ora. . 45 INFLEXION. 162 (3) In -iù for ió-gū. j pixta “the friendship.” Root, pix- “to love.” Uninflected Form, pix-yā, or pixe Singular. Dual. Plural. N. V. p.Aſa N. A. W. pixta N. V. p.Aſai G. quxias G. D. p(\tau G. ºptAutov D. quaíg D. quxtats quxtav A quxias A. Similarly, iratēeſa, “the education,” tidań0eià, “the truth.” 163 Sometimes the -ta is written -ea; as in ovk-éa, “a fig-tree;” and in this case the termination is contracted into -n or -a throughout: Singular. Plural. N. V. ovkéa, ovkn N. V. ovkéal, ovkaſ G. ovkéas, ovkms D. A. ovkég, ovkfi oruketov, ovkov G. D. A. ovkéav, avknv ovkéats, ovkaſs ovkéas ovkás Dual. N. A. V. ovkéa, ovka 164 G. D. ovkéauv, ovkaïv. When the uncontracted form is obsolete, the con traction is not indicated by the circumflex: thus from tipid-ea, Öſk-ea we have: : “. 6% xy • 22 - a- f r rium, “honour,” or “price,” Tipins, Tufi, ripriv, ripaſ, &c. Číkm, “equivalent,” or “atonement,” &tknº, ötkm, 8tºnv, Öſka, &c. Compare the masculine kpitris (159). 165 Sometimes the t of the termination is drawn into the uninflected form of the noun (see 104): as in Aéauva, “a lioness,” for Aedv-ta, which is declined like poºra. SECOND DECLENSION in -o. 166 The second declension departs very little from the primitive type. Masculine and feminine nominatives retain the -s. The genitive in-flew often occurs: the original -glo-v appears in derivative adjectives, as in Önué-ºto-c from ēmuds: in epic poetry this appears as o-to, and in common prose we have the contraction-ov for o-to = oeo or 00. In the dative the characteristic - is absorbed in the im proper diphthong-p (above, 125). The accusative retains its primitive -v. And the vocative substitutes -s for the final -o of the uninflected form. - 46 INFLEXION. In the plural-o-ores becomes o-t = ol. The genitive-end ing, as in the other declensions, is contracted into -ov. The dative is-otori, or ots. The accusative substitutes-ovs for ov-s. The dual is always -to, -ow. 167 The neuter preserves the accusative -v in the sin gular, and, as usual, substitutes -ă for the plural –vºr. Of course, the nominative and vocative do not differ from the accusative. In the other cases, the neuter corresponds to the masculine and feminine. 168 The three nouns, A670s masc. “a discourse” (root; Aey, “to pick or to speak;” uninflected form, Aoyo-), vooros, fem. “a disease” (originally voºros, root, ver, “to flow;" uninflected form, vöro-), and ɺov, neut., “hewn timber," (root, {{F- or {-, “to cut smooth,” uninflected form, ºxo-), are the three usual examples of this declension. Singular. MASC. N. G. D. A. W. FEM. Adyos Adyov vöoros vdorov Aóyº vörip Adyov Adye v6orov v6ore NEUT. {{\ov {j\ov {{\p §Aov #UAov Plural. N. W. Adyo Adywv Adyots Adyovs vdoro vögov vágous vdorovs N. A.V. Adya, G. D. Adyow Dual. vögto vögow G. D. A. - §Aa {VAww £ºols §aa {v}\to {v}\ow 169 When the uninflected form ends in oo or so, the last two syllables are contracted throughout the declen sion; thus: Singular. MASC. N. voos, vows NEUT. N.A.W. Gorréov, -ouv daréov, -oſ, datéº, -º G. vöov, voo G. D. A. V. vöp, vº voov, voov vöe, voo D. º 47 INFLEXION. Plural. vowv, viov N.A.W. doréa, -á G. datéov, -ºv voots, voſs D. N. W. vool, vot G. D. A. datéois, -oſs vöovs, vows Dual. N.A.V. vow, vº G. D. N. A.W. daºréa, -u G. D. dotéow, -ov voow, voiv When the uninflected Form ends in the digamma 170 F, represented by either or v, the ultimate conditions of its guttural and labial elements respectively—the ter mination exhibits w throughout the cases (see 95). For example, Aetºs, masc. “the people” (root Aer-, uninflected form, AéFo-, also Ago-), gos, fem. “ the morning” (root av-, or *F-, uninflected form, Fa-), dvayeov, neut. “an upper chamber” (compound from divo, “above,” and yata “the earth,” root Yat- or yeF) are thus declined: Singular. MASC. NEUT. N. W. Aetºs G. D. A. Aetº N. A.W. divºyeuv G. dvºyew Aeg D. avaiyeº Aetºv Plural. N. V. Aeg G. D. A. Aetov Aegs N A.V. dva yew avºyeuv G. D. avaiye(ps Aews Dual. N.A.W. Aed; N. A.W. divayew G. D. Aegv G. D. dvaiye(py 171 Similarly €ws, except that the accus. sing, is ºw: and the final v is omitted with some other nouns of this form. It will be observed, that as this contracted declen sion, strictly speaking, includes forms which end with , or v, it belongs to the following, or consonantal declension, according to which these nouns are also very frequently declined. Conversely, it will be observed that nouns of the third declension from forms in or v generally retain the v of the accusative singular (below, 186). 48 INFLEXION. THIRD or CoNSONANTAL DECLENSION. 172 To this declension belong all those forms which end in a consonant, and in - or -u, considered as residuary states of the guttural and labial elements of the digamma. 173 This declension recedes from the primitive type in the following particulars only. The genitive singular ends in -os. The accusative singular generally substitutes -ă for the original -v according to 85, 106. The plural accusative is consequently -ás. The nominative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is -es for ores. 174. Neuter nouns generally exhibit the uninflected form in the nominative and accusative; a characteristic dental is omitted or changed into -s. 175 Apparent anomalies in this declension result from the assimilation or absorption of the final consonant of the uninflected form. 176 The uninflected form may usually be recovered by removing from the genitive singular its termination -os. The exceptions to this rule are confined to the instances in which the characteristic is a dental, or sibilant, and Or -u. 177 Nouns of the third declension may be arranged according to their characteristics, that is, according to the letters which terminate their crude or uninflected forms. 178 a. Labial Nouns. The characteristic and nominative case-ending are always included in N. : m pxév, “the vein.” Root, pxeF-, pxe6-, or p\v-, “to N bubble up,” or “gush forth.” Singular. V. ri pāév, (for p\{3-s) q'Asſ?-6s q\eſ?-? ºpMé6-a (for p\{3-v) Plural. W. pSéfl-es (for p\{3-res) q\eg-ºv q}\evlº-i (for p\eg-soot or p\eg-º-ort) pAé6-a-s (for p\{3-vs) 49 1NFLEXION, Dual. N.A.V. p.Aé8-e G. D. pké/3ow So i Aaixa Nz, Aataar-os, “the storm;" i karnxiv, karr Auq-os, “the staircase.” 179 Guttural Nouns. b. These nouns, with the exception of Yuwn for Yuvaík-s, express the characteristic and nominative case-ending to gether by É: 6 kópaś, “the raven,” for kāpak-s; 7 trépuš, for Trépuy-s, “the wing;” and i öpić, “the hair,” for Tp(x-s. In 6 Adpvyč, Adpvy'yos, “the larynx,” and d, ri Aºyā, Āvykös, “the lynx,” an euphonic nasal, represented by y (above 18 a.), is inserted before the characteristic y or k. Plural. Singular. kopak-es N. W. G. Kopač koodk-tov kápak-os G. kdpafi (for Kopåsegaw, or KópakD. kópaka-s kópak-a A. kopdiktoruv) Dual. N. A.V. kápake Kopåkow. G. D. Dental Wouns. c. 180 I. Masculine and Feminine Nouns. In these nouns the dental characteristic is always omitted before the nominative -s (above 92), and when k precedes the characteristic, it is combined with the s, as in the guttural declension: i \aptras, “the lamp," for Aaputrab-s; 7 Arís, “the hope,” for éATíð-s; mixipts, “the grace,” for Xapit-s; 6, jöpuis, “the bird,” for pv6-s; riköpus, “the helmet,” for köpv6-s; 6 divač, “the king,” for divakt-s; i vić, “the night,” for vökt-s; m Muivs, “the worm,” for €Auv0-s; 6 Aéov, “the lion,” for Aéovt-s; 6 yiyas, “the giant,” for yºyavt-s; d rows, “the foot,” for trøð-s; 6 doows, “the tooth,” for Gödur-s; d TAakóes, “the flat cake,” for TAakóevt-s, contracted into TAakoos for TAakovur-s (210); 6 utiºns, “the mushroom,” for uvrnt-s; m Aevkotns, “the whiteness,” for Aevkotnr-s. Plural. Singular. N. V. G. D. A. Aapºras Aaptra?-os Aaputrao-t Aapºrdà-a D. G. G. N. V. Aapºrdà-es G. D. A. Aapºrd-ori, (for Aapºrdà Aaptra?-as Aautrā8-wv [oriv) 50 INFLEXION. Dual. N. A. W. Aapºrdà-e G. D. Aapºrdà-ow. II. 181 Neuter Nouns. - Neuter nouns with a dental characteristic either (a) drop it altogether, as in rô origua, “the body,” for oriouar, G. arºuar-os : or (3) change it into -s, as in Tó répas, “the wonder,” for répar, G. répat-os. (a) If the characteristic is -xt-, both letters are dropt, as in to ya Aa “the milk,” for ydaakir, G. yaxakt-os. (as) If the characteristic is -wr-, the v is retained, and the T alone is dropt, as in to trav, “the whole,” for travr, G. travrás. (as) If the first syl lable of the form has the diphthong-ov, the -v is transferred to the last syllable, where it takes the place of the -at-, as in ro ygvv, “the knee,” for youvar, G. youvar-os or ydva ros. And (a,) if the last syllable of the form contains the combination of p with another consonant, this liquid is transferred to the end, where it takes the place of the T, with or without a lengthening of the final vowel in the nominative; it is omitted in the other cases, which retain merely a short a, as in Yövaros, &c. The following are examples of this form: To mºrap, “the liver,” for impat, G. fra-ros: to orkap, “the dun ,” G. aka-Tös: to ū8wp, “the water,” for ºpat (cf. ºpus), G. Jöa-ros. But i 3duap, “the wife,” for 3duapt—s has 3duaprios in the G., &c. When -s is substituted for r in the nominative, it may be dropt in the other cases, which are formed rather with reference to this secondary, than to the primary form. In some nouns (3) we have both sets of inflexions, as in to képas, “the horn,” for képat, G. képat-os and képa-os, con tracted into képus, as for képa-a-os (see 106): in others (8,) we have only the secondary set of inflexions, as in to oréAas, “the light,” G. oréAa-os. (y). Unless the syllable which is terminated by the characteristic ris Aa orga (119), the connecting vowel is o in the nominative, and e in the other cases; the characteristic is s in the nominative, and is invariably dropt in the other cases, which suffer con traction also in Attic Greek; thus we have to reixos, “the wall,” G. Teixeos, retxovs. 182 The following are examples of all the varieties of Neuter nouns with an original dental suffix. Dual Plural r- r orwpid-r-ow G.D. r - A.V. ordina-r-e N. D. orgua-ort orwud-t-wv G. A.W. orºua-r-a N. orºua-rD. A.V. orioua N. arºua-t-os G. Singular cº ----- dºg - Trav-T-olly Trozy-T-e Tra-ort yaka-kºr-ow Tepa-t-ow - - yaxa-kºr-e répa-ºr-e Yaaa-É. répa-ori 7tary-T-tow º r Trav-r-ţr yaxa-kt-wv repa-t-wv - - v-T-6s Tra. Trav-T-0. ydaa-kºr-a répa-ºr-a - Ma-kºr-os répa-r-os yd wāv yaxa-kºr répa-r-‘ répa-r ydaa /3a 1 f º r + ta r r - - r kepd-ow keptºv - yová-T-ow ntra-t-ow kepa kepor-e - kepd-tov keptov ātra-r-e 'ydva-ºr-e pa iwa-ori yova-ori oréAg kepº r - 7 Teixo-s ; -a x reuxes Ye-t ºret Teixovs oréAa-os képa-r-os Teixe-os oréAo-c kepa-s - Teixn Tetºye-e Teixe-ori s: o'ead-ow reixe-ow kepd-ºr-ow reixoiv - oréAa-e ºx képa-r-e oréAa-ort kepa-ori Teixºv kepa-ºr-a oréXcº-w ºxTetºve-at kepa-a oréAa Teixn kepa reixe-wv oread-tov kepa-ºr-wov mtra-T-tow 7ova-r-wv - r - /3, ſº, képaoréAa kepa-t- Keotos Kºpa-os mtra-T-a yova-T-a fira-ryóva-r-t a - r- ima-r-os yova-r-os ntrap 7ovv- Cº.4 da 52 INFLEXION. 183 d. Liquid Nouns. The only liquid forms known in Greek are those of which the characteristic is A, v, or p, and these are all connected with the dentals. Thus we have d &A-s, “the salt,” G. dA-6s; 6 traičv, “the war-song,” for raidw-s, G. tratăv-os; 6 rounv, “the shepherd,” for trouév-s, G. roſ nev-os; d ?expi-s, “the dolphin,” for expiv-s, G. &expiv-os; 6 daiutov, “the deity,” for Öatuov-s, G. Satuov-os; d alºv, “the age,” for atav-s, G. altov-os; to vékrap, “the nectar,” G. vékrap-os; 6 flip, “the wild beast,” for flip-s, G. 0np 6s; 6 aidip, “the clear sky," for aibép-s, G. albép-os; 3 firep, “the orator,” for fiftop-s, G. privop-os. The de clensions of these nouns are generally in strict accordance with the previous examples. In the D. pl., A and p are retained before -ai, but v is dropped (above, 93). 184 The following fem. and oxyton nouns are declined not only like Čatutov, but also like aidºs: i elkºv, “the image,” G. etkóvos and elkows, &c.; ridneau, “the nightin gale,” G. ančovos and dimēows, &c.; n xexiētēv, “the swal low,” G. Xexióðvos and xexíčovs, &c. The same contraction takes place in the A. sing., and N. A. W. plur. of certain com paratives in -tov, -ovos: thus A. sing. Meſova, ueſoa, uetºo; N. V. plur. Meßoves, ſueſ oes, usičovs; A. ueſ(ovas, uet{oas, peſovs (105). In o, ri kiſww, “the dog,” for kiſov-s, root Fov-, the oblique cases drop the o : thus G. Kuvos, D. kuvi, &c. 185 . If, in forms corresponding to attrip, altépos, the termination is -rep or -vep, we generally find a syncope in the Attic dialect; in the latter case, 3 is inserted between v and p, according to 86. Thus d tarip, “the father,” and 6 durip, “the man,” are declined as follows (cf. 51 a 4): Singular. N. tratrip durip G. tratp-6s av-8-pós D. trarp-f dv-3-pí A. tratép-a div-8-pa V. ºrd rep &vep Plural. N. V. G. warp-es tratep-ov du-8-06v D. tratp-d-ort tratép-as dy-8-pdr (119) div-6-pas A. &v-3-pes 53 INFLEXION. Dual. N. A. W. Traºrép-e div-8-pe tratép-ow div-8-pow. The fem. n xeip, “the hand,” for xép-lä, like 8wreſpa G. D. for Čatép-lä from Čatrip, wrép-s, is declined in the same way. 186 e. Nouns in F, as represented by - or -v. In these nouns the and v, which appear as substi tutes for a lost digamma, are usually represented by e in the oblique cases. The similar forms of the 2nd declension present many analogies in their inflexions. When the or v is retained throughout the cases, the G. and D. sing. end in -os and -1, as in the other consonantal nouns. When the e is substituted, the G. terminates with -os, and the D. is contracted into -et. The A. sing. retains the primitive -v, unless the Nom. ends in -eus, and then the A. is é-a. 187 a. Masc. or Fem. in -ºs. Neuter in -i. ri tróAis, “the city.” N. G. rô orívar, “the mustard.” Singular. troAis taxe-ws or troAt-os N. A. V. G. D. trāAé, troAeſ or ºrdNii, ºrdM A. W. ºrdaiv troAi. orívar, orware-os owdrei, -et Plural. N. V. rāAees, -éis G. D. TróAetov TrôAegi A. "rdàe-as, -éis - N. A. W. alvarea, -n G. orwaréov awareou D. Dual. N. A. W. tróAée G. D. wroxéow N. A. W. G. D. orivſtree orwaréow 188 (8. Masc. or Fem. in -vs. Neut. in v. d trixvs, “the elbow.” to datv, “the city.” Singular. N. trºxvs N. A. W. &orru G. D. trixews, -éos Trixei, -et A. Trnxvv W. trºxv G. dorreos D. ãorrei, -e, 54 INFLEXION. Plural. N. W. trixees, -ets N. A. V. G. D. A. wixeev G. daréov Trnxeori D. do reori dorrea, -n wrixeas, -éis Dual. N. A. W. trixee wnxéow G. D. 189 (31. N. A. W. &orree, -n G. D. daréow. Fem. in -avs. ni Ypaws, “the old woman.” rivatis, “the ship.” Sing. Plural. Dual. N. Ypaſs N. V. Ypäes N. A. W. Ypáe G. ypads G. 7patov G. D. Ypaoiv D. Ypat D. Ypavorſ A. Ypavv A. Ypá-as, Ypaws W. Ypat, Similarly vavs, which however admits of the change vetºs for vags; comp. Aed's for Aads, above, 170. 190 (3, Masc. in -eus. d 6aoweiſs, “the king.” Singular. , Plural. N. Baorixeſs N. W. Baorixeſs, -7s G. 3aoriMéws G. BagiNéov D. Baorixeſ D. £3aorixeſort A. Baorikéa A. BagiXéas, -eſs W. Baorixed Dual. 191 (3, N. A. W. BaoriNée G. D. BagiNéow Masc. and Fem. in -ovº. d, ri (300s, “the ox or cow.” Sing. Plural. Dual. N. Bows N. W. Bóes N. A. W. Bée G. 306s D. Bof A. (300w W. Boº G. D. Botºv Boüart G. D. A. (36as, Bows. Booty 192 With these we may compare the masc. or fem. nouns in -os, -wos, and the feminines in -os, -w, -oos, -ows, for in each of these cases v, as the representative of F, has been 55 INFLEXION. absorbed (above,95). Take, for example, 6 ipos, “the noble warrior,” for praor-s”, and jaičais, “the shame,” for alºo Fíc. MASCULINE. FEMININE. Singular. N. W. ipos G. D. A. ... aléas ripo-os iipw-i G. atóóos, -ows D. atóói, -oſ #pw-a, hpa A. alèda, -6 V. alóði, -07 193 In the same way as alèas, we may decline inxw, “the echo,” for mixofó. Masc. proper names in -eiſs fre quently have a corresponding feminine in -a, as Nn\eſs, NmA4. These feminine nouns have no dual or plural. The masculines in -os form their plural and dual according to the rule. 194 f. Derivatives in -ns, -eos. From neuter nouns of the class (y) are formed com pounds, chiefly adjectives and proper names, by inserting ea = n for o in the masc. and fem. nominatives and accusa tives, e for o in the neuter nom. and accus. The other cases remain unaltered. Thus, from to reºxos, “the wall,” we have 3, 7 eureixis, to eurexés, “that which is well fortified,” and from rò row &nuou a flévos, “the strength of the people,” we have Anuorðévns, the name of the cele brated orator, which, though resembling kpitris in the nom., is inflected after the model of relyos. In some proper names, however, the analogy of kpiris is followed in the accus. sing. Thus we have both 20kpárea, -n, and 20kpá tny. If a vowel precedes n in the nominative of these nouns (as in compounds with KAéos), a double contraction takes place: thus, IIeptºčea becomes IIepikAéa. § III. Adjectives. 195 As the adjective expresses an unappropriated quality, it is necessary that it should be capable of apposi tion to nouns of different genders. It has, therefore, in most cases three forms—a masculine, feminine, and neuter. If, however, the adjective is not expressive of a simple * That this was the genuine form of the word, appears from the derivative ‘HoFaoios, which is so written in the Olympic Tablet. Böckh, C. I. No. 11. 1. p. 26, sqq. For the lost r, see above, 181, 89. 56 INFLEXION. quality, or if it deviates but slightly from the use of a substantive in apposition, this motion through the genders may take place either partially or not at all. Thus, when an adjective is compounded of an adjective and substantive, or of a substantive preceded by sº, d-, or övs-, or a preposi tion, it is not usual to distinguish the masculine from the feminine, and the neuter alone is represented by separate inflexions. And there are some nouns of the consonantal declension which are used in apposition as adjectives with out any change of gender". (I.) Adjectives of Three Terminations. 196 When the fem. gender is represented by separate inflexions, the first, or -a, declension is invariably adopted. The masc. and neuter are never of the first declension, when the adjective has three terminations, but always (a) of the second in -os, -ov, or (3) of the third (3) in -às, -ſ; (3,) in v-s, w; (3) in -vt-s, -vir; and (3) in Fór-s, Fór. 197 al. If the masc. and neuter are like Adyos, #8Aov, the feminine follows the declension of rupiń. Thus we have d oropós, to go pov, but n goºm. 198 as. If a, e, , or p, precedes the termination, -a is retained throughout, as in pi\ta or Xºpa. Thus d ispás, to ispáv, but i ispá. 199 as. If the masc. and neuter are contracted like vdos or doréov, the feminine follows ovkéa, with of course the same exceptions in favour of a, e, , p, before the termi nation. 200 8. If the masc. and neuter are like trnxvs, datv, the fem. is like dań6eià. 201 (3,. If the masc.nom. is -v-s (one or other of these being assimilated or absorbed), the neuter is the uninflected form in -v, which appears as the vocative of the masculine. Thus we have d péAas for péNav-s, tº and to péAav: o Tépnv for répév-s (like rotumv for trofuev-s), tº and to répév. The feminine is always -awā or -eivä for av-ta, ev-ta : and is declined like Aéaiva. * The text states the general principle, but there are such inconsis tencies in practice that no general rule can be laid down for the learner's guidance. See Lobeck, Paralipomena, Dissert. III. et VII. 57 INFLEXION. 202 (3s. When the form is vºr, the r is omitted in the W. masc., and in N. A. W. neuter; and, in the N. masc., -avt-s becomes -as, as in rivas for ruvavt-s, tràs for travt-s. -evt-s becomes -eis, as in Yapters for Xaptev-r-s. -ovt-s becomes -ovs, as in 1800s for 318dv'r-s (comp. odows), or ww, as rumºrov for twºrrowr-s. -vvt-s becomes -us, as in belxvils for deikvºv'r-s. The fem. is always in -ord, like pow-ora; i. e. from avt-s, a-ora — evºr-s, eo-ora or ef-ora — ov'r-s, ov-ora — vur-s, v-ora. 203 (3. The adjectives in Fór-s, Fór, have a femi nine in -vſa, in which the v or labial part of the digamma is still seen. The masc. and fem. are sometimes found as nouns; thus we have untpos, declined like ºptos, fem. un Tpvia ; and we have the feminine forms diptvia, dyvid, āpyvia, without any corresponding masculine. The exist ing forms, with the full inflexion, are always derived from the perfect of the active verb, and express the state which results from action. In regard to the form of the oblique cases, we may remark that paſs (parāt-s), pards bears the same relation to retvquis (reruq6t-s), retvq?dros, that ñpws (ºpfao-s), fipoos, does to aides (aloofi-s), alóóos. EXAMPLES. 204 Class a. Singular. a 1. orogºds, wise ; M. F. as N. N.V. aroqds oroq m oroq du G. orogov aroqms aroq'où tepds, sacred. M. F. N. ispás ispoº tepd ispás lepáv (epot, D. gopº goºfi cop; ºp; ispá ispº A. oroq6v orogºriv oropov tepov tepay tepov W. copé ispé tepd lepov ispot iepāv tepaí tepºv tepd tepov aroqm orogów Plural. N.V. goqot oroq aſ oroqd G. goq6 orogºv goqov w 58 INFLEXION. • D. A. oroqois oroqaſs oroqoſs orogous goºds oroga tepoſs iépous º - is act tº - tead tº spa’s “po tepas tepa Dual. N.A.W. oopu, oroºd goºd G.D. oropoſv oroq aiv oropoſv 205 N. G. D. A. V. teod teous tepa, t spa ºpe, tepoſv tepaw sepow as xpúaeos, golden. Singular. Xpworeos xpvoréa Xpvorous Xpworn xpvoréov Xpva as Xpworow Xpworms Xpvae'º Xpworég Xpvor? xpvoº, Xpworeov xpvréav Xpvorouv Xpwormv Xpworee xpvréa Xpworn t Xpworeov Xpvorovv Xpworéov Xpvorov Xpworée Xpwoº Xpworeov Xpwoovy Xpworeov xpvorovv Plural. N. V. G. D. A. Xpworeo Xpdaea. Xpvoroſ Xpvaaf xpvoréov Xpworów Xpvačois Xpworetov Xpwortov xpvréals Xpworea Xpwara Xpworéww Xpwortov Xpworéotºr Xpvoroſs Xpwo-aſs Xpvoroſs xpvačovs Xpworows xpworéas Xpvoras Xpworea Xpworá Dual. N. A.V. G. D. Xpvoréw Xpworó Xpworéow xpvo a Xpworó, xpvgéaw Xpworée, Xpword xpvaeow Xpvoroſv Xpworaiv Xpvaoiv darxdos, single. Singular. t N. drados dràous dºrAdm darxn r dººr}\oov t - ar.\ouv INFLEXION. r G. dradov t dradnº dràns - a tràov dºradº D. dradov t - dºr?.ow dràgn dirAſi dºradº atrap airAóov dºradnv dradov e - - t - ar㺠f A. tº arãoov w t - a tranv - a tr}\ovy t drade W. airãon darxn f o:TrAdov t - dººr) ouv Plural. t N. V. r * , * a a 7t)\oo. darxaſ a TAo. dºtMotov airMov a TrAotov dradais drado's dirAaſs a tr}\ots t r - - - dºr) tow * - t - v - arxww z p - t a tr}\dous t - e - aqr Aoi's A. ºf - arxdous e x t dººr}\otov D. - otrkoal dirAof r G. - dºrkoot dradas - t r a TrAoa t - - a raous a TrAas N. A.W. dr.A60 a tr}\oo. a tr}\oto an Ato darxa, a tr}\to dirAdow dradaiv a tr}\dotu a tr}\a. Dual. e t p e e G. D. t dirAoiv darxaſv r - - w - a TrAoiv ... àflpoos, -a, -ov, crowded, is not contracted, to distinguish it from 40povs, noiseless. dpyüpeos, 206 silver. Singular. N. G, dpyüpeos dpyvpovs dpyvpéov dpyvpov dpyvpép apyvpºp dpyüpeov dpyvpoov dpyvpéa dpyvpd. dpyvpéas dpyvpas dpyvpég dpyvp? dpyvpéav dpyvpāv dpyüpeov dpyvpoov apyupéov dpyvpov dpyvpée apyvpp dpyüpeov dpyvpoov 60 V. INFLEXION. dpyſpee apyupéa dpyūpeov dpyvpá dpyvpoov Plural and Dual like Xpworeos. 207 Class 3. £3. Forms in -vs, -éia, -v. Singular. rjöus rièéos moé. ričef rjööv N. G. D. A. mêws, sweet. nºeſa rièetas rièeig néeſaw rjów mêéos rièé. ride? rjów Plural. N. W. Jöées mêeſs rièéov rièéori rièéas rièeſs G. D. A. N. A.W. 73ée G. D. jëéow mêeſai rjöéa rièeitov rièetals rjöétov rjöégi ričea rideias Dual. mêeta rideſaw ridée rièéow Obs. l. The Ionians said jöéa, 0nMén, &c. for jöeſa, ºn Aéſa, in the old Attic, we find jutorea from iucus, jº. 007. Obs. 2. %, find ev6éa, eupéa, in the Poets, for ev6ºv, supºv. Obs. 3. Tpéoſłvs, venerable, has a feminine rpég|3spa, and Tpérôa. Obs. 4. In the poets, adjectives in -vs are occasionally feminine; thus, in Homer we have jöös duruſ, and "Hpn 07Wvs éodora. N. G. D. 208 ft. Forms in -as, -aiva, -av. péaas, black. Singular. péAas péAaiva péAavos MéNavi Hexatvns Hexatvn péAav péAavos péAav 61 INFLEXION, A W. uéAava péAav pexawaw péAawa péAav péAav Plural. N. W. G. D. A. pºaves pleadvov péAaori uéAavas péAawal pexalvøv pexatvats MeXaivas péAava peXavov péAaori péAava Dual. w N. A.W. puéAave G. D. peXavow pexatva pexaſvatv puéAave pleadvow Similarly, rdxas, unfortunate, which is the only other example; but répnv, tender, follows the same analogy. N. Tépnv Tepetva ip G. Tépevos Tepeſvns Tepevos w f "repely &c. &c. &c. This is a solitary instance, for other adjectives in my are declined like àpanv. 209 £3. Forms in -vir.’ rivas, having stricken. Singular. rºl, aora N. W. rºyas § TWavros Tvºgans rºlavros "ruvayººru Tuvotor "ruvayººrt :::::. ::::::. . - A. rºlzav Plural. N. V. rºlzavºres G. Tvvavrov Túvaori Túvavras D. A. rivaorai rvy, aortov rvydaats ºrvydoras rivavira Tuvavrov Túvaori Túvavºra Dual. N. A.W. Tuvavre Tuvaora Tuvavre G. D. Tvyavtow rvydoraw Tvyavtow So tras, "rāora, trav, and its compounds. 210 Xapters, graceful. Singular. N. Xapters Xapiérra Xapíev G. Xaptevros xapiéoons Xaptevros 62 INFLEXION. º Xaptevri xapiéoon Xaptevra xaplºgraw Xaptev Xapteoroa Xaptevri Xapſev Xapſev Plural. W. ; A. Xaptevres Xapiévrov Xapter Xaptevras Xapteororai xaplºgrow xepisºgas Xapteorolas Dual. Xaptevra xapiévrov Xapteori Xaptevra N.A.V. Xaptevre Xaptev-re xapiérra G. D. xapiévrow Xapteorolaiv xapiévrow Similarly, rvºpflets, having been stricken. Singular. N. V. G. D. A. rup6eſs rvºp6évros rvp0évri ºrvp6évra &c. Tvø9eſora ºrvpbeform rvp6eſorav ºrvp6év rvºp6évros rv46&vri rv406, &c. &c. Tvø6eforms Dat. pl. rup6eſort, rv40etorals, rv£6eſort. Adjectives in -neis, -neorga, -new, and -oets, -oecora, -oev, admit of contraction thus:— N. W. Tipries, honoured; plexitóets, honeyed. Tipries ºrpheorga Tipunev ripinoora ripinv ripſis ripinégorns riprievros Tiprievros Tipriorons ºrpińvros Tipunvros &c. plexitóels plexitous Mexitóevros Mexitovvros &c. &c. peXtröerora uéAutovorora Mexitoéoons Mexitowoons, &c. &c. Mexíroev peXttoov peXtröevros peXtrouvros. &c. 6tbows, giving. Singular. 8,800s 3.36, ros &c. 3,300 ora 3,369 3,50worms 3.869'ros &c. &c. Dat. pl. 8,80001, Čičova als, ŠtěoWort. 63 INFLEXION. Turrow, striking. Singular. r r TuTr'Tºow TuTrºrovoſo. TuTrToy rumºrov'ros &c. Tvrtoiſans Túrrowros &c. &c. Similarly, Škov, Škovora, Škov, willing. Syncopated participles in Öv are declined thus:— Singular. N. W. - dyyeXtov dyyexoovros dyyeMoora dyyeMoiſans dyyeMoov dyyeXouvros And so on. 3eukvils, shewing. Singular. 212 T N. W. G. 213 N. W. G. D. A. Seikvºs 3eikviſvros f 3eikvoora r 3eikviſons &c. &c. {3. - - - - deukwuy r &eikviſvros &c. Forms in -For. Tervºpuis, having stricken. Singular. Terupuſa Tervºis Terupéros retvq?vías retvq?víg Tervºport tervøvſaw tervſpora Tervºpos Tervºporos retvq?dri rerupds Plural. N. W. Tervabóres G. D. A. Tervºpérav tervºdori tervipóras Tervºvial Tervºvitov Tervºputats retuquías Tervºpota retvq?orww retvq?dori retvq?ora Dual. N.A.V. retvq?ore Tervºpore Tervºporow Tervºporow Syncopated participles in -ºs are thus declined:— G. D. N.W. G. retvq?vía tervºputaw §arao's érraſs éortadºros éorravia éordora éorrads éorrºs éorravías éartoros éorridorms éo Tadros éarrioros And so on. 64 INFLEXION. 214 The following are anomalous (a). péyas, great. N. G. D. A. V. péyas peydāov Singular. peydan peydāns uéydaſp Heydan ueyday péyav peydānv péya uéya péya or peºdae péya peydāov peydan Plural. Heydao, ueydatov peydāois peydāovs Heydaat peyaxtov Meydaats peydaas N. A.W. Meydaw G. D. ueydāow peydaa ueydaaw N. W. G. D. A. peydaa peydawv prey&ots peydaa Dual. (b) 215 peydaw peydāow troMiſs, much. Singular. N. W. TroXi's troXAn G. D. A. troXAoû troXAñs Toxi, troAAoû roxA® wrox\fi troXArív Toxi, N. W. troAAot TroMAat G. D. A. woxAtov troAAoſs TroMAtov troXAd troXAtov TroMAaſe Trox\oſs ToMºv troXAg Plural. troXAows ToMAds ToMAd IIoMiſs is also declined as follows. Singular. M. F. N. W. TrovXús G. troXéos I). A. N. Toxi, .- TrôAet troXAdv Plural. N. W. Troxées c. toxets G. troXéov D. troAéort A. troXéas c. réAets troAv wroxéa troXéa The Ionic declines it regularly, troAA6s, -i, -ów. 65 INFLEXION. 216 N. G. D. A. W. (c.) Tpāos, gentle. Singular. Tpāos Tpaeta Tpdov Tpaeſas Tpāov Tpdov ºpée Tpºp Tpaeíg Tpaeſaw Tpaeſa Tpaov ºrpāos (e) Trpaov Tpāov Plural. ºrpāot & Trpaeſs Tpačov trpcious & trpaéort Tpdows & trpaeſs N.W. G. D. A. ºrpaeſa, Tpaeuſov trpaetals Tpaeſas Tpaéa Tpaéov Tpaéort Tpača Dual. N.A.W. Tpdw Tpaeía Tpaw Tpdow Tpaeſaw G. D. Tpdow. The neuter of &AAos, “another,” is not &AAov but áAAo. In other respects the declension is regular. (1.I.) Adjectices of Two Terminations. 217 In the following instances, there are generally two terminations of the N. and A. ; the one common to the masc. and fem., the other appropriated to the neuter gender. 218 A. Of the Second Declension. a. Compounds of a noun preceded by an adjective, a preposition, or the particles eſſ, d-, 3vs-: as 6, n ueyaxdºočos, ...to ueyaxdºošov o, n ºvéožos §os, º, n. to v&očov e - - - ºr r w v w r w */ o, me ev’rekvos, r e To currencvoy 6, ºf abdivaros, To d6avarov * - - N - w -- - r To ovatoruov. o, n ovotroTuos, If the noun included in the compound admits of con traction, the same contraction will be observed in the adjec tive: as o, m eitãoos, eúTAovs, to eitãoov, eitãovv. t t w/ - w - -- 219 (3. The same rule applies generally to adjectives in -tos or -ºpios derived from substantives: as 6, n 36Alos, d, ixpnguos, D. G. G. ºrd 36Auov ro Xpriguov. 66 INFLEXION. 220 y. When the form is -eos for -eros: as o, ri (Aews, 221 B. al. To taewv. Of the Third Declension. Derivatives from dental neuters of the form (y): as 6, jeureixms, To eitelyés (see above, 194). 222 as. Or from dental feminines: as o, ri eixapis, To eūxapt. G. eūxcipitos 223 ft. Or liquid forms: as 6, ri āpany, To àporev. G. dparevos 6, n ordiq pov, to a 64 pov. G. rappovos. To this class belong all comparatives in -ov. 224 y. Or forms in t or v : as 6, n topus, To Yept 6, n &ttnxws To eitnxv. Derivatives from TóAs present some anomalies: as o, n &toxis, to dTox. G. -têos. A. -iča and -w (III) Adjectives of One Termination. 225 These are mostly nouns, which are used in appo • * */ v ºf ~ sition with masculine or feminine substantives, and have no neuter form because they are rarely placed in concord ance with neuter substantives: as o, i, dyvds. G. dyváros. § IV. Pronouns declined as Nouns. 226 It has been already shewn (58 foll) that pro nouns, or positional words, are to be distinguished from the nouns and verbs to the formation of which they contribute. But in the later or syntactical state of the language, the pronouns are themselves liable to pronominal inflexions of case, and on that account are classed with the noun. 227 All pronouns are by their nature demonstrative. But the ordinary nomenclature confines this term to one class of those which are connected with the third pro nominal element. Without losing sight of the established terminology, the following classification presents the true subdivisions of the inflected pronoun. 228 As there are three primary positions,—here, near to here, and there,—we arrange the inflected pronouns according as they express a greater or less removal from the speaker or subject. 67 INFLEXION. 229 Thus we have (1) the first and second personal pronouns, éyò, ori, which express “I” and “thou,” or the person speaking and the person addressed. (2) The re flexive pronoun , which expresses that the object is also the subject. (3) The pronoun of self, or sameness, airós, which expresses identity, and and is combined with all the three former pronouns. (4) The relative pronoun, Šs, which approximates in meaning to , but is more definite. (5) The distinctive pronoun 6, which is called the definite article. (6) The indicative pronouns 66e, oùtos, and ékeſ vos, which express as distinct from the subject the three positions, here, near to the here, and there (hic, iste, ille in Latin). (7) The indefinite and interrogative pronouns, 6 &eiva, and ris, which imply that the object is somewhere, but do not define where it is. (8) The relative-indefinite, ôotis, compounded of (4) and (7), the meaning of which it combines. (9) The reciprocal pronoun, dAAñAww, which expresses an interchange of relations between two objects. (10) The correlative adjectival pronouns, Totovtos, Toorov tos, Tnxikouros, Tuvvouros, which express comparison of quality, degree, &c. All these, except the last, have the government of sub stantives, and those included under (1) and (2) have their own adjectives which are called possessives, éuds, gos, £ds, &c. 230 The pronouns (2), (4), (5), (7), are all derived from the second pronominal element. The others are com pounds. 231 (1) First and Second Personal Pronouns. €ya, I. au, thou. Singular. éyd; N. G. D. A. éuov, uov éuot, uoi éué, ue - N. G. D. A. orv oroo orot oré Plural. mueſs, we vueſs, you mutov nuſu, nuiv muás Judov Juiv, Juiv Juas 68 INFLEXION. Dual. N. A. vºi, viº, we two a pioi, orºg, you two G. D. vöiv, vºv orqov, a pºv 232 (2) Reflexive. 7, himself or herself. Singular. Plural. N. : G. N. crqeſs G. orqov D. orgia. D. of Dual. N. A. orbwé, a pa G. D. orquív A. orgas. Neut. orgéa 233 Dialectic Varieties of éyò, orv, f. Singular. N. iyo, Dor. or 7", i AEol #yovya fav, Boeot. fºovya - Tú Dor. Tºwn, Ep. Touvi, Boeot. Tovun, Lacon. r G. Šuéo Ion *** } Eol. *2" | Dor Mev - éueūvn Lacon. éueſo éuéflew - éo, eú, Ion. Dor. oréo, ored, Ion. ... Teoſo, Ep. eſo, Bev, Ep. éows, io9, AEol. gºver, poet. reo, rev, Teos, reous, Y Dor. Tíos, Tíos } Epic. - D. Gufw, Dor. Buivya égivn Hom. peof or pept2 | éoſ, Teiv, Ep. ºv, Dor. tot, Ion. f A. Ep. Tív, Dor. r Té, Tív, tº Dor. a pé, poet. iv, viv, piv, poet. Plural. N. nuées, Ion. dués, Dor. âupes, AEol. Juées, Ion. Jués, Dor. Üupes, Æol. 69 INFLEXION. G. muéov, Ion. a péov, Ion. orqetwv, Ep. Juéov, Ion. tumov, AEol. duutov, AEol. nuetov, Ep. D. dupi, AEol. Ep. vuetov, Ep. tupu, AEol. Ep. a ptoſi, org.ſv, poet. Juéas, Ion. orq'éas, Ion. Wupe, Æol. Ep. age, poet. A. muéas, Ion. dupe, AEol. Dual. apwé, a pai, Ep. 234 (3) Pronoun of self, or sameness. autós, -í, ó, he, she, it, or self (below, 444). Singular. - r - avros N. G. r -n. -o. -ms -ov -ou - - - -* -n -* -on/ -nu -o -ois -ows -aſs -as -oſs -d G. D. -oſv -aſv -oiv D. A. Plural. N. G. autof -ov -d -ov -at -ov D. A. Dual. N. A. aura -d -d So 6 airós, “the same,” though the Attic Neuter is more frequently raúrów than railrd for to airó. 235 The same combined with (1) and (2). éuautov, of myself. oreavrov, of thyself. G. Guavroſ, suavrº euautov D. A. -ms -n. -riv -ow -g -6 oreavrov -ms weavrº -n -* oreavtov -mv -o -ow éavrov, of himself. Singular. G. davroſ, -ms -oº D. Šavrò -n -º A. Gavrév -ív -6 Plural. G. Gavrév -øv -øv D. Gavroſs-aſs -oſs - - - - r - - - - - r f A. Gavroſs -ás -á. For oreavrov -ms-ov, eavrov -ms-ov, they say also gav Too -ms-ow, autov -ms-ow ; and for the plural number of éautoff, these are used: a pøv autov; cºtou avroſs ; rºpás y r auTouc. These pronouns never occur in Homer as one word, but always separated, as, ép' airów, -riv, -ó, and autºv, of aurë. 70 INFLEXION. In the plural the first two are declined as two words, each by itself; as, G. mutov aurov D. muſu avroſs - - * - - * A. muás - - muſv auraſs muás auras * t autows - So Juáv aurëv. 236 Possessive Pronouns, having the Government of Adjectives, and derived from (1) and (2). Possessive Pronouns are declined exactly like adjectives of three terminations; thus:— éuds -ſi-6v, mine. ords -ij-6v, thine (Doric, réos). éds or òs, in or i, Čov or öv, hers (Ionic). a pottepos -a -ov, belonging to you two (Ionic). voirepos -a -ov, belonging to us two (Ionic). riuérepos -a -ov, our. Juérepos -a -ov, Ayour. orq6s -ſi-áv, his, her, their. And orq’étépos -a -ov, generally only in the plural, as the pos sessive of a qeſs; but also used of the other persons. (4) The Relative Pronoun. 237 Singular. N. 3s # 8 . G. où Plural. aſ ā tov tºv tºv ms ov D. : ; A. §v #v 3 - ; Dual. N. of D. oſs aſs of A. oils às & N. A. & G. D. oiv & aiv & oiv 238 (5) The Distinctive Pronoun, or Definite Ar ticle. 6, ºi, td, the person or thing. Singular. Plural. M. F. N. G ºrd Too M. G. roo n rºs D Tø th Tº N. G. D. A. Tov Trív Td A. N. N. A. G. D. tº Toſv Taſs Toſs rats Td F. N. Td Taj Taſv Tolv at Tov N. rows Dual. M. F. of rov Toſs Td rtov 7T INFLEXION. Dialectical Varieties. Singular. G. G. D. A. roo Dor. Dor. Tns To Tås th Dor. Tº Trív Dor. Ion. Toto Ion. Ion. Taiww Toſort Tav G. fem. Tov Plural. Dor. Táv D. D. A. Dor. Toſe Epic and Ion. Thai, Taiot Taſs Tows AEol. Tos. Taſs In certain cases the nominative masculine is also Šs. See below in the Syntax (388). 239 (6) Indicative Pronouns. bee', this (here); ouros, this (near); €keſvos, that (there). Singular. Plural. afoe Tøvče Tade ºrtovče D. Toſor&e” Taforee A. Tovače Taorée rotorøe race er tº - • N. 33e moe Toče G. row8e Tmorèe Tojöe D. 7&e ride rigèe A. Tovče trivée ºrdēe N. offee G. rovče Dual. Tatēe Taſvěe N. A. Tajóe G. D roſvěe r Taſbe Toivoe - * ovros, this. N. oºros G. roſtov Singular. airn Tavrns D. roſtæ Tavrn A. Toorov Tavrmv rooto Toſtov to tº Tou To Plural. N. oºrot G. Tourov at Tau Tau Taº * In the Attic dialect we find the pronoun * used as an inseparable affix to all these pronouns; this termination is long, and has the accent; thus: ,óði, oùrooi, kewogi; also G. routoiſi, Tavrmai; Pl. ouroń, attail, ravri, &c. And so also in adverbs, as évôaði, &c. 'Ev'rav6ol is a later form, for which we should read Švrav0t in the Attic authors, and èvrev6ev in Homer. The affix -ce gives the same force to certain pro nouns in Latin. * Homer places the case-ending after the affix, as in roſa deat and toiodegau. 72 INFLexion. - r D. rotºrous Taurotic A. tourovs Toru'raç Tourouc r Taota. Dual. - r N. A. Touro ºrau-Tot G. D. Tourou, Toru Totiv Tour(s) w - Tourouw ékeſvos is declined like avrds (234). 240 (7) Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns. 6 &eiva a certain person (whom one does not wish to name). Singular. t - w ... i. N. d, Tov, Tns, G. D. A. 7%, rāv, 79, Triv, Plural. of Öeives tov Četvov - To deſva N tov Šeſvos - N - Two detvu !, - td &eiva It is sometimes indeclinable. ths, any one, some one. Singular. M. F. N. M. F. Th N. The G. rivas or toº N. rivés G. Tuvov D. Tia'ſ r A. Tuvas D. rivt or tº A. riva Dual. Plural. N. Tí N.A. rivé rival or à tra G. D. rivoſy - - Tuvo. Or arrºra The pronoun interrogative, tis, “who?” is declined like the indefinite, ris, except that the accent remains on the 1 throughout the cases. 241. (8) Relative-Indefinite Pronoun. Gotis, whatsoever. Singular. r -- N. G. D. A. #ric oorris -r oùruvos or örov örto twº to or t º 8vºriva -- o Tu º mortivos outivos r firivu º en (0.7°ulyl º mvruva o Tu Plural. ef N. G. D. A. of rives t tov.T.ſvtov ey ofatuori en ovarivas -- a tºtalyeº - a Tivor -- ort of Tuo"t otorTuoru r do rivas - atruvot Dual. w N. A. ºrive G. D. oſwºrivolv -r attve aſviruvow - to Taiwe ofu'rivolv 73 INFLEXION. 242 Plural. (9) Reciprocal Pronoun. Dual. G. dAAñAww -6v -wv G. D. dAAmaow -aw -ow D. A. dAAMAois -ais -ois dAAſſaous -as -a A. 243 dAAñAw -a -w (10) Correlative Adjectival Pronouns. too ouros, so much. N. G. D. A. roorooros roarovrov Singular. rooraúrn Tooraúrns Toorooro and togovtov too out? Togatºrm Tooroúrp Tooroorov Tooraúrny roarooro N. G. D. A. Toorooroi Tooroúrav Tooroúrois roo avºrai rooroºſt ov Tooravitats Tooroºtous rooratºras roorowtov Plural. Tooravara roorowtww rooroſtols Tooravara Dual. N. A. rogov’rw G. D. Tooroúrow rooravita Tooravraw Tooroúra; roooºrow In the same way are declined rotooros, rnNikooros, &c. 244 These pronouns are called correlative, because they always refer to a relative expressed or understood, in connexion with which there is generally also an interroga tive and indefinite pronoun: thus rogoºros, with tdoos and Tögoobe, refers to the relative 6aos and the interrogative and indefinite trooros, roads: Totooros with rotos, and Tolórðe to the relative oids, and the interrogative and in definite troios, troids: and so on. § W. Wumerals. 245 Comparative philology teaches us that numerals are closely connected with the primitive pronouns, and that they are themselves positional or pronominal words (above, 78). In fact, the first numeral, originally pets, gia, uév, is identical with the first pronominal element. The second numeral 3ſo = 8é-Fo contains the second element. The third numeral t-peſº = TâF-peſº contains the second numeral with the element -pa superadded. The fourth numeral was originally tré-ropes, i.e. tre (= 1) + ropes (= Tpels) q. d. 74 INFLEXION. 1 +3=4. The fifth numeral, originally kPévre = kmévre (whence Trévre by 107), is connected with an old root kFev, “to take,” found in the Homeric yevto, in kiſov-s, “the dog," i.e. “the seizer," Latin canis, and in hund, “hound," “hand,” &c. As meaning the “hand” with its five fingers, it refers to the old method of counting five by shewing the open hand. Similarly the tenth numeral, éé-ka = &Fé kept- (by 85), means “two hands,” i.e. the ten fingers on the two hands held out together. There are greater cor ruptions in § = oré (by 114) = koré-ks (by 107) = 3+3; in 3rta = cré-ºr-ta = kore-tr-ta = 3+4; and in évvéa = €vvéFa = 10–1. The eighth numeral is the dual of “four.” 246 It is a remarkable fact, that the first four nu merals in Greek and Sanscrit, and the first three in Latin, are declined, while all the others remain without inflexion. There must be some reason for this. Now we know that the oldest Greek year was divided into three seasons of four months each: and the subdivision of the fundamental number twelve in the state-division of the Ionians into the factors 3 × 4, of which 4 was the basis, need not be insisted on. The first four numerals, therefore, would be more fre quently used as adjectives than the others, and for this reason would have inflexions, which the others, whose use would be more adverbial, might omit without so much in convenience. The same remark applies to the correspond ing fact in regard to the numerals of the Romans, whose fundamental number was three. 247 Numerals are divided into two classes, A. Cardi mals, B. Ordinals. The former express a definite number. The latter express the position of the objects in a succession of numbers. So that although the cardinal is by its origin a positional word, it includes in its meaning all the positions up to that which it designates: for this is the process in counting. 248 All ordinals are declined like adjectives of three genders. 249 A. Cardinal Numbers (answering to the ques tion, “How many ?”) els, one. N. G. eſs §vás pita puás ev évés 75 INFLEXION. D. A. Pug Šví eva - el/t * / -r - - z Litav el/. Compounds of eſs. ovºets and undeſs. N. ovćeſs (in later writers oºspita G. D. A. ovićevos ováévi ovečva Loubets) ouèév ovéeuías ovečvos oveeuíg ovćevi ovečv. ovoepfav So undeis, undeuta, unbév. ovo, two. 250 N. A. & ſo, or öſto G. D. &volv, or öveſv. Another form of the dative is 8vorſ. So dupw, both. Dual. N. A. dupw. G. D. dupow. rpeſs, three. 252 régorapes, or rérrapes, four. 251 Plural. M. F. N. N. Tpeſs G. Tpiſov Plural. M. F. N. Tpía N. régorapes régorapa G. regro dipov D. Tptorſ D. régorapal térpart in the Poets A. Tpeſs Tpía. A. Téoorapas régorapa. 253 Cardinals and Numeral Signs. a', eis, one. £3, 8vo, two Y, Tpeſs, three. Téa orapes, four. €2 Trévre, Jive. s', #, sia. girta, seven. m", 5xtto, eight. évvéa, nine. 8éka, tem. ta', Evêeka, eleven. 18, 34beka, and 8vºeka, and Čvokatēeka, twelce. 17, Tpiakaſoeka, and Čekatpels, thirteen. 76 INFLEXION. 13, regaraperkaſ?eka, and reorgapakaićeka, four teen. te', revtekaíčeka, fifteen. is, ékkatēeka, sixteen. ić, Čarrakatēeka, seventeen. in, 6&twkatēeka, eighteen". 10, €vveakatēeka, nineteen. k', etkoort, twenty. ek kai eſroot”, twenty-one. 8vo kai etkoori, twenty-two. Tpeſs kai etkoort, twenty-three. régorapes kai etkool, twenty-four. ºrévre kai etkoori, twenty-fire. kº, §§ kai etkool, twenty-sia. kč, ćitta kai etkool, twenty-seven. kn', 6kta kał eikori, twenty-eight. k6", evvéa kal elkori, twenty-nine. A, Tpidkovra, thirty, Ionic Tpirikovra. u', reororapakovra, forty, Ionic regaraprikovta. v', revºrrisovra, fifty. # , §§nikov'ra, sixty. ka', k;3, KY, kö, ke', o, #38ouikovra, seventy, , , Q, II, T, oyconsovra, eighty, Ionic Gyöwikov'ra. or p ºvemkovra, nºnety. p', Škatów, a hundred. a', takóriot, two hundred, Ionic ēinkório, de clined thus: Plural. Nom. 8takóoriot Gen. Čakoortww Dat. 8takoortois -Ott -or -tov -toy -Cats -ots Acc. 8takoorſovs -as -O. * Instead of “eighteen' or “nineteen, the Greeks frequently said “twenty wanting two’ or ‘one:’ e. g. viies Övelv or utús 3éovoral eikoat, ; : ships, wanting two or one, i.e. 18 or 19 ships; and so for 28, 29, , &C. * In the composition of two numbers, if the smaller precedes the two are joined by kat; if the greater, the conjunction is omitted: as, arévre kai etxoort, Herod.; etkoort arévºre, Demosth. But there are exceptions. The cardinal numbers compounded with orév signify : 1. *together.’ gévôvo, two together. 2. “at a time,' or the distribution of a whole number into equal aliquot parts, orávrpets, three at a time. 77 INFLEXION. T', tpiakdoioi, three hundred. v', regarapakóortoi, four hundred. (b', revtakóoriot, five hundred. x', Śakóriot, sia hundred. V', trakóriol, seven hundred. w', 6xtakóoriot, eight hundred. TS, eveakóoriot, nine hundred. ja, xíAioi, a thousand. (lit. “as in a heap of fodder.”) /3, dioxiào, two thousand. /y, Tptory:Atol, three thousand. 3, regarapakia Xiàto, four thousand. p, uptol, ten thousand. (lit. “as in drops of water.”) 254. Ordinal Numbers (answering to the question, “Which of the number?”) Tpºros, first. &eirepos, second. Tpiros, third 3. r Térapros and Tétpatos fourth. Trépºrtos, fifth. ékºros, siath. $330pos, seventh. 8,800s, eighth. ëvaros, ninth. 3ékaros, tenth. évôékatos, eleventh. 8wöékatos and ovokatēékatos, twelfth. Tptorkatēékatos and Tpiros kal 6ékaros, thirteenth. Teaorapakatēēkatos h téraptos kai 8ékaros, fourteent *} - eikoo'rds, twentieth. eikorrós Tpáros, twenty-first. Tpiakoards, thirtieth. Terrapakorrós, fortieth. Trevrnkortos, fiftieth. ěšnkortos, sixtieth. * totrov juvráAavrov means 2} talents, i.e. the first a talent, the second a talent, the third a half talent. So Tétaprov, tréuartov, #360 How, &c. ºutrāAavrov, 3}, 43, 6% talents. On the other hand, tpia, Tévre, &c. jultd Navra signify 3, 5, &c. half talents. 78 INFLEXION. éſ??ounkortés, seventieth. dyöonkortos, eightieth. évveunkootós, ninetieth. éka-rootds, hundredth. otakooriogrós, two-hundredth. Tptakooriogrós, three-hundredth. Terrapakoriogrós, four-hundredth. XıAtoortós, thousandth. puptogrós, ten-thousandth. and so on. 255 Móvos, “alone,” and Érarros, “each,” are of the mature of ordinals. The former is connected with the first numeral : the latter with ēkas, and with the Sanscrit &ka = “one.” It has also the form ékárepos, “one of two.” 256 From the feminine of the ordinal may be formed a secondary ordinal expressing the day on which an event happened; as Tpiraſos dºré0avev, “he died on the third day,” i. e. Tpirm nuépg. 257 We have also multiple adjectives, dTAóos, “single," 3rtados, “double,” Tpitados, “treble,” &c. (for the declen sion see above, 205). Rarer forms are ëtqdorios, Tpiqārios, &c. 258 Proportional adjectives are such as: BitNdorios, “twice as much,” Tpitxdolos, “thrice as much.” 259 Numeral adverbs are such as: draft, “once,” êts, “twice,” Tpts, “thrice,” &c. 260 § VI. Adverbs. When some case of a declinable word—whether substantive, adjective, or pronoun—has fixed itself abso lutely for the expression of certain secondary predications, (see Syntax, 436) it is called an ADVERB. 261 Sometimes the adverb corresponds exactly to some existing case of the noun; as D. kouièm, “with abundance,” i.e. “very much.” A. gpyriu, or Triu Gpxiv, “at the beginning,” i.e. “at all,” “wholly,” “entirely.” INFLEXION. 79 And sometimes to a noun with its preposition : as Tapaxpnua, “along with the business,” i.e. “on the spot,” “directly.” kaflātep = ka0 à rep, “according to which things in particular,” i.e. “like.” The apparently irregular forms vſktop and éutočaiv, are contractions for vuktós dipº and to €v troov čv (cf. td v Tool eixeijueva. Herod. II. 76). 262 Sometimes it preserves a genuine but obsolete inflexion; as G. ovipdvo-0ev, “from heaven.” D. awºró-61, “there.” A. oiko-v-Če, “homewards.” and Plural D. 'A6 ſynori, “at Athens.” A. 'Adrivače for "A01jvao-de, “to Athens.” 263. In these terminations the principal changes are the following: 0ev becomes -0a, -ëa, -ēov, -ēnv, -tei, -t, -s. 6, becomes -ot, and even -ov. be becomes -éis, and in derivatives from pronouns it is always -a.e. The greatest irregularity is that which we observe in relative and interrogative adverbs. Thus instead of 30, “where,” tró0, “where?” we find ov, toº, which are properly equivalent to 30ev, to dev: and instead of 6ae, “whither,” rôore, “whither ?” we find ot, tol, which are properly equivalent to 30, 160. 264. The most common form of the adverb is when the Gen. is assimilated to -os. There is hardly any ad jective which cannot furnish an adverb of this form ; thus oroq6s, “wise.” G. goqow, adv. goſpas, “wisely.” ríðūs, “sweet.” G. 78éos, adv. jôéws, “sweetly.” Xapters, “graceful.” G. Xaptevtos, adv. xapiévros, “gracefully.” evèatutov, “happy.” G. eucaſuovos, adv. et Saipadvas, “happily.” We have seen, however, that it is only with nouns in F that we practically find this G. in -ws as a case. Many of these adverbs cast off the final -s as āqvo, äval, &c. and we have both oùrtos and outw. But it may be doubted 80 INFLEXION. whether the latter forms are not connected rather with the D. than with the G. to which we assign the adverbs in —ws. Dialectical variations, such as éºol, Éw, would seem to point to this; but these forms are in many instances so mutilated and corrupt, that we can scarcely hope to arrive at a certain analysis. Thus, in the cor relative adverbs, those in -ws refer to manner, as trios, “how !" Tws, “some-how,” wis, “in what way,” &c. And yet the shortened form to refers to time, as in otte, nondum, “not yet," i.e. “at no previous time.” If te is added to the crude form, another relation of time is expressed; for tróte means “when ;", trote, “at any time;" +&re, “then,” or “at that time;” 8te, “at which time:" où trote, “not at any time,” “never,” nunquam, either of past or present time; ot traitote, “never yet,” “never at any previous time.” In perhaps the only passage in which tº appears as an interrogative (AEschyl. Agam. 1507), it is obviously synonymous with trios. The following table shews how these irregular adverbs are used to express place, time, and manner. r º, (p Interrogative. l & where 2" * Trd.64. (poet. ) Indefinite. “any where," Tobí .” Trov, Tov, róðev, “whence?” Troore. (DOet. l .. whither ?” roi." (poet.) trofláv, “from anyplace," r - wrot, “ some whither,” z - l 2 Trote, “when 2" - 2 Toré, “at some time.” zy r tros, “how ! trø, “how” > 3. Tras, “somehow,” waſ, “at some time, yet," Trn, “whither ?” “in what way?” irri, “in some way.” Dependent Interrogative. Gró0, 6trov, “ where 2" ord6ev, “whence?” • * O'Toore en 2 } - “whither ?” otrol, orrore, “whenever.” 3rws, “as.” àrn, “whither?” “in what way?” 81 INFLEXION. Relative. Demonstrative. 60, r +001, “there.” - où * } “Where.” > roðev, “thence.” wanting. Töre, “then.” Tais, *-**,\ ... so.” cºde, | 66ev, “whence.” of, “whither.” 8te, “when.” er ws, “as.” > - : Th, *-* Thee, Tavrn, r “in this way.” , “where.” “in which t -- way. We have also trnvíka, “at what particular time?” with its correlatives dirnvíka, tmvika, trivikauta, rmvikāše and nvika. 265 Participial adverbs in -ëa, -ēov, -ēnv, express the mode of action, and correspond to another class in -t, -rel, which is still further softened into -s, or even -a attached to the simple stem: compare àmpiyêa, drpukteſ, drpić; dwa pſydnv, dvduty&a, dvauíč, dvdutya. The contemporaneous existence of these terminations may be further seen in uéya, and udaa, compared with pdyls, and 16A4s. 266 Adverbs with this participial signification are often derived from nouns: thus, we have kuwn-86V, “dog wise;” kavaxm-èd, “noisily;” eipſić, “side-ways,” &c. And even from other adverbs, as Trépić, “around.” 267 To the same list belong a considerable class of adverbs in -ív-8a, expressing the names of games (tratēºv Övöuara, J. Pollux, Ix. 110), such as datpak-ivêa, “the game of the potsherd;” flag Xívča, “the game of king;” &c. 268 Although there is sometimes an apparent identity between the adverb and the nom. masc. of an adjective, what we have seen of the mutilations which take place in these forms, will caution us against supposing that this identity is real. Thus ºutras or Šutra is obviously evºrãoriv, and although evöſs is an adverb as well as ejóſ', the coin In Attic Greek eV00 refers to place, as ev6ū A6mvrºv, “straight to Athens;” and ev60s to time, “straightways.” Heindorf. ad Plat. Lys. p. 203 E. D. G. G. 6 82 INFLEXION. cidence of the former with the masc. adjective is only the accidental result of a corruption probably of the genitive adverb. We see in the Prepositions, which are all pronominal adverbs, the extent to which this corruption may be carried. § VII. Degrees of Comparison. 269 The usual method of expressing a comparison between two or more objects in regard to quality is by affixing, to an adverbial inflexion of the adjective denoting the quality, the syllables -te-pos, when two objects are compared, and the syllables -ta-tos when more than two objects are referred to. The former, as we have already seen (78), expresses motion from a certain point, and away, and the latter, motion through a series of points. Conse quently if koºpo-s expresses the quality of “lightness,” kovgºd-repos means “light beyond or before a certain point or object,” and kovſpó-ratos, “light beyond a series of such points or objects.” And this is always the meaning of comparative and superlative adjectives. 270 As might be expected from the length of the increased word, the adverbs, to which these terminations are appended, always appear in an abridged or mutilated form. If the penultima is short, the adverb retains the w before these affixes; if long, o is the only representative of the original -ws; thus goºd-s oroga-Tepos oroga-taros kov po-s kov po-repos kov på-ratos 271 . If the adjective-form ends in -v, -es, -av, or -ap, these affixes may be immediately appended to the unin flected form (above, 268): as y\vki-s, -iſ YAvkº-Tepos 7Avkū-taros dAndrí-s, -és dAndéa-Tepos a Mm6éo-taros péAas, -av pexdv-Tepos peAdv-ratos uákap uaköp-tepos pakap-ratos 272 If the adjective-form ends in -vir, this is softened into a, on account of the dental following: thus Xapters for Xaptevt-s, xapiéa-Tepos, Yaptéo-tatos. 273 Compounds of Xàpts for Xàpit-s, form the com 83 INFLEXION. parative and superlative from the gen, on the same princi ple as in goºds, goquitepos: thus, eixapis euxapital-repos euxapurai-Taros. 274 Adjectives in ov (ov-s), and # (k-s), change the o of the genitive into e : thus orºppov, G. geºppovos, owſppovéa-tepos, orwppovéo-tatos. 275 From a noun in -ns, -ov, or -ns, -eos, we have sometimes a comparative in ta-Tepos: as KAértne, k\erría repos. This is also the form adopted for AdAos, “talk ative;” dvoq d'yos, “gluttonous;" trioxás, “beggarly.” 276 Contracted forms -oos, -ovs, following the analogy of Xapters, change the neuter v into a as darAdos dºt\oeo-repos -oila-Tepos ejvoos euvoéo-repos -ova-Tepos Some other long forms adopt the same change: as éâgouévos épôwpevéa-tepos atóoros aidotéo-Tepos 277 Forms which present adverbial inflexions in -al, or have by-forms in -os, which are in themselves of a com parative nature, attach the comparative suffix to an adverb ial inflexion in-at: as Traxaids, adv. trāal, Taxaſ-repos dauevat-rata ºptAaſ-Tepos dauevos, old infin. dopéval q}{\os, by-form pſalos But taxatos has also traXato-Tepos; doptevos has dorue vaſ-repos and douévéo-tatos; and pi\os has three other forms: ‘pta-repos, ºptA-Tatos, which is commonest, and ºptAº-repos, quxuſ-tatos, pix-ſtov, pixia-tos, which are less r w w a usual than pixat-Tepos, pixat-tatos. 278 As it is nearly certain that the terminations -repos, -ratos, are thus appended to adverbial forms of the adjective, it may be scarcely necessary to remark that they may be appended to pronominal and other adverbs. Indeed, the prepositions themselves indicate a similar process of comparison (so wºrd, Utré-p, &c.): the ordinals have the superlative affix -tos, unless two only are com pared, as in Čei-Tepos, Ška-Tepos; and many pronouns re ferring to a comparison between two have the same ending, as €-Tepos, oveč-tepos, tro-repos, &c. 6–2 | 84 INFLEXION. 279 The comparative degree is also expressed by the qualitative ending -wov = -lov-s, which is merely a strength ened form of the qualitative termination -tos; compare the relative words med-ius, al-ius, with the comparative end ings -ior (for -ios), neuter, -ius, G.-ióris. This qualitative ending, which is appended not to an adverbial inflexion, but to the uninflected form, does not imply excess like that in -Tepos, but only a considerable amount of the quality indicated by the adjective—rather more than less—and this is often the force of the Latin comparative. So also our termination -ish, as brack-ish = “rather salt than otherwise,” &c. 280. The comparatives in -tow are, for the most part, appropriated to positives in -vs, or to other positives, chiefly in -pos, which seem to have had by-forms in -vs, or, which is the same thing, adverbs in -ts. From this latter form, there is a corresponding superlative in -ros, which bears the same relation to the ending in -taros, that rpſ-tos does to Tp(-taros. Thus, we have now-s riè-tov hoto-tos where the penultima of -tov is long in Attic Greek; short in old Epic and Ionic (above, 39). 281 Similarly, because airy-pés and kax-3s (for kax A6s, from kač-Ads, above, 39) had by-forms in-vs, as appears from alaxi-voltai and KaNA-vo, we have alax-pés alax-ſov aloxia-tos kaAA-tow ka)\-os köMAta-ros 282 If the ending -ºs is preceded by a guttural or dental, the of the termination is either transposed or absorbed, and the guttural or dental is represented by a compound sibilant (above, 104). Thus we have Taxiſ-s 0doratov (for ray-tww) Ba0ſ-s £dog ww péyas (udyis, magis) peſov (for ueytov) ravia-ror %. º Å. uéyto-Tos 283 When the termination is preceded by v or p, the 1 is transposed without any other alteration. Thus we have the comparatives duetvov, “better,” and eipwv, “worse,” apparently from the lost positives duevels, “a warrior,” and Xepews, “a workman.” 85 INFLEXION. § VIII. Undeclined, Irregular, and Defective Nouns. 284 Although the laws which lead to apparent ano malies of inflexion have been already explained, it will be most convenient to the learner, if we follow the example of previous grammarians, and add here a list of those nouns which are either undeclinable, defective, or irregular. andov, “ nightingale,” G. dnöövos, dn&ows, D. -ovº, -oſ. So also Topyviv, elkºv, xexièav (184). dAkt by the side of dAkſ, “with strength.” ãAws, “threshing-floor,” G. -w, -wos, also &Atov, -ovos. diva, “O king,” in addresses to gods, for Čvač. didos, Čič, ćića, for &&ov, &c. from "Aléns. dAp, “barley-meal,” secondary form āAqirov. So also Kpf by the side of kpión, “barley.” "AAp, and kpſ were probably dental forms like uéAl-t, “honey.” duºpw, “both,” G. D. dupoiv. dvºpatročov, D. Pl. dvěpatróðots and avépatóðeral. The latter form shews, as does also the form dwópatrocío, that the derivation is dump and trous, not dump and droëſtops; hence, the original word was dwópatrovs like Tpírovs, and the name is best explained by the boast of the Dorian warrior (Hybr. ap. Ath. xv. p. 695, F): “Tavres yovv retrtnøtes duov trporkvveºvtſ pe deatdraw.” There is a similar irregularity in Olć trovs, q.v. 'Avēpopéea retains the a throughout. So also some other proper names, such as Anča, DiNoumaa. cf. 18 f, g, 119, 161. dump, “a man,” i.e. vir, not homo (185). 'AtröAAw for 'AtroAAwwa (184). dpyéros, -ri, instead of apyntos, dipyntt. "Apns, “the god of war,” “Apeos, "Apel, "Apn, and "Apnv. Also in Epic poetry 'Apnos, 'Apni. That the original form of the nom. was "Apews appears from the compa rative dpetov (280). dpv6s, m. and f, “of the lamb;” dpví, ópva, āpues, ºpvd ori, used instead of the inflexions of duvds. nom. was dºjºv, “the male.” £péras, “image,” n. 6péreos, (3pérn. The true 86 INFLEXION. yd Aa, n. (182 a.). yéAws, m. “laughter,”-wros, -wra, and -ov, -ov. So also £pos, “love;” ſepas, “sweat.” Compare ſipws for hipw T-s (192). yóvv, n. (182 a.). So also 3dpv. yºun, f. (179). &duap, f. (181). £dkpvov, n., “tear;” D. Pl, Ödkpvriv from the poetic Čáxpv. deva, (240). &évêpov, n., “tree;” D. Pl, both &évôpos and Čávěpeow from 3évôpos. There is also a form éévêpeov, whence 8évêpea, Čevöpéois. beguós, m., “chain,”; Pl.-uoſ and -ud; 8(ppos, m., “seat," has also both forms, but the m. Pl. is more common. 3opvčé, m., “O spear-shaft-maker,” from Čopuśdos. &pupos, m., “oak-grove;” Pl, -uot and -ud. Gap, n., “Spring;” apos, apt, ipos, mp. gyxexus, f, “eel,” -vos; but at and rds éyxéAets, rºw - éyxeXéov in the Pl. eikov, f. (184). épétuds, m., “oar;” Pl, épétuoſ, and épétud. §ws, f. (171). Zeiſs, m., “Jupiter;" G. Aids; D. Att; A. Aſa. Also Znvds, Znvi, Znva. sixé, m., “O madman.” Hom. tipa, n, acc., “help.” €a\ms, m., GaAéw, €axi, GaAmv. The forms 6axoſ, €dantos, &c. are later. 6éus, f, “law,” has the genitive forms 6éutoros, 6éuitos, 6éutòos, and 0éuios. 6eouds, m., “decree;” Pl, -uot and ud. Épíč, f, “hair,” Tpixós, òpišſ (96). 6vydtmp, f, “ daughter," duyarpás, 6vyatpi, -tépa, flºa Tep. 6vyatépe, -Tepoiv, -Tepes, -Tépov, -Tpdori, -répas. kéAws, m., “cable,”-w, -ov; Pl. -wes, and -ot; A. -ovº. Kápa, n., “head,” “patós, spatí, kpāra, m. But to kpāra occurs in Sophocles. kéAévôos, f, “road;” Pl. -60, and -6a. k\ačí, k\ačert, coexist with the regular inflexions of k\dëos, “a bough:” see grixós. KAeſs, f, “key;” A. KAeſda and k\eſv; Pl. KAéſées, kAeſtas, and KAeſs. In old Attic we have also k\ſis, -nēds. INFLEXION. 87 kvépas, n., “darkness;” G. -eos, -ovs; D. -ai, -g, whence kve paſos. Kowavés, m., “partaker;” Pl. kowaves, -as, as from koi valv, Švváv. “pivov, n., “lily,” “pivea, spiver. kik\os, m., “circle;” Pl, kūkAoi and kiſkAa. kilov, m, f, “dog,” (184). Attra, n., old dative, “with oil.” Axvos, m., “lamp;" Pl. AſYvot and Auxva. adans for paq XaAm, in the phrase Utro udams. pºdpºrus, m. f., “witness,” regular in paptupos, &c. but D. Pl, udprvatv, and Acc. S. udprww in Simonides. pets, m., “month,” for univ. péAe, m., “O wretch.” pidavv, m., “a wooden tower;” G. adovvos, &c., but D. Pl. Mooriſvols. aſkns, m., “a mushroom;” G. pºknºtos and uſicov. vavs, f, “ship;” S., veals, vni, vauv; D., veolv; Pl., vnes, vetov, vavoriv, vais (189). vić, f, “night,” (180). Oičitrovs, Oſóſtroëos, and -trov, -iroël, -toča, and -trovv; W. -trov. Also G. Oiśirdèao, -ëa, -ēew ; D. -ón; A. -3nv; W. -ëa. ois, f, “sheep,” olós, oit, olv; oles or ois, otºv, oloriv, oias or ois. dwap, n., “dream,” only N. and A. Övepos, m., “dream,” both -ov m., and -atos n. dpvis, m. f., “bird,” SpVibos, -6, -viv and -viſa, V. Öpyi. Pl, épvibes, &c. and also 3pwels, 3pwetov, and in the A. dpvis. The Dorians wrote 3pwixos, 3pwixa, &c. &gge, “eyes;” G. &rarov; D. Sagots. ow8as, n., “floor;” G. oddeos; D. oºel. ows, n., “ear,” ºrds, drov, datv. Tvº, f, “house of assembly,” rvkvás, &c. later, rvvkós. IIogetöðv; A. IIogetöð. Tpeoffevrms, m., “ambassador;” G. Toérôews; A. Tpéo Évv; Pl. Tpérôels; D. Tpégſłeri. Tºpdowntov, n., “countenance;” Pl. Tpoorditata, -traorw. Tpéxoos, -ovs, f., “pitcher;” D. Pl. rpáxovativ. n., “fire,” tripös; Pl. Ta rvpd, toſs trupoſs, “watch *i; res.” 88 INFLEXION. orms, m., “moth,” oreds; Pl. orées, oréas, oréwv. writers, ontos, &c. In later orſros, m., “corn;” Pl. -to, and -ra. a kap, (181). ordetov, n., “a furlong,” of ortdötol, ra ardóta. &C. w pr −. r w -- orraðuds, m., “standard;” Pl. -uot and -ua, “balance." attyás Gen., and pl. otixes, from grixos, “a row.” * * * * !... 44 px - Tav in to ºrdv, “O thou,” old form of rvvm. Táprapos; Pl. Taprapa. - - - Tauſs, m., both regular, and also ratovi, raioves, Tatoow, Jówp, n. (181). víðs, m., “son,” in addition to the regular declension has the following: G. viéos; D. vieſ; A. viéa; Du. viée, viéow; Pl. vieſs, viétov, viériv, viéas, -eſs. ppéap, n., “well,” ºppéatos and ºppnrós. xeip, f, “hand,” xeipós, xepds, xeport, &c. xovs, m., “a congius,” or, “liquid measure,” xods, Yoi, xoºv, x6es, xdas. Also, as from xoews, xods, xod, xoãs, &c. G. But Yous, m., “a heap of earth,” has only xods; A. Yotv, &c. 4% r -- r r r - Xpéos, n., “debt;” also xpéos; G. Xpéws and Xpéows; Pl. xpéa. There is no D. I Xpaſs, m., “skin;” G. Xpwtds, &c. Ionice xpods, Xpot, Xpda. . We have also the phrase év Xpig for év Xpwrí. r «G. - w & tdv. See Tav. .” r - r .. CHAPTER II. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. § I. Differences of Voice. 285 A verB (ønua) is a word which contains a pre dication of time, with reference to one or other of the three primary positions: and these primary positions are ex pressed by objective cases of the primitive pronouns. Thus, we have &ſdo-ui, “a giving by me,” = “I give:” ciów-Ti, “a giving by him,” = “he gives:” &ſdo-uev, “a giving by us,” = “we give;” 8:30-vri, “a giving by them,” = “they give:" tºo-uai, “a giving on or of me," = “I am given;" cíðo-rat, “a giving of or on him,” = “he is given.” 286 When the inflexions represent different pronomi nal elements, these differences are called the first, second, and third persons of the verb; and, as in the declensions, they appear in three numbers, singular, dual, and plural. 287 When the inflexions represent different cases of the pronominal elements, these differences are called coices. Ac cording to the inflexions there are only two voices, active and passive: but the latter may express, not only that the action refers to and terminates with the person implied in the inflexion; but also that it proceeds from this person: in which case, the passive verb is called middle or de ponent. § II. Differences of Tense or Time. 288 But besides these differences of inflexion, there are affections of the uninflected form, which are not less im portant. 289 By a prefix, affix, or both, to the uninflected form, it becomes capable of predicating differences of time or tense. Thus, the prefix or augment é- (a residuary or apocopized form of é-va, d-va signifying “distance,” or “negation,” above, 114) always implies time past, or non existent time. The affix a- (a residuary form of ora = kä sig nifying “proximity,”) always implies future, or coming and 90 INFLEXION. approximating time. When the form has the augment é as well as the prefix a-, it implies that the act, spoken of, was future and is past; or that it took place within limits which require to be defined; it is therefore called the aorist or indefinite tense: though, in fact, all aug mented tenses are indefinite, as will be shewn in the Syntax. When the root-syllable is reduplicated, or prefixed in a weaker shape, the form predicates present or continuous time, and, with the augment, an imperfect or continued action in past time. When a - is affixed in addition to the reduplication prefixed (which, of course, is still further weakened by this elongation of the word), the form implies perfect time, or a past action continued in itself or its effects up to the present time. When this perfect receives an augment, it expresses the completion of an action in reference to some past time, and the tense is called plus perfect or plusquam-perfectum. When we have an aug ment alone without reduplication or affix, the form implies transitory or momentary action completed in past time; and from the resemblance in signification between this and the tense which implies that an action was future and is past, the form is called the second aorist. With regard to this second aorist, it is to be observed that the passive form is not distinguished by a change in the inflexions of the person-ending, but by a pronominal insertion, ana logous to that which discriminates the case-endings of the noun, and which must be carefully distinguished from the affix -ora-, which marks approximate actions in the future tense, although it is ultimately the same element. For 6a-ow = 34-go-ui signifies, “there will be a giving by me;” and é-8w-v = 3-3o-ui means, “there was a solitary act of giving by me: but €-86-6m-v=é-86-[0ya-ul implies, “there was a solitary act of giving in relation to me,” (i.e. it took place in the line from position 2 to position 1, above, 77). So that the pronominal element belongs to the verb-root in the first aorist active, and to the person-ending in the passice aorist. Of this passive aorist there are two forms, the 0n- being occasionally softened into n. By a subse quent extension, when the original significance of this in sertion was no longer felt, it was arbitrarily used to make a distinction between middle and passive, even in forms which already exhibited differences of inflexion in the person-endings. INFLEXION. 91 290 The following examples will suffice to exhibit the process of formation which has been described. A. Present tense (Xpóvos évertus.) Reduplication of the root. 3-8w-pit, “I am giving.” 8t-to-uai, “I am being given.” From this, by augment, the imperfect tense (Xpóvos trapatarikos). é-otow-v, “I was giving.” é-Čičd-unv, “I was being given. B. Future tense (uéAAww). Affix of o- as the softened form of k. 84-aw = 34-go-ui, “I shall give.” ea-go-uai, “I shall give myself.” From this, by augment, the first aorist (déparos ſpºros). 3-60-ka for €-da-aa-ul, “I gave.” é-ów-ka-umv, “I gave myself.” C. Perfect tense (Tapakefuevos). Reduplication + affix. 3é-êw-ka[-uj, “I have given.” &é-80-pai (from Če-daika-uai), “I have given myself.” From this, by augment, the plusquam-perfectum (Utep avvtextkós). 6-3e34-ket-v, “I had given.” é-čedo-unv (from éðedokd-umv), “I had given myself.” The perfect also admits of a future of the form B, which is then called the paulo-post futurum (duet' dAiyov uéAAww Xpóvos). This is more common in the passive than in the active. It will be observed that the affix wa = ka, which is appended to tenses B and C, sometimes appears as the hard k-, sometimes as the soft a-, and sometimes vanishes altogether, as in the perfect passive. This is due to the nature of the guttural, which, as we have seen, can pass through the sibilant to the mere aspirate, and so vanish (above, 106). 92 INFLEXION. These are all the regular formations. They present themselves in pairs of simple and augmented tenses, the former expressing definite, the latter indefinite, relations of time. But besides these, we have, as we have seen, the secondary acrist (döpiatos &ettepos) and its peculiar passive formation, which are of course limited to the expression of indefinite time. D. Second aorist (doptotos éevrepos). Augment without affix or reduplication. 3-30-v, “I gave.” With compound person-ending é-36-0nv, “I was given.” The shortened form, in -mv only, does not appear when the verb-form ends in o or e, but is common enough when 291 the root ends in a or a consonant. It is to be noticed that although the aorists in -6mv and -nv are alike derived from the second aorist active, custom has given to the aorist in -0nv the name of the first aorist passive, while that in -ny is called the second aorist passive. The improper, or secondary future passive, is formed from the passive aorist, contrary to all analogy, by the substitutions of -0mgopal for -0nv or -morouai for -nv. Thus we have : 30-0||aouai, “I shall be given.” § III. Differences of Mood. 292 Besides these formations, which are devoted to the expression of various relations of tense and coice, the accurate syntax of the Greek language has taken into use, for the expression of modal relations, forms of the future and aorist which bear the same analogy to the regular forms in -a-, that the usual genitive of the second declen sion does to its original form ; namely, the analogy of -to to -orio. This new future and aorist are called the subjunctive and optative moods, (tyk\tores wrotaktikri kal eukarıkm), and the tenses which we have hitherto discussed are said to belong to the indicative mood (ºykAlgis 6ptatiki). 293 By an affection of the person-endings only, which are either omitted or made more emphatic—according to the analogy of this vocative case of nouns—the indicative INFLEXION. 93 mood is converted into what is called the imperatice mood (śykAtaris irpooraktikm). 294 When the third person plural in -vt- of an indica tive tense becomes the vehicle of a set of case-endings, the verb is said to become an active participle (uéroxos), as partaking of the nature of the noun and verb (above, 61). The crude verb, similarly inflected with the suffix -lievo-, becomes a passive participle. The aorist in -0n-v, -n-v makes its participle in -vt. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the augment is always omitted in the participle, though the reduplication is retained. In addition to the participle, the verb is capable of a nominal inflexion when the termination réos (from TéFos), or -tês is appended to the root in the same way as the third sing perf. pass. Thus, from TAék-w, tré-TAek-Tai, we have the ver bals TAek-réos and TAek-ºrds; from pixáw, "re-qíAn-rat, the verbal pi\n-téos; from Xéo, root XeF, kéxv-tai, Xv Tós; Tetvo, root ta-, térarai, Ta-Téos. It seems probable that these forms are derived from the verbal in -riſe, sig nifying the action of the verb, and corresponding in ori gin, as these forms do in use, to the Latin supines and gerunds. (See the Syntax for the use, and for the forms, 361, b, c.) 295 An inflexion, analogous to the passive person endings, becomes fixed adverbially for the expression of what is called the infinitive mood (£yk\toris drapéuqatos). The passive form of this inserts, according to an analogy not very easily explicable, the element which forms the passive aorist. 296 The following may serve as exemplifications of these processes. Indicative Mood. tow-ut, “I am giving.” (co-wal, “I am being given.” Imperative. têo-01, “Give thou.” (co-ro, “Be thou given.” Conjunctice. diè6 for Čičota-ui, “I am likely to give.” Čiča-uai, “I am likely to be given.” 94 INFLEXION. Optative. 31&oinv for €330ia-ul, “I was likely to give.” 3.30ſ-unv, “I was likely to be given.” Infinitive. 3d6-val, “to give.” £136-00a, “to be given.”’’ Participle. 3.3ows = 3166-vt-s, “giving.” 6.63-mevos, “being given.” dows = &o-wr-s, “having given.” 30-06's = 30-06-vt-s, “having been given.” § IV. Different Classes of Verbs. 297 Having thus stated the general procedure in the genesis of verbal inflexions, the next step will be to give the practical rules for the application of these principles to the different tenses and moods of the same verb, and to the different kinds or forms of verbs. 298 There are two classes of verbs, discriminated by their person-endings: A. Primary verbs in -iu; , B. Secondary verbs in -0. And class B. is again subdivided, according to the crude forms, into (a) verbs of which the crude form terminates in a consonant or one of the vo calized consonants i, u : (b) verbs of which the crude form terminates in one of the articulation-vowels a, e, o. 299. According to the sub-varieties of the crude form, it is customary to subdivide these classes of verbs into conjugations (avčyia). In class A there are four conjugations: 1 Verbs in -a-pu, as fort-n-pº, to T-d-val, fut. atri-ow. -e-put, as T10-m-ul, T10-é-val, 3 Verbs in -o-ui, as Ötö-to-ui, 316-6-val, 2 Verbs in - 6;forw. — 86a w. 4 Verbs in -vv-ul, as Čeſk-vu-pu, betk-vſ-val, - Čeſ:0. In class B. (a) there are six conjugations: 1 Labial verbs, in or in in T, tr-T, ſº, ‘p, as Tépt-w, as Tūt-t-w, as Aeſ?-w, as Ypaq-w, fut. — – — Tépyw, rival, Aeſºw, ypdvo. 95 INFLEXION. 2 Guttural verbs, in or in in 3 k, k-T, Y, X, as TAék-w, fut. TAéčw, as Tik-t-w, — Téčo, as Aéy-w, — Aéâw, as Tpéx-w, – 8péâw. Dental verbs, in T, aS in 3, as épétè-w, dviſorw, – petaw, in 0, as "reið-w, — Tretow. diviſt-w, - 4 Liquid verbs, 5 in A, as a réAAw, in u, as véu-w, or u-v-, as Téu-v-w, – in v, in p, – kpivo, - a trepò. as kpiv-w, as a "reip-w, - a tead, veputo, – Teuto, Assimilated verbs, in oro- or TT-. From labials, as térow (Ter-) —Tévo. From gutturals, as Tpdoo-w (Tpay-)—tpd{w. From dentals, as épéra-w (épet-) —épéro. In 8. a. From gutturals, as kpd{-0 (Kpay-) —kpd{w. or ga\tíč-w (aaXTiº-) —oraxt{yśw. 3. From dentals, as ºppºić-w (ppač-) — ppáow. i. 6 Verbs in F, i.e. in t or v. r a. Simple, as tío, Aww, fut. Tiao, Avorw. |3. Diphthong, as travo, k\etw, keVetw. 300 In all these conjugations, except B. a 4, it will be observed that the or- of the future is directly attached to the root, with the same changes for the labials, gutturals, and dentals, which have been stated in the case of the nomina tives of nouns with similar characteristics (above, 178 sqq.). The learner must bear in mind, that all verbs in -čw, which form their future in -ºrw, have a dental characteristic, which is omitted before the g (above, 92), so that the penultima is necessarily short :, comp. Tapaokevičw, fut. Tapa akeudo-w, with Aapatrás from Aautrāč-s, and vouíčw, fut. wouia-w, with éAtris from éAríð-s. The liquid verbs, B. a 4, soften the a- through to e (22); and generally ex hibit it in synaeresis. With regard to the perfect, the 96 INFLEXION. original hard k is preserved, as a general rule, in the third, fourth, and sixth conjugations, and is represented by a mere aspirate in the first and second (see above, 290). The assimilated verbs apply this rule with a reference to their original characteristics. Thus we have with h Tút-t-w, perf. rétvq?a= rérvºr-ha. 2 TAek-w, - TerAexa = trék\ek-ha. {} but | 3 with k. 6 a reſpo — Trétréºſól-ka, — a trap-ka, keVevo — treſów kekéAev-ka. The perfect passive always omits the k, and assimilates or otherwise alters the characteristic according to the rules of pathology. 301 In class B. (b) there are three conjugations: 1 Verbs in -a-, as Tud-w, fut. Tuñow ; or ord-w, fut. awārw. 2 Verbs in -e-, as 3 Verbs in -o-, as ‘pi\é-w, fut. pianow ; or kaxé-w, fut. KaNéow. &nxó-w, fut. *n\dow; or dpd-w, fut. dpdow. 302 It will be observed that the a- of the future is preceded by a long vowel in some, and by a short vowel in other, verbs of this class. In the one case, the crude form really terminates in a vowel: in the other, some consonant has been absorbed: e.g. a dental in ortra-w, root a trafl-, cf. ordó-wv, até-v-ºw, &c.; a F in kaAéto and dpów, cf. kAſw, aroum, &c. 303 The classification of verbs according to the genesis, or origination of the crude form, belongs to a different part of the subject (below, Part IV.) § W. Differences in the Person-endings. 304 The general differences in the person-endings of classes A and B refer chiefly to the primary or definite tenses: the secondary or derivative tenses, being affected by augments and additions of different kinds, present corresponding modifications of the person-endings. The following tables will show the various forms of the person endings in the two classes of verbs, and in the two sets of tenses: t 97 INFLEXION. Primary Tenses. Class A. 305 Active, singular 1 Secondary Tenses. -pu •ly ori, -6a, -6, -s, -6a -Ti, -ori •ly -"Tony -"roy dual plural Passive, singular dual plural - Toy -Tm v -pies, -piev -pies, -piev -Te -Te -vri, -v6-, -āori -v, -orav -plat -pumv •orott •oro -ºratt -ºro -pedov -uébov -0.60w -a-60 w -orðov -ueda -orðnv -pieba -o-6e -orðe -wrott •y'ro Class B. Active, singular 1 -o •ly •s •ly dUlal plural -"roy - Tony -Toly -Tm v -piev -piev -'re - Te •ou -a ori -y =to Passive, singular dual plural D. G. G. -plat -unv -oat, -n, -et -oro, -ou, -w **ott -"ro -pedov pedov -orðov -o-0ov -o-60w -ué6a -o-0my -us0a -o-6e -orðe -viral, -arai -vºto, -aro 7 98 INFLEXION. § VI. 306 Differences in the Augment and Reduplication. As the vowel at the end of the crude form affects the conjugation of verbs in Class B, so a vowel, commencing a crude form, affects the augment and reduplication in verbs of every class. In fact, it is customary to speak of two kinds of augments: 307 (1) The syllabic, or proper augment, which aug ments the secondary tenses of verbs beginning with a con sonant, by prefixing e, as in 3-Tvrtov from Türtte, and doubling the initial g, as in Éppittov from girt w (105). 308 (2) The temporal, or quantitative augment, which is merely an ectasis of the initial syllable, in verbs which begin with a mutable vowel. This augment takes the place of reduplication in the perfect of such verbs, and is then retained through the moods. The augment in eitrov is considered as a reduplication. 309 As a general rule, a or e is changed into n, o into w. Thus we have dviſo imp. iivvov perf. ºvvka pl. p. iivſkew éAríčo — Antićov — ſixtuka — matrikew dutxéw — autxeow — aut&nka — aut&miketv. In some verbs e is changed into el: such are édw, Štú", éAſoo w, tako, trouai, pydīouai, £prw, exo. 310 The short ; and v are represented in syllabic aug mentation by the long and v : as Keteva, ikétevaa; v'paívo, tºpauvov. - 311. The rule for the change of a, e, o, in syllabic augmentation, is generally observed also when the verb begins with the diphthongs at, av, ot: thus we have airéal, imp. Touv. avčdvo, imp. nº avov. eixouai, imp. mixáunv'. 312 In some few instances, euphony forbids syllabic augmentation; as in awaivu, oikovpéw, &c.; and in some cases there is an apparent combination of both augments, 1 The doctrine of the old Grammarians that ev- takes no augment is not accepted by modern scholars. See Elmsley ad Med. 191. Heracl. 305. Dindorf. ad Nub. 137. Lobeck, Phryn. p. 140. 99 INFLEXION. as in £600vv from d6éw, Čºpov from dpaw, àow from d'Ataka, &c. 313 In parathetic compounds of preposition and verb, the augment stands between the preposition and the verb: aS in Tpos-Éqepov from Tpos-ºpépw, trap'-elyov from Trap-exto. 314 In synthetic compounds, the augment and redu plication precede the whole compound form: as in Tekvo Toléw, érékvoroſovv, TAnugeMéo, TetanupéAnka, dq'povéw, ñppóvovv. ., 315 Compounds with et and 8vo- are generally con sidered as synthetic; but they vary in regard to the aug ment according to the letter which follows the particle: if this is a mutable vowel, it takes the syllabic augment thus we have evnpyérovv from evepyeréto: if it be a con sonant, or immutable vowel, the augment precedes the whole form, as in éðvariºxnga, nutſyovv. 316 The reduplication of the present tense is rarely found except in verbs of Class A, though we have some such forms, as tri-Trø, root tre+- or reo-. 317. It has been already remarked, that the reduplica tion of the perfect gives s for , on account of the greater weight of the form. 318 There is an occasional reduplication in Attic Greek even in the case of verbs beginning with a vowel: thus we have, dyw, 2 aor. Yayov; drovo, perf. dr-rikoa ; ãº, perf. 83-w8a; dpºrta, perf. dp-tipuxa : where it will be observed, that where the common forms have an augment, the first syllable is lengthened; where a reduplication, the second; and if, in this case, the lengthened syllable is ante penultima, the penultima is necessarily short: compare dkowo, "HKovov, dkH'KOa dAeſpo, "HAesºpov, dAHAIqa. Paradigms of Regular Verbs. § VII. Class A, or Verbs in -ni. 319 Although it is usual to consider the following verbs as regular, and though they are inflected uniformly, the student must be told from the first that they are 7–2 100 INFLEXION. both irregular and defective. Thus, foºtnui and Četryvvu have no 2 aor, act. ; and ríðmu and 8tówu have no 2 aor. passive. Moreover, by a convention, which we also see exemplified in ſixw, “I am come, or have been sent,” from fixa, the aor, or eika, the perf. act. of ſnu, and in our words “stay," act. “stand,” passive, from the present and perfect active ich stehe, “I stand,” ich stand, “I stood,”—the perfect of fortnut is invariably used with a passive signification, and the verb has no active perfect. 320 It will be observed, that all the old consonant verbs, which still keep up this primitive mode of inflexion, add -vu or -wn to the root, with the exception of elut, root and épi-ual, root pu-. . The v is doubled in several verbs in a, e, o : such as orkeddvvvu, kopévvvu, otpévvvut. Also in Tivvvu for rivvu, which is a solitary case. The affix v may be transferred by hyperthesis (above, lll) to the root syllable, where it becomes a kind of ectasis (above, 145). It is liable to the changes mentioned in 101 a. Thus we have tri-p-TAnu, Aa-Y-x4-vo, &c. - : 3. -Kevy-viſ-row-Kevy-vij-rmv-Kevºy-vij-ue-vKetºy-viſ-re-get")-vij-orav -get [v] é-Keöy-vu-vKetºy-vu-sy-vu égévča&c. {vy ééééééé {-org-row é“ p-6rtilac-öboe-ºrowvi-a-rá-rmy Šéing,” &c. -6T1i-36é-ºrmŠć-v ora-Mev -r3ít-0êeo-ograv 6r1i-6b0e-ute-é-ri-be-re vor-ra-re ć*-ata-Gav é-61-80-re Iv] ;-ºf-3a, -tt-ºn [v] sé-ri-6m-s é-61-60-sup,” etting#-arm 7-arm-v was “I Š-6t-ów-v#-arm-s é-Ti-6m-v aorist 2 the ples, themoods in and and plural, dual the in but particiis and preference. in used 5-60-ka Tenses. Indefinite Mood. fleÖo "" Imperfect, &c. -or-rm-ord-ºrnu-or ij-ora-uev-or ij-ora-re -or m-orav -oºrn-ga set did “I VOICE ACTIVE 321 Indicative Aorist. 1 &c. up,” B. 6et-ſ3y-0v-v-ºrt gti-6evri for Kevy-vá-āor7and 61-36-àort tubé-dori for i-atāori (v) ſi-eorv-yra-vroi rt ölöovoſt or tubelow Čt-eiočr-yfr-alveruo-wroti-te-row i31-80-Tov y-vv-row {ei} 31-30-row 7w-a-ra-row ti-de-uev Čte-orta-Lev 8t-êo-wev čy-v -ueTí-0e-ºre v-or-ra-re 8t-8w-ut ti-6m-ut t-orrm-ut ečy-vu-ſut º7-a-rm-ori 6t-öo-re 7Keöy-vv-re Çreit-y6-mv-o-rotri 8t-öw-ort t-orrm-s Ti-6m-s ët-öw-s eūy-vv-s 6eôo§vy Toºor &c. or ij-orets 6;-orw 86-orto Keö800 orrij-orw Tenses. Definite or ij-orovou (v) or ij-ore-roworth-ore-roworth-o -wev or iſ-as-re orij-ael Indicative shall “I Present. am setting “I Mood. Future. up,” set 35 A. &c. É “given,” -ket-puev tr;yoke .” 4 & P4 -ket-ºre had “I -ket-toly Z z -ke-oratly or Aoſ. I ;) wanting 3A…ish, Aof. i.) had “I wanting 6é-60-ka ewanting Šél-r6oers-tfi8le4-tk-ekuevuv g D. wantin w w - PlusôoÇvy6eKvy ôoorror- ë-öo-orav av é-0e-o #1.” gave.” “I é-öo-row é-06-wev wantin wanting 5-60-uev g6-0e-re é-öo-ºrg &c. &c. set been -kets lºve Tenses. Indefinite . used .*) placed,” “I #. é-Bé-ºrmv 3 -ket-orarly placed,” : -ket-Triv &c.” up, -ket * perfect. VOICE. ACTIVE C. Tenses. Definite wanting ºrée-ortm-ka -6eu-ka &c. e-ortm-kas 6e orrorer r ë-orti -kā-art (v) §-ori-ka-tov §-ortri-ka-row§-ori-ka-ueëv-or ij-ka-re Š-orrdia also ë-or m-ke-v but in chiefly pluralë-a-ta-uev -āori the &-orrºw -rre C. er t t Paulo-postFuture, “I Indicative Perfect. “I have Mood. C. # placed,” been ;iſ: 9) joked.” 4 given& B + C set main re shall 39 ret &c up.” 35u i 3. -otºrmv -ouplev outroy - Çevy-vá-oupat av {evčd—two Çevčá-vrov wanting Aor. 2 Tony - Çevčá-Tw -rrow Te - and {e08-ov {vy ôuðot-m-Tov 66-vºrwu 86-Toorav & for 86-9, Indefinite Tenses. 81-607-row ôt-öot-n-v wanting -?)-s Aor. 1 -*roly -ºrtory aré-vºrtov 6thou.” mord-vºrtov wanting yoke 6é-Two'av and & wanting — A2 1 or. -cate , -nn t “give T-Te ony thou,” -Tov Tony armord-tworav thou,” -te 0é-rw) -Tov place “ 6e Aor. 1 Ortra:- &c. ri-u(1) o-6Teati-n-v redupli-m-s -m-s <& for 6é-s, ori-o-o-v up “Set and -n -Te 86-64 ôó-rw 80 -oute -ote v. -ol's ot &c. i-o-Tai-mtov I “ form flé-6, orn-ord-ro thou,” i-o-Tat-mºrnu &c. i-or aí-rmv i-ar at-mºre besettingup,” -atai-Tov i-orral-re i-or ai-ev & and , might Aor. ary and a t Mood Opt. Imperative second or VoICE. ACTIVE or B D. Aor. 2 . Š3+e1v-y30-6vé-áº-rTwoagr'av Çevy-vā-vtov -Top getſy-v -01Kevy-vö-rwČečy-v -tov for -Te and d ečy-vu {vy -ºrtory -ºrtony (v) -à-ort 8t-öövtov T1-6é-vrov 6t-öo-row ºrí-0e-row -to-rrow to-ºrol/ 8t-öö-Tw rt-6é-ºrw T-Te - -to-s -à-s 8t-êov for rt-6et 6t-60-01 rí-66-61 Tenses. Definite -w-paev -to-re and an -6 &c. -ī e 80 6e81-880 ru-06 iorg-Two'av 7-or-ra-row for i-ord-ºrw t-orra-61 (v) -à-ori -m-Tov -à-piev i-ord-vtov –7-re -rrow -Te and Tor or t-orrm reduplicated impºſe Present. thou setting “Be up,” secondary Conj.or Mood be may strength “I or up,” setting form ened Future, (l) A. C. &c. C r - Future Tense. (213) artri-orwu “Setting (209) up,” 6e80 t-ortra-lºga Present t-orras Tense. Participle. “To be setting Present Tense. Infinitive Mood. wanting Aor. 2 form up,” set &c. “I may have -7s -n &c. Simple Form, ortij-orw orra:- Aorist Conj. Perfect. A. up, &c. A. 2) ood. cºlve (213) 65-ortov ðuj-orwu º C. (212) Kevy-vus *-ori-ku's re-6et-kős 8e-8w-kºs wanting *ś, rt-6ets 84-800s (210) (211) Simple Form, “I might set Aor. Optat. Optative Mood. Infinitive. up,” &c. (2) “having set up,” &c. Participle. or B D. “To up,” set Aorist, Kevy-vá-val D. or B wanting A 2or. form &c. -n -ms getſä-w {vy ru-0é-val 61-66-val wanting A 1 or. form 05&c. 36, &c. 66 86 6-7s 860s Definite Tenses. ACTIVE VoICE. 6e wanting wanting (209) (210) A 2or. 6ets 1Aor. wanting wanting orrijoras 6el-val A 1 or. wanting ; Indefinite Tenses. orm-oral A 2or. wanting ortri-oratus 6et-n-v orrij-orals orrº-oral &c. crºro. wanting (211) (209) or. Aor. 800s § ečas 1A wanting wat 800 at Keiº 1 or. A 2 wanting lA 2or. form 3ot-m-v Keö8-aut Keöğaus -ms Keöğal &c. •m Öo{vy £ i 3. Čevyv-ws orrm-oras Participles. w T16-eſs torT-ows Čečas 813-ows r * 3-ows 6-ets w Çevyw-ival orr-norai tor -atlyot éval ri0- 313-6val Infinitive. w 6-eſval w 3-ovva, r - Češča. MooDs. DIFFERENT Čevyvious ort-noraipu T-aunv to Optative. T10-einv Čečaipu 813-oinv z 3-oinv 6-einv r THE IN TENSES Conjunctive. Čevyvöw T-morto o Čečw f ºrið-6 T-00 to 8-6 e CoMPARISON 322 OF ImpIendriactaitviev.e } ºr-nº } Yv-vu. Čew Če 1st É(evča Aorist, {e0éov orr-morov t-nora Present, a Aorist, 1st Tí6-era zºne. Present, Jºyv-v0. Present, for-a0. 3-6s &c. €6-opew, Aorist, 2d 6-6s &c. 30-eptev, Aorist, 2d &c. 30mka, Aorist, 1st Imperfect, €rí0-nv Imperfect, T-mw to a &c. €8wka, Aorist, 1st Imperfect, } 38-wpu €818-tov Present, 8(3-001 Imperfect, €evyv-vv C. Future. myself,” &c. am setting up “I being am set or, up,” “ Present. Paulo post Fut. Same meaning ºorrríčoo. as B + C “I set have up myself, &c.” Perfect. “I set shall up myself, &c.” B. A. &c. LC A. 323 PASSIVE AND MIDDLE WorCE. -ueba. -ord-uebov &c. -rraz. &c. -oretort -v'rau &c. -kºra.. -čat &c. C. é-Kevy-ual | &-or-rrížoua, wanting wanting | & •&c. c. -oratt 6-ort&-mat Té-6et-ual 3é-80-tal &c. -Oret Plus-perf. . - -uebov C. r -ordueflow To -ora. -Into -0.6e -o-0mv -ueba. -ordov -To -oro -uebov B being set &c. up,” Imperfect. 6t-60-uai “I Kety-vi-uai i-atti-unv was orii-oo-uat 6:-go-ual 64-go-luat Keöğoual -orator-n C. Kuy | -o-Bow -orbov -o-be C. 6eÖo Taºor Tí-6e-ual -orator-g &c. -Tart i-orra-Mat Definite Tenses. i Ao. 1. “"...” & & &c. Indefinite Tenses. é-ri-6é-unv 4-6-66-unv č-Kevy-vi-un &c -To -"ro -To -rro &c. C. é-te-bet-umv ć-8e-66-mmu &-Ketºy-unv had “I e-o-Ta-Ramu set -čo up myself,” -Oro -oro - &-arm-ord-umv Š-6m-kg-unv Š-60-kd-umv č-Kevčd-unv C. c C . -orto C. C. 0e{vy ôorator # j Imperative v -o-000 -orbe -orthwarav -orbov and 60 6eortrar- - r r - D, B. + thiv in (1) §. {vy-ſi-oroual é-orrd-6m-v orth-oral 1Aor. -ºrto &c. -ºrto orj-61 Ds. &c. orrā-6m-ri D1. 2Aor. -orda:00 &c. Imperative -ms -n -mºrov -mºrnu -muev —mºre -morav 3-arm-v my in (2) &c. orist. A 2ortra:- Indicative continued. VoICEs. MIDDLE AND PAssive ſevX-0ſ-couai 60-6ſ-couat re-0ſ-couat ora-6-f-arouat Passive, Future B, D. {ečy-vu-go {vy 6t-êo-oro rt-0e-oro t-orta-oro A. -vá-a-600 Ötöov and ºrt-60u t-orro Present. 61-36-orthw rt-6é-a-6a, i-arta-o.8w &c. &c. -orbov . B + De wanting wanting &c. [C. ºf Tenses. Definite i 66-gbo &c. 6éo-60 36-go) (for 800 ...) Tenses. Indefinite é-geºx-0mu ć-86-6m-v é-ré-0m-v &c. &c. < -Tao -ºrto •ºrto 86-6m-ru Keöx-0m-rt ru ré0m 3-gū-y-mu wanting wanting &c. C. {vy ôo6e- Part. Infinitive Mood. -6 -fi -ms form, Simple &c. C. (1) Infinitive Mood. - ſevčáuevos 8worójuevos 6moróuevos orrmorówevos B. Part evyvváuevos 3186plewos T16éuevos iorduevos Kečeordat 6ajorea.0at Bigeo-bat Bau orrijorea Fut. B. bat wanting 3e3óa Tefleiabat (garagbat) Perf. C. Yörjareorbat Kev forea-bat 300 rethjoreorbat orraðiforsorbal Fut. B, D1+ Kuymoreo-Bal or Keöyvva-6au &#8oorbal ºrí6eorbat Torrao,0at Pres. A. 8-0-wat 6-à-Hai wanting orrø (2) &c. Conjunctive. ët-öſö-Mat. Kevyvv-ºuat ri-Biomat i-ort-à-Mat strengthor form. -ntal -öð-ºral -8-mºral T-ſitat -or Present 306eKvy (1) uºy orra:Reduplicated Optative Mood. poº vºy-m- dečvuévos Tefleuévos C. x0m}*:::::: 300morówevosgeu rebnoréuevos grabnoróuevos +B Di -to-ºral -n-Tau -fi Conj. Aor. -öð -6-fi -a-r-ţi form. ened -17 coºve Tenses. Definite VoICEs. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE 2&c. *r --------- Kvyets ......... ords D. evăduevos ......... B. atmoduevos --------- {ei}{aorbal B. wanting Bai orrijorao D1. ſevzbival was 600m retival orratºnvas ºvyºval ......... Ds. orrºval &c. &c. Z. -oio -et-o form, Simple -ms §6-of-unv wanting 6-et-umv rat-mu or º P4 -olo -old to •e -or -oiro -eiro -ouTo -ai-To Çevyvv-of-u 31-30t-unv ri-6-et-unv i-ar-at-unv Opt. Present {vy 806earraReduplicated D1. •rebets orra.0ets § 800ets 5 -oiro -el-ro Opt. Aor. -n Tenses. Indefinite # ; # Čevyv-ſuevos or mora-pºevos iort-duevos Tuf -Éuevos Participles. Čevčduevos 3.8-duevos 6-éuevos 3-duevos r p or ijo-a -6al Čečyv-vo.6a, Čečagflat for-aorbal Infinitive. 8to-oorðal Tí6-earða CoMPARISON 324 MooDs. DIFFERENT THE IN TENSEs of 8-60.0al 6-éa.0a, r Çevyv otunv orno-aſpinv iort-atunv Tub-etunv Optative. Čevčaiunv 813-oiumv 3-oiumv 0-effinv otno-touai Čevyviſwua Çevºwual Conjunctive T-topia, to ru6-topia, 0-6pal 818-toua. 3-dual Tí0-earo 0-00 (0-Égo) 8tö-ooro 300 (3-doo) Imperative. Čečyv-voo tort-aoro orrmoral Čeča. r er Mfor & P. Pres. r-apai . éarno-dunv Aorist, 1st iat-dunv Imperfect, Indicative. M. & P. Pres. 8:8-opal M. & P. Pres. Tſ6-epal 60-€unv M., Aorist 2d €rið-éunv Imperfect, €3.3-dunv Imperfect, }Imperfect,&evyv-ſunv 1stAorist,€(evč-dunv sºyv-upai Present, €3-dunv Aorist, 2d 110 INFLEXION. 325 As these primitive verbs in -ui express those simple actions which are of most frequent occurrence, and as the Greek, like every other copious language, has naturally more than one word to express every-day actions, we find in the verbs in -ui, as in other verbs of common occurrence, a sort of co-partnership between two roots;–one furnishes the aorist, another supplies the future, and so on. The most important example of this is the substantive verb eluſ, “I am,” which is not only predicative of existence, but also furnishes the copula to connect any predicate with its subject. While therefore we may reserve to the list at the end the consideration of other defective verbs, the substantive verb, which is necessary to the full in flexion of the barytones, must be given at length in this place. 326 The substantive verb in Greek, Latin, and San scrit, makes up its tenses from two roots ea-, pv-; es-, fu-3 as-, bhu-. In an elementary Grammar we may confine our attention to the Greek and Latin languages. 327 In Greek, the root do - furnishes only the present, imperfect, and future. The root pu- with the adjunct -ia, supplies the aorist and perfect. The same is the case in Latin, except that the present of the root fu + ia is used, with a different perfect, as the passive of facio, and as a synonym for Yiyvouai. This will be made more clear by the following comparison. Root co-, es Pr. eluſ = €or-pu? 'sum = esum. Imp. iv or ëa = g-eorap. eram = €sam. Fut. Boroual 67°O = €S-680. Part. Šušv = €óvt-c = &oevts Se??S = esents. Root, bu- = ‘pa, F-, fu =faf=fac. pº = p&Fa-º, “I bring to light,” fac-io (do.) Aor. §q}vora With adjunct, ta. puto, (Et. M. p. 254, 16) Aor, ºpuv = q.vta-, (used with elaſ) Perf. Tequka (do.) = requtaka féci = fef. fefect. o = fuio. A. ſº fui or fuci = fufui (used with sum). factus sum (used with fio), 111 INFLEXION. Part. faitus = fuitus, putós, a pulſ-dºrs facundus = fuiscundus, qºs = pºvts farmina = fuimina, and and requkùs = repviPárs J in old Italian futus = filius. The absorption of in Équv, is shewn by the quantity of v in the plural: Comp. Equuev with éðetkväuev, and Éotnuev Part. vić's = a - with éðeuev. 328 The following are the tenses of the verb eiuſ. INDICATIVE. 1. Present. - Singular. • , a * eipit, et, els I. Plural. 3. w 3. w * eorgev, eorºrt &uul D. Šoral D. I. Švri D. w * \ eate, etori eiuèv Sãort I. D. eiués D. ëvrt êovºrt éuév P. } Dual. • v 3 eortov, 2. Future. Singular. grouai, Éam or -ei, total ëoroup at D. §oreau, v e O'Tov Plural. -dueffa, -eo.6e, -ovºrai égeral I. Dual. -öueðov, -eq 0ov, -eq 00v. 3. Imperfect. Singular. nv, firòa, fiv • Plural. nuev, ſite, * and n, and fi éa, éas, ënv I. fia, #s rec. A. is D. Émaba, flew E. morav * morre ëare, éoav I. &ororav P. jues ëov E. jmu E. ëorkov, jumv A. &orke E. I. eluev elples |D. etaro E. Dual. firov, #rnv motov, nortmu Instead of the Perfect and Aorist we may use the Perf. Yéyova, and Aor. 2. čyevöunv of yivouai, or the Perf. Trépuka, Aor. £pvy of puté. 112 INFLEXION. IMPERATIVE. Singular. to 0, Plural. Gore, Čaroorav or garw garw Gao E. firw A. éðvºrww I. Dual. éotov, a tww. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. * Plural. * s * to, ms ! &w, ens, ey * wpiev, * mté, wori elm E. Dual. * * nºrov, m Tov êntov, K.T. A. I. OPTATIVE. 1. Present. - Sing. Plural. env, eins, ein elnuev, sout, Šots, éot I. rar. eluev, eite, einre, elev elmoav. Dual. eintov, eifrnv etºrmv A. 2. Future. égoípnv, -oto, -otto -ué6a, -offe, -viro Dual. -ué0ov, -o-0ov, -aēnv. INFINITIVE. Future. Gaea'6ai. Present. elva ëueval, #lev I. guieval, uſuev P. sipuev, w jueval, D. P. juev, PARTICIPLE. 1. Present. tºv, oùora, 3v K. T.A. étov, éovora, éðv I. 2. éoéuevos, Future. -n, -ov. éolora eVora W. D. éaorora 329 To this we may add, by way of contrast, the inflexions of elut, “I am going," i.e. “I shall go,” (root -), 113 INFLEXION. which is used as the regular future of Épxopal, although jew is used as the imperfect of that verb. INDICATIVE. For the other tenses see Épxopal, in the list of Defec tive Verbs. Future. 1. Singular. elui el, Plural. tre, fuev, elor Taori els I. Dual. trov. trov, Imperfect. 2. Singular. nets, * new, -r Plural. - w sy -- ñetuev, met hia, and fia, tov, tes, ifies, *I lov, jette, #eorav * * nuev, ate to av P. te iſie I. ºE nowev, tja'av tie E. - Dual. ñeirov, ntov, jeſtnu frnv 25 tºrmv E. IMPERATIVE. utov, Singular. Plural. tre, tro 10, el in comp. fºrwarav or lovºrov trov A. Dual. - itov, - tºrtov. SUBJUNCTIVE. Tw, ins, in, k. T. A. OPTATIVE. tout, tois, tol, K. T. A. INFINITIVE. iéval ioimv A. tuevat. tuev E. PARTICIPLE. lov, lovora, ióv. eiorouai and elo d'umu are Homeric. § VIII. Class B. (a) or Barytone Verbs. 330 It is usual to select, as a type of this conjugation, the verb riºt-t-w, “I strike,” root rvt-, with strength ening affix T-. As the intention of the Paradigm is to shew not only the actual but also the analogically possible forms of the verb, it is necessary to select some verb, D. G. G. 114 INFLEXION. which has a strengthening affix in the present tense, otherwise the old form D., or the 2nd Aorist, cannot be appropriately exhibited. The selection of Türro is due to the fact that it stands first in the strengthened forms of labial verbs (above, 299); and the student must be cautioned against supposing that it is so complete and regular a verb as is here assumed. Some of its pecu liarities are mentioned below, where it appears in the list of Irregular and Defective Verbs. 331 I. ACTIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE Mood. (A, 1) Present, I strike. Sing. rwºrro Plur. Túrtouev Túrrets Túrret TvTrTerré Tvrtoval JDual. Twittetov Tvrtetov (B, 1) Future, I shall strike. Sing. rivo Tüvels &c. &c. TúWre &c. (C, 1) Perfect, I have struck. Sing. rérvºpé Tétvq is Térvºpe Plur. Tetúqāuev Teriſpáre retiºpaqi Dual. retupdrov Tervºirov. (A, 2) Imperfect, I was striking. Sing. Tvrtov 3rvºrres 3rvarre Plur. Dual. &rºtrouev ériſtºre're étiſtre+ov érvºrrow érvarrétnv. (B, 2) Aorist I., I struck. Sing. ruvá Plur. Štúwrapev Dual. &rvyās étivate érüvatov ërvºze &rvyāv Gruvatnv. (C, 2) Pluperfect, I had struck. eterſpew éteriſqets €teriſpel Plur. retiºpeipew érerūq,etre éreºriſpetray Sing. and -eorav, érerūqeirov (D) Aorist II., I struck. Dual. Sing. 3rvºrov &c. 3rvires &c. éretvipetrmy. 3rvire &c. 115 INFLEXION. II. IMPERATIVE MooD. (A) Sing. rurºre Túrrere Present. Tvrtéto Tvrtétwo av or turrávrov Plur. Dual. Túrrerov Tvrtérov. (B) Aorist I. Sing. Plowr. Dual. rºzov Túvate Tºbarov Tvydºra, tvN'd two av or rv\rdvrov Tvydrov. (C) Perfect. Tervgºro Sing. Tétupe &c. C. (D) Aorist II. Sing. Tvrérw &c. Túre &c. III. SUBJUNCTIVE Mood. (A) Sing. Túrro Plur. Dual. Tvrtwpuev Present. tºrtus Túrrn Tvrtmre Turroo, Tvrtm'rov Tvrtm'rov. w w (B) Aorist I. Sing. Sing. Túvo Tú .." Teriſqo (C) Perfect. terſpns &c. Sing. C. (D) Aorist II. Túrms Túro &c. &c. IV. Plur. Dual. Túrroup, Túrrouev º Teriſpn &c. Túrn &c. OPTATIVE Mood. (A) Sing. w & Present. Túrrots Túrtoire Túrtoirov Túrrot Túrrowev Tutºrofºrmv. (B, 1) Future. Sing. túvolut TÜVrous Túvo, &c. &c. &c. 8–2 116 Sing. INFLEXION. (B, 2) Aorist I. Tºlzais (or -elas) Túvaipu Plur. Túvaipev rival (or -ele) Túvatev (or -elev) Tuvaire Túvairov Dual. Sing. Teriſqopu rvºratºrmv. (C) Perfect. Teriſpots Teriºpol. &c. &c. &c. (D) Aorist II. Sing. Tvroul Tºrous &c. &c. INFINITIVE MooD. V. Present, tiſtrew (A) ºrwarol &c. (C) Perfect, retvq?éval. (D) (B) Future, rivetv. (B, 2) Aor. I. rival. Aor. II. Tvreſv. VI. PARTICIPLEs. (A) Present. Sing. N. W. Túrrow Tūtrov. Túrrovara (See above, 211). (B, 1) Future. Sing. N. W. Túvov távovara tºlzov. (C) Perfect. rerupvić retupds. Sing. N. W. retvq?0s (See above, 213). (B, 2) Aorist I. Sing. N. V. rivas rivăgă răvăv. (See above, 209). (D) Aorist II. Sing. N. V. Tvrºv 332 Tvrov. MIDDLE VOICE. I. Sing. Tvrovo a INDICATIVE MooD. (A, 1) Present, I strike myself. Türtoua, Túrrel (or -n) Plur. Tvrtdueða Dual. Tvrtóueflow Túrreorge Túrrea.0ov ruarrera, rwºrroviral Túrrea flow. 117 INFLEXION. (B, 1) Future, I shall strike myself. Sing. Túvouai Tüve (or -n) Tüveral &c. &c. &c. (C, 1) Perfect. Sing. Térvira rérvards &c. &c. Térvire &c. (A, 2) Imperfect, I was striking myself. ériſtºrov érºtrºrero Sing. étuttgunv Plur Dual érvartdueffa érürroueflow érwarrea'6e ériſtºrov.ro érwºrreorbov érvºr:réorènv (B, 2) Aorist I., I struck myself. érºzto étivaro Sing. érvºlºdunu Plur. ervydueða ériºlzao.6e érüvavro Dual. érvvaueðov ériºlzao-0ov érvydoºny. (C, 2) Pluperfect. Sing. éterſtretv &c. éreºrwareis &c. (D) Aorist II., I struck myself. ériſarov Sing. ervºrówny &c. &c. II. éretware, &c. érºtrero &c. IMPERATIVE MooD. (A) Present. Sing. Plur. Dual. riſtºrov rurreorge rwarrea.000 Tvrtéo-00 Tvrtéo-0worav and rurtéo-0ww Tvrtéo-0ww. (B) Aorist I. Túval Plur. Túvaorde Dual. TúWraordov Sing. Tuvao,000 rvydoróworav and rvydoróww ºrvyda:0aov. (C) Perfect. Sing. Térvire Tervºréto &c. &c. (D) Aorist II. Sing. Tvrov &c. Tvréorów - &c. 118 INFLEXION. III. Sing. SUBJUNCTIVE MooD. (A) Present. rürry rvirruſual Plur. Tvrtaſueffa Dual. rvirtuțuedov Sing. riſtra-no-6e Türtmorðov (B) Aorist I. Túvºn rivapai &c. Sing. &c. &c. Sing. Tūroua, Túrrmotov. TúVºntal Terſtry &c. &c. (D) Aorist II. Túrn ºrum'n'ral &c. &c. IV. &c. OPTATIVE MOOD. (A) Sing. Turruviral &c. (C) Perfect. retirns reruto ºrwarrntal Tvrtoſumu Present. Túrroio Túrrotarfle Túrroto-flow Plur. Tvrtofueða Dual. ruttotpedov ºrwarroiro ºrwarrowro Tvrtotor0my. (B. 1), Future. Sing. Tvvotunv Túvoto &c. Túvoito &c. &c. (C) Perfect. - Sing. Terutopi retútrous &c. Tervurot &c. &c. (B, 2) Aorist I. Túvato Sing. rvilratunv Plur. Tuvaſueða Dual. Twylratuetov rºlzata fle rūyatorðov (D) Aorist II. Sing. Tvrotunv Túroto &c. &c. W. rºlzairo rivalvro rv\rator0my. Túroito &c. INFINITIVE MooD. (A) Present, Tºrreaffai. } (B, Future, rived flat. (B, 2) Aorist I., TÜVraordai, (D) Aorist II., ruréabat. (C) Perf., retvréval. 119 INFLEXION. VI. Tvrtóuevos -n Present (A) PARTICIPLE. -ov. G. -ov-ov. -ns TvQ, duevos -n -ov. as Present. (B, 1) Future Tervºrds -via -os. – Perf. Act. (C) Perf. (B, 2) Aor. I. rv\,duevos -n -ov. — Present. (D) Aor. II. Tvrduevos -n -ov. — Present. PASSIVE VOICE. 333 I. (A, 1) INDICATIVE MooD. Present, like the Present Middle. (C, 1) Perfect, I have been struck. rérvºrral Térvyat Tétuppal retuppévot clai Térvºp6e Plur. Tetſuge6a Tétvq?0ov Tétvq?0ov. Dual. rerſuaedov Sing. Middle. like the Imperfect (A, 2) Imperfect, p p (C, 2) Pluperfect, I had been struck. érérvarro érétvNzo Sing. ēteriſuunv Tervupévol moav érérvg6e Plur. Šteriſupeda éterſpônv. éréruq,00w Dual. Gretºupedov (D, 1) Aorist I., I was struck. ériq,0m ériſq6ns &rſqónv Sing. ériq,0norav ériq,0nte Plur. &rſq)0nuev érvºpóñrmy. étiq,0ntov Dual. Sing. (D, 2) Aorist II., I was struck. ériºtn ériºrns ēturnu &c. &c. &c. (D, 1 +B) Future I., I shall be struck. tvq?6;forera Tuq,0hael (or -n) Sing. Twſpómorouai C. Sing. &c. &c. (D, 2 +B) Future II., I shall be struck. Tvrmore rat Tvrmore (or -n) Turngopal &c. &c. &c. 120 INFLEXION. (C, 1 +B) Paulo post Future. retive (or -n) Sing. retivouai II. (A) retiveral &c. &c. &c. IMPERATIVE MooD. Present, like the Present Middle. (C) Perfect. retrºpów Tetſºpóworav and retúq6av rérvºpóww. Sing. Térvºlvo Plur. Térvpfle Dual. Tétvq?0ov (D, 1) Aorist I. rvp6;fºrw rvſpöhrw.orav and Tuq6évrov Tūq,0nte rvſp0iittov. Tūq,0n'rov (D, 2) Aorist II. Sing. Tºpónri Plur. Dual. Tvrđto Sing. rwºrn 6. &c. &c. SUBJUNCTIVE Mood. III. (A) Present, like the Present Middle. (C) Perfect. —ſ, —is & Sing. retuppévos Plur. Tervupévo duev Dual. retupuévo —ntov, tvq?0; &c. &c. (D, 2) Aorist II. Tvrºs rurº &c. rvirio &c. —was (D, 1) Aorist I. Tvø05s Sing. Tuq6% Sing. —nte firov &c. &c. V. OPTATIVE MooD. Sing. (A) Present, like the Present Middle. Tervupévos env —eins —ein Plur. retuppévo Dual. Teruppévo etnuev —ente eluev —eire entov —eing'av —elev —einrny. 121 INFLEXION. (D, 1) Aorist I. Sing. Tvø6einv Plur. Twºpfleſnuev Tuq6ein (rupbeing av) rv40eins Tvø6eſn'te —eſueu elev efºre rv40euirnv. tvq?0einrov Dual. (D, 2) Aorist II. Sing. Tvreinv &c. Tvreſn's Tvrein &c. &c. (D, 1 +B) Future I. Sing. TvQ,0nooſunv rvq6;foroio &c. Sing. &c. (D, 2+B) Future II. Tvrnorotunv Tvrđoroto &c. Sing. Tuq6;foroiro &c. rurmorouro &c. &c (C + B) Paulo post Future. Tervurotunv Tetºvolo &c. reruvotto &c. W. &c. INFINITIVE MooD. (A) Present, like Present Middle. (C) Perfect, rerſq6ai. (D, 1) A. I. rvºpónval. (D, 2) A. II. Tvºrnwal. (D, 1 + B) Future I., rvſp0 forea.0ai. (D, 2 +B) Future II., rvarríoſegbai. (C+B) Paulo post Future, rerſverðal. VI. (A) (C) PARTICIPLEs. Present, like the Present Middle. Perfect, Aorist I., Tervupévos -n (D, 1) Tvø0els -eſora -év &c. (D, 2) Aorist II., Tvre's -eſora -év &c. Tv40norduevos -n (D, 2 + B) Future II., Tvrnorduevos -n (C+B) Paulo post Fut, retuvouevos -n (D, 1 +B) Future I., -ov &c. -ov &c. -ov &c. -ov &c. For the declension of rvºpffels and rurels, see above, 210. i i i - - w w - 2. Aor. 2. Fut. Aor. 1. Fut. * Pluperf. Fut. p. P. ſPerf. 2. UAor. Pluperf. Fut. 1. Aor. Perf. Imperf. Pluperf. 2. UAor. ſPres. Perf. 1. Aor. 4 Fut. Imperf. ſPres. I§ X. r - r - r - r r toTumr deest First Conjugation. 334 r r - Tervºpéval eval Terrun ruméa.0a, r river6a, rºlzaorbal 6at ºrwarreo Tvreºv r rivew Túval TuTrTetly Infin. r w - r r ; - - - Tervuprevos Tvropaevos Teruºmſtøg w Tvy, duevos Tuvaluevos Tumrºrouevos TuTrøy v - retuq,ws Túvov Túvas TuTrTtory Particip. Turmoroſumv Turreunv 6a, or rum-rfore val Turn Tvre's Turnorduevos duevos terſvlrea:0a, reruv', Teruvlroſumv Tuq6mvat Tuq6es rvpbeinv rvºp6;forea-6a, Tuq6norduevos Tuq6moroſumu env TervupévosTeriſq6a, rurotunv returoups rv\ratumv Tvºroſumv Tvrtoiumv Tvºroupw Teriſpout Túvou Tuvaipu Tvrtoupu Optat. & Tervupévos Tvrwpal TerruTrø rºlzwual deest r r Tvrtwaat Turto Túva, retique deest TuTrTto Subjunct. deest deest Teriivkopal riſq6nri Tuq66 deest Tuq6-forouai deest ériq,0nv etetuppumu Téruvo TuTrou 6, rwºrn érürnv Tvrmoroua.deest r º r Tetuppau etvtropºny TuTrety erre ºrérvire r r r TuTrrºrou TuTre ervºr:topºny Tra. Teru r* f - ºrvºrtonal - r Tétvq?e rºlzov deest TuTrre Imperat. Túvouai deest érvºlzapiny Túval r • - éretupetv €TvTrov ºr rºlzw #Tvya rétvq?a €7-v7rrow TuTrTrø Indicat. Verbs. Barytone of Conjugations Different the in Tenses Cognate View General ; § TAex0norduevos tre+Aełóuevos TAékov "retraakºs TAexfleis w TAakes TAakov Particip. w w Tetêexéval wretMakéval TAéčerbalTAéčarda TAékeorða TAéewtraffai TrAéketv TrAwkmoropuevos TAaköpuevos Tetraeyuévos TAešćuevosTAeśduevos TAékópºevos TerAexºs TAéčovTAé;as TAakéorðal TAéx6;foreròal TAakriorea.0at tre+Aéeorðat tre+Aéx0al TAex0mvat TAakrival TrAakeſv Infin. f TreatXeypuévos einv z s/ Conjugation. Second 335 tre+tAéxopu TAdkopu TAéopuTAéčaipu TrAékoupil TAešotunv TAeśaſunv TAekotunv TAex0norotunv TAakmoroſumu Tetàešotunv "retradkout TAéx6einv TAakotunv TAakeſnv Optat. r TerAeypévos & Tetračxw TAé:(a) Subjunct. TAéko deest TAdkopal TAéâwpalTretadzw TAékwual TAakto TAdkw deest deest ex06 TA deest deest TAéx0nri trétàexe TAéčov Imperat. TAéke Trétaešo éat Trétry'ake TAdke TAékov deest deest deest TAdknö. TAakoo r deest deest TAexpiroua. TAakrioropal TAé étreqrkotketv éretxexeiv €7rMekov Indicat. TrAékoo €7t)\otkov Tétèexa TAéºw§TAeša éºrèeköpunv TAéopaléràe:dunv*Trém Aaka #2 f Trétaeyuaiétre+AéYunvtre+Aéopal étxàxönv étradicnv f 2 r f r sy étrāakópºnw f * # r 3. f #21 sf Pluperf. Imperf. Pres. ſ TrAékopiau Aor.Perf. * Fut. 1. i 2. UAor. Imperf. Pres. ſ Pluperf. Perf. 2. Aor. Aor. Fut. 1. i Fut. p. P. Pluperf. Perf. ſ 2. UFut. Aor.Fut. 1. 1. Aor. 2. ; § f w r artónoréuevos - w Tretortov Tretoras Particip. are:00w Tretorðnaðuevos wrif duevos Treto,00s Tretreuktos 66/1évos wereto metreuopievos Tretoropuevos Tretorguevos reiðduevos Tru60w Tretor06's Tru6els - f f tretorðforea-6al tremefor6eorðal Tretoraoréal wretro,0éval wort Treike Tre 0ai treateſo triðéorðat reforeo.6a, Tref leo-0a, Tru6;forea.0a, Trevorónval r Infin. Tru6myat wreſorew reſoral Treſflew r Tru6eſv Tretreuoruévos env Tremeto-0otunv retreſkopu Conjugation. Third 336 tretflotunv Tretoroupil Tretoratus are:00pm tríðopu Optat. Trevorónorotunv wribnorotunv retrotbolpu Trevoroupinv Tretoratunv triboſumu retorðeinv - Tru6eſnv a - o retrelopévos & treforwaal Treiðapal Subjunct. Tríðwpal retrołów Tretreſkw deest Tretorto deest deest Teto-66 r (600 Tre deest miów, deest Trí00 areforón'ri Tréteike Imperat. Trétotôe TreTorov Treſöe Trémetoo Tréſoral wreſtov deest deest deest ríðnºr, deest deest triboº tríðe z r Tremelodrígopal unv wreſöopalétreiðdunv reſorouaiéretord Trémouða étretreſketv Tréteika §tre,6ov Tretorto Indicat. émíðnv y r * a w ar,6riorowa, éweſorónv f - are:00 3/ 9. * w Pluperf. Imperf. Pres. ſ Tretorðmoroua, Tréteiopaléreºretorunv étriðdunv * z griðov Tretoro. e étremotòew 1. Perf. Fut. Aor. i 2. UAor. Imperf. Pres. ſ 1. Perf. Fut. Aor. i -: Pluperf. Aor. | 2. P. Fut. p. Pluperf. Perf. ſ 1. Fut. Aor. Aor. U F2. ut. 1. 2. - f i tºoQJu K-1 trapônorduevos a opewos ortrapno ortrepovywevos a respapevos otrepôuevos ortrapduevos éatrap évos earapkos w • Particip. oteiptov ortreptova reſpas map6es a a rapes f tropos ea traptov a w w trapkeval eo ormeſpearða • w r rapônioreo a 6am greſpagflat a t apônvas ortepeſo.6a, ea tropeva, ortrapérôa. éortrapſal Trotprioreobal or orqrapmMott > r repeſv gºreſpat a ortreipew tapeſv a > r f Infin. 3. p z éatrap évos einv éo-trapkopu orreſpoups Conjugation. Fourth 337 orrepoſulgreſpaipu otrapopu respaſumu ortreupoiumv ra trapotunv a epołunva éoºrdpoiu otrapôngoſumv a trapmo tpnv trap6einv a a trapeſnv w Optat. p w trappevos ea otreptopal éoºrdpkw Subjunct. orreſpo ordpwpal popua. otre 9 º r "reſpo a éoºrdpw ortrapw deest grapó deest grap66deest º Imperat. orreſpovFortrapke orreſpe orreſpov ornapov égºraporo gºrdp0nt a trapmö, greſpaifortope tape a deest deest deest w éatreſpounv éo Teipäunv *trapov ča orreſpoua, a trepov.ua trapkaéoºrdpkew pa ea eatre pov eatre Indicat. greſpo *čatapéunv occ eorºro deest tropew go deest rapônia a oual or aprioropa toécºrdpumvtrapônv trappal éa éoºrdpnv grepw +x #2 º w Pluperf. Imperf. Pres. ſ 1. Perf. Fut. Aor. - i Pres. Aor. ſ U 2. Imperf. Perf. | 1.= Aor. Fut.q}#4 Pluperf. Aor. | 2. Pluperf. Perf. ſ 1. Fut. Aor. 1. Aor. 2. UFut. 2. i P. #4 Kekeaeworoua. Fut. p. É3.Imperf. ékexevdunv 3 Pluperf. Meſkew Škeke Imperf. ŠkéAevov Tpdorow TAékw. like pass. this of see verb, particular 91. above, PŠkeke g|env luperf. Mévorumv 339 Conjugation. Sixth 338 Conjugation. Fifth § conjugation this of verbs secondary no have For tenses. pior. orbefore n athe lThe and perf. A* |1. or. 0nv Čkexeſo kexeſorónri 6einv 66 kexevo keyevo.6mvat 6eſs kexevo Fut. kexeva.0iforo l. keyevodnorot deest kexevörigeoff deest flnorduevos kexeva - F# kexevaopal )keXevoroſuww ut. kexev6;forea duevos kexeva flat deest deest Aor. Čkexevadiumv 1. kéAévaal kexevaraſunu kexei'atoua. ke^evoraorbal kexevorduevos Perf. &kkekéAevapai Nevapiévos kekéAévoro eke Aeſotai keke Aevaſtévos Neva'uévos Kexeſoual Pkexevduevos ſ: keyewea res. flat keyeſwua kexeſov kexevotumv tr! 2keke Perf. kekéAevka keke Nevkéval kekéAevke Newkout Aevkais Kw kekexei F#/keyeſorous ut. vow kea keyeſorew deest keyeworww Aor. 3) ČkéAevora 1. ké\evorov kexeſorw keaevorai kexeiſgaupu keyeſoras Pres. kexeſe kéAeve kexeiſou kexeiew keyevo kexeſov Indicat. Imperat. Conjunct. Optat. Particip. Infin. These verbs assimilated according conjugated are original their to characteristic Türto, like régow i.e. INFLEXION. 127 § X. Class B. (b) or Circumflexed Verbs. 340 The verbs ripºdw, “to honour,” from runſ; pºw, “to love,” from p(\os; and Xpworów, “to gild,” from Xpwards, are thus inflected. ACTIVE VOICE. 34] INDICATIVE. Singular. deis, -ás éets, -eſs Geis, -oſs Present. 1 rudo, -á, 2 pixás, -6 3 Xpwordw,-6 r -ael, r -º -eń, -e, -oet, -ol - Plural. r 1 tudo, -6 2 pixáo, 3 Xpwardo, -ow -de, -á º jºr -ée, -de, -ow - -aou, -to r - -éov, -ov, *-oſt r - -oov, -ov Dual. 1 ripºde, -ă 2 pixáe, -eſ,)-Tov -Toly 3 xpvade, -ov Singular. Imperf. 1 &rſuaov, -ov -aes, 2 €q (Neov, -as -ovv -ees, -ets 3 expiſo'oov, -ovv -oes, -ovs - Plural. 1 &ripido, -6 ºr. - -ae, -ă -se, -e, -aov, -ww -oé, -ov —oov, -ouv / 2 epi\éo, 3 expwardo, -ow - -eov, -ovv Dual. 1 ripºde, 2 €quxée, - - - - -ă -ei Y-tov - -Tm v 3 expuage, -ow IMPERATIVE. Singular. 1 Tipſae, 2 ºptAée, -w -et -aft, -d -ee, -ei, r 3 xpúa'oe, -ov -oe, -ov }~ 128 INFLEXION. Plural. f f - 1 ripade, -ó. r - 2 pixás, r r -eſ }-re 3 Xpwoºde, -ov f -a ov, -tov -ae, -az w r r -eč, -et two av, and -ečv, -ouv}-Tov -oé, -ow -odv, -ouv Dual. 1 ripºde, 2 9tate, -ă -aé, -d -ei, -et, —eſ X-Tov 3 Xpwarde, -ov -'7" to ty -oe, -ov SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. l 2 Tugo, -6 -ºns, -ás -án, -á pixed, -ºps, -ns -ºp, -n -ons, -ois -on, -to 3 xpvadw, to -o Plural. 1 ripaw, -o 2 pixeo, -6}-ſiev, 3 xpvado, -6 -án, -á -én, -n}-re -ón, -6 -aw, -6 -éw, -6}-ol do, -º Dual. w 1 Tugn, -á 2 baén, -n X-Tov 3 -*rov Xpvoon, -w OPTATIVE. 1 rudolpi, -6 w 2 - pixeopºl, -of)-pu 3 xpvoróopu, -of Singular. -áois, -6s r —eous, - -ots –6ois, -oſs -do, -º - -éo, -oi -do, -oſ. Plural. 1 rudo, -º 2 plaéot, -of)-pev 3 xpvo do, -of l Tugo, 2 pix@ot, -of -tov 3 Xpvoºdot, -of -dol, -to, -á, -oi -a e -ool, Dual. -ol -do, -º -Éol, -vi}-ev -oot, -of -p -tnv r The more common forms are tip ºnv, -ns, -n ; pi\oinv, -ms, -n ; Xpwooinv, -ms, -n. K. T. A. 129 INFLEXION. INFINITIVE. 1 riºdieiv, -áv 2 pixee.tv, -eiv 3 Xpwordew, -oov PARTICIPLE. f - Tudova'a, -óra ºptAéw 17, —tov ºpi\éova'a, -ovora 3 xpvrówv, -ów xpvadovoa, -ovora 1 Tindow, Tudov, -ów pºéov, -oov Xpwadov, -oov -tov 2 342 MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE. Singular. -án, -á -de, -ă 2 pixeo, -ov -pa -én, -fi, or -eſ -ée, -e?)-tal 3 xpworóo, -ow -ón, -of -6e, -ow Present. 1 rudo, -6 Plural. 1 Tuad, -º -de, -á -dov, -ów 2 pixed, , -ot, Y-peta -ée, -ei Y-affe -éov, -ouv}-tal 3 xpwood, -ow -če, -ov -óov, -ovv Dual. l Tuad, -ºpetov -ie, -à 2 pixed, -oſſuedov -ée, -eſ }-ordov 3 xpvood, -oſſuedov -óe, -ow Singular. -dov, -6 2 epi\ed, -ot, Y-linv -éov, -ov Imperf. 1 &timad, -6 r • • w £vovoroá, Xpwooo, -ot, -čov.2 -ou -0.00, -de, -ă -ée, -et }-to * ~ -óe.2 -ow Plural. 1 &riuatº, -º -de, -ă -dov, ov 2 equaed, -ou -ueba -ée, -eſ -ade -éov, ovv Y-to 3 expvood, -ow -6e, -ov -dov, oov w * w ~ - Dual. 1 Tuad, -a; <dixed.* , -ow}-uebov 'ſ- 3 expwood, -ow D. G. G. -ás, -à -ée, > -e? -adow * -0.6nv m -oe, -ov 9 130 INFLEXION. IMPERATIVE. Singular. 1 rudov, -6 2 pi\éov, -ov 3 xpvadov, -ov -aé, -á -eč, -et -aé, -ow }*- Plural. 1 tipide, -ă -aé, -á 2 dixée,2 -eſ X-rðe -éé, -et X-róworav,2 and -adov > w - 3 Xpwarde, -ow w -oe, -ov Dual. 1 2 ripºde, -ă -aé, -á pixás, -eſ Y-a-0ov -éé, -et Y-a-0av > f - 3 xpvade, -ow -oe, -ov SUBJUNCTIVE. : Singular. tip dw, -6 -án, -á quxéo, -6 7-uai -eń, -fi xpvorów, -on, - - •00 -ol - -din, -á -em, -n -tal * -on, • to Plural. tipatº, -º -án, -á -dov, -ów jº. -én, -n Y-affe quaed, xpvootº, -º -éov, -tov -ta, -ówv, -ów -ón, -6 Dual. : Tipad, -t; -án, -á quxe4, -d Y-pedov -én, -n -affov xpwood, -º -ón, -6 -o-0ov OPTATIVE. Singular. p p Tuao, -e, : quxeot, r - -go, -ºl -of -pin v -éot, -of f-o -601, -of Xpwooot, -of - - -go, -ºl -éot, -oi ſº -do, -of Plural. : Tudot, -º -do, -º -goiv, -ºv pi\eot, -of -peda -éot, -of -0.0e -éow, -oiv -t xpvoºdot, -of -óot, -of -dow, -oiv 131 INFLEXION. Dual. r I Tuao, r f -º - -go, -º 2 pixeot, -of -pedov 3 Xpwooot, -of -éo, -of -orbov -orffnv -óo, -of INFINITIVE. 1 rude, -ão flat. 2 pixee, -eſo-flat. 3 Xpvade, oùo flat PARTICIPLE. Tuaguevos, -a, 2 pixeduévos, -off 3 Xpwooduévos, -ow l 343 }~ -ao, -to -éo, -ov }~ -oo, -ov -ad, -a, -ed, -ow -od, -ow }~ In some verbs, even the Attic writers retain the older form of contracting ae into m (above, 124). That these are old verbs appears, in part at least, from the simple and necessary meanings conveyed by them. They are (mv, “to live;" xpng flat, “to use;” rewmv, “to hunger;” &nv, “to thirst;” kvnv, “to scrape;” apnv, “to stroke;” Nºnv, “to rub;” from Čaw, xpdouai, rewdw, &c. § XI. Anomalous Verbs. 344 Although the verbs which have been given in the Paradigms are called regular, the student has already seen that they are all liable to defects and anomalies; and even twºrro, the most complete specimen of a regular con jugation, will be found again in the list of irregular verbs. In fact, the more common the occurrence of a verb is, the the more liable it is to casual affections; and the study of the irregular verbs is, in fact, a study of these verbs which the learner will meet with most frequently in the course of his reading. 345 The irregularities with which the student has to make himself acquainted, may be classed under two differ ent heads. (I.) Anomalies of signification. (II.) Anoma lies of form. § XII. (I.) Anomalies of Signification. 346 Anomalies of signification arise from some appa rent contradiction between the form of the person-endings and the action expressed. Properly speaking, the person endings which are equivalent to an instrumental case, such 9–2 132 INFLEXION. as -u, -uev, &c., are approriated to the active voice; while those which are equivalent to a locative case are appro priated to the middle or passive voice. Thus, 8tów-u. means, “a giving by me;” 8too-uev, “a giving by us;" but eſcopal, “a giving on or of me;" &ied-ué0a, “a giving on.or of us.” (285). But we have seen that an insertion of the elements bia, or ia, supersedes this distinction of the person-endings, as affecting the voice of a verb (289). And with regard to the future, we shall see that the form in -uai, from B. (290), or what is commonly called the first future middle, may be used in particular verbs as a passive, and in other verbs as an active future. 347 The following are examples of the passive use of the so-called future middle : ăp{ouai, “I shall be ruled.” dAwarouai, “I shall be taken.” dwidoropat, “I shall be grieved.” &n Majoropat, “I shall be shown.” edia ouai, “I shall be suffered.” kaAoûual, for kaxéropat, “I shall be called.” (also kekārigopal, but KAndrígonal is of rare occurrence in Attic Greek). Aéouai, “I shall be spoken of.” puriforouai, a rvynaouai, “I shall be hated.” oveidtowpat, “I shall be reproached.” Tiprioropat, “I shall be honoured.” 348 Sometimes the paulo-post future is used without any distinction of meaning for the passive: thus we have Begaria opal, kek\riorouai, neuvria ouai, in the same sense as £3Anórioropai, KAnóñorouai, and pivnaðngopal. 349 The 2aorist middle occasionally occurs in a passive sense: for example, in some compounds of axéréal, as kara oxéadai, ovoxóuevos. But it may be laid down that the 1 aorist middle is always confined to its reflexive significa tion. Thus, though Tpd{erdal might be passive, ºrpääagdal must be middle. 350 . Some active verbs always employ the middle form of the future in an active signification. The following is a list of these verbs: #8w, “I sing,” gouai. 133 INFLEXION. dkowo, “I hear,” droſa ouai. duapravo, “I err,” duapriorouai. dravtdo, “I go to meet, -trigouai. droxaúw, “I enjoy,” -aſſoopal. (3ačić, “I walk,” Bačioſual. £3atva, “I go,” £ngouai. /360, “I live,” -tjarouai. Bodo, “I cry out,” -rigouai. *exas, “I laugh,” generally Yeadoogal, but also yeXárw. ympdgkw, “I grow old,” ympärouai. ywyvºorka, “I come to know,” Yvºgouai. ºpºw, “I grunt,” Ypºona, but also ºpwéo. 3apógvw, “I slumber.” ëapfligouai. 31&pdorko, “I run away,” &pdaouai. écèio, “I eat,” &copal and payouai. 6avudſto, “I wonder,” -ágouai. 6éw, “I run,” beſgouai. (npäw, “I hunt,” -ágouai. Buſiase, “I am dying." flavovnal. kduvø, “I am weary,” kaptopual. kixávo, “I overtake,” kixrigouai. KXàw, “I weep,” KAaſaouai. KAétro, “I steal,” KAévouai. Aayyávo, “I obtain by lot,” Añéouai. Aapſ3dvo, “I receive,” Amvouai. pav6dvo, “I learn,” piaffrioropai. oluéſ”, “I bewail,”, oluºčouai. 5uvvul, “I swear,” duojuai. traayw, “I suffer," "retarouai. Tríva, “I drink,” triouai. Trírro, “I fall,” regioJuai. TAéw, “I sail,” TAeſorouai and -govua, goſpéo, “I gulp down,” -rigouai. oriyaw, “I remain silent,” oriymorouai. orwardø, “I hold my peace,” -norouai. a korrw, “I mock,” orkavouai. grovčáčw, “I am busy,” -dorouai. Tvyxdvo, “I hit the mark, Teiſſouai. Tpéxw, “I run,” 6péčouai, and Čpaptovuai. Toºw, “I nibble,” Tpºopal. q evyw, “I flee,” petſäouai and -Éoguai. 134 INFLEXION. q6dvo, “I am first,” pèriorouai. Xaiva, or xdorko, “I yawn," Xavoupai. xwpéw, “I go,” xwpriorouai : , but the active form also occurs in the compounds, as in trporxophow. Thucyd. II. 80. 351 The following employ both forms: dpiračw, “I seize,” -árouai and -dow. Štúkw, “I pursue,” -ºopa, and -uśw. étravéa, “I praise,” -éaouai, but also -éorw: likewise trapatvéow. Soph. OEd. Col., 1181. “I live,” (forouai and (forw. tyyāva, “I touch,” 0:#opal and 0#w. koxdºw, “I chastise,” koxdorouai, KoMouai, and . koxdaw, kox6. kwkwo, “I utter wailings," -Jaouai and -worw. Adokw, “I sound,” Aakria ouat and -norto. vavotoxéw, “I navigate,”-rigouai and -īga. Trvéw, “I breathe, or blow,” rveworw and rveworouai, -oroupai. trotéo, “I long for,” -égoua, and -éow. ríkrw, “I bring forth,” réouai and réâw. qpovrić w, “I cogitate,” -torouai and -íaw. 352 There is a by no means inconsiderable number of active verbs which use their second perfect in a passive sig nification. dyvvut, Such are “I break,” perf. avoiyw, “I open,” &AAvut, “I destroy,” Trryvvut, “I fix,” “I tear,” Trfºw, “I melt,” firiyºvu, s Gaya, “I am broken.” dvépya, “I stand open." &\to\a, “I am undone.” trétnya, “I stick fast.” Eppaya, “I am burst open." ºrérnka, “I am melted.” qatvw, “I show,” Tréqſnva, “I appear.” There is no direct evidence to shew whether this anomaly springs from the absorption of the affix ta, or from the cause suggested above, in the case of £arnka (319). Such phrases as éxei Kaxtos, when the Romans said bene se habet, may indicate the possibility of a change of usage without a change of form, and the peculiar case of #kw, “I am come,” used as the perfect of ipxonal, but obviously derived, like ſka (comp. nuépa, inépa), from fixa the aor, INFLEXION. 135 or more probably from eſka, the perfect of ſnut, “I send,” and subsequently furnished with passive inflexions in irvéopal, iróunv, &c., shows that there was a good deal of caprice in these changes of application. In fact, as the perfect indicates the state consequent upon an action, its passive application in certain verbs springs rather from a habit of mind common to all nations than from any pecu liarity in the Greek language. In almost all the cases, in which we find this transition in Greek, we find something similar in English. Compare, for example, the double use of éAaúva, with the English, the clouds drive; and #xw from tnut, with the intransitive, I have shot across the river; TérevXa, “I am here at this moment,” with such phrases as, I have just made the mouth of the river, and the in transitive ºxw with our auxiliary, I have gone, walked, &c. Conversely, but for the same reason, some neuter verbs become active: thus, dvépxopal, lit. “I go up,” means, “I recount” (Eurip. Hippol. 200. Pind. O. viii. 54). 353 It is hardly correct to speak of such usages as olòa, “I know,” from Fíð, “to see;” &éðopka, “I see,” from 8épkw, “I try to get sight of;” kékºrnual, “I possess,” from kriouai, “I acquire,” &c. &c. as anomalies; for they spring from the primary signification of the perfect tense. 354 Deponent middle verbs sometimes use a perfect of the passive form, with both an active and passive signi fication; the following are examples: eipyaouai, “I have done,” and “I have been done,” from épydćouai, “I do;" the pass. tense is particularly emphatic in the phrase as én' &#epyaquévois, “when things are throughly done and can not be undone:” kektnuévos means both “possessing” and “possest;” and even katakéxpntal, which governs the dative, is used in a passive sense. Isocr. Panegyr. 74. So also with regard to the passive aorists of such verbs: éktričnv= éktno-dumv, eipydoºnva eipyardunv, &c. There are even irregularities in the use of the present tense: thus, divoſueva is passive in Plat. Phaed. 69. Perhaps the greatest difficulty which can arise from these anomalies of signi fication, is the employment of a middle form, which is strictly discriminated by common usage from the active, in a merely deponent or active sense. For example, élèdarkw signifies, “I teach,” and Čičdorkouai, “I have my son taught,” 136 INFLExION. i. e. Čičarko č, ćrépov; but yet we find &ºdèagbai used as a mere active. Pind. O. vii.1, 59. Simon. Fr. 54. Aristoph. Nub. 781; and conversely, the active used as a middle. § XIII. (II.) Anomalies of Form. 355 Anomalies of form, or irregularities in the in flexions of verbs through their moods and tenses, arise either from the practice of making up the different tenses of verbs by forms derived from different but synonymous roots, as in the case of eiuſ (above, 327): or from the use of some strengthening affix in the present tense, which is neglected in the other tenses: such affixes are -6-, -ak-, -v-, -v-, -un-, -vu-, -a-, -t-. The explanation of this formation belongs to the next part of the Grammar (below, 366). But it belongs to this part of the subject to remark that the affixes -0- and -ork- are used to form tenses within the domain of a regular verb. Thus we have seen (above, 291), that the former is used regularly to make the passive aorist, and the latter is employed by the Ionian writers to construct a set of iterative tenses from the imperfect and aorist tenses of the indicative mood. Thus, imperf. KAaſ eakov, “I continually bewailed,” of a continuous act, con tinually repeated; aor. Ad/3sqkov, “I kept taking,” of a single act continually repeated. As the augment is always omitted, these tenses may be compared with the optative mood, to one usage of which they fully correspond. § XIV. List of Defectice and Irregular Verbs. 356 Roots are distinguished by capitals; poetical words by an asterisk. "Ayauai", “I admire,” dydorouai, mydorffnv and jºyagduny, 'Ayeſpo, “I collect,” another form of €yeſpo, with aor. part. dypduevos. "Ay-vu-ul, “I break,” root FAT (cf. fify-vu-ut) fut. dºw, aor. *aša, éaynv, 2 perf. Baya with pass, signification. Ayw, “I lead,” 2 aor. ii)ayov, perf. ńxa and Gynoxa. Apéw, “I take," aipiao, 1 aor, pass, ripéðnv, 2 aor, act. (from root 'EA-) elaov. In the middle, aipoºnal signifies “I choose," i.e. take for myself. Distinguish this from aipw, “I raise,” for deipo, l aor. mid. ripdumv. INFLEXION. 137 Ala-64-vouai, “I perceive,” fut. aloffrioropa, 2 aor. iiotá 11179. 'Akaxić,”, “Ihumble or afflict,” from 'AX-aor. Kaxov, fut. drakrioto, l aor. nkaxnora. 'AK-, “I point,” draxuévos" pointed. 'Akoúw, “I hear,” fut, droſaoual, l aor. nkovora, perf. act. dikrikoa, perf. pass. hºovauai. 'AA3ri-akw, “I nourish,” from AAAE-, AAA-, fut. dA 3riorw. 'AAéºw”, “I ward off," fut. dAešijaw, and dAéopal, l aor. mid. dAéčarðal, from AAEK-,AAK-, probably strengthened by 6-, comp. aščw. 'AAéopat”, “I avoid,” also dàeſouai, l aor. Aevdunv, inf. dAéaabai and dAeſagtai. aivo”. Another form in Homer is dAe ‘AA-ſaxopal, “I am taken,” fut. dAdorouai, 2 aor. Atov, or éâ'Aww, “I was taken,” infin. dAdval, part. dAows, perf. édawka, Awka, from ‘AAO-, comp. duffa-take. . . "AAAouai, “I leap,” fut. dAoûual, l aor. Aduny, 3Aaobai. Hence in Homer, dago, dAto, äAuevos, for Aago, #Aato, dAduevos. 'Auapºr-dvo, “I err,” fut, duapriorouai, perf mudpraka, pass. iiidpºrnual, (as if there were also a form ‘AMAPTE-), 2 aor. Huaprov, (in Homer, juſ?potov); the fut. duapriorw is Ionic. 'Auſ?Aſakw, “I make an abortion,” fut. GuðAdorw, &c. 2 aor. huſ?Aww. 'AvaA-to-kw, divāAdw, “I take up and consume,” fut ava Award, aor. dudawaa, perf act. dvdAwka, perf. pass. dvdAw pal, l aor. pass. dwax40nv. Comp. dAtakouai, which contains the same root, although the quantity of the first syllable differs. Obs. As the second a in this verb is already long, it receives no augment in the old Attic writers, though divria #. appears to have been said in the language of common ife. 'Avēdvo, “I please,” from FAA- with double nasal, im perf. Hvěavov, eavčavov, and énvèavov", 2 aor. Éadov, perf. gača, fut. dériorw. 'Avotyw, and divoſyvvut, “I open,” fut, divoſéw, l aor, dué pêa, perfact, duéexa, perf. pass, dvépyua, 2d perf dvépya; less frequently ºvoiča, &c. 138 INFLEXION. • 'Avdiya, dwayéw, “I order,” imperf. &voyov, fut. divºw, 1 aor. jvoča, a secondary verb from an old perf dvaya", with a present meaning, pluperf rivaiyev, Ionic ivºyea, imperat. divox0, and āvoye. So Teyuivo, yeyovée, “I speak aloud,” from the old perf. yéytova", fixto from eika, &c. 'Arex0ávouai, “I am hated,” fut. direxórioropal, perf. drixſºnial, 2 aor. Gºrnyfláunv. 'Atroſpas”, “having separated,” and droupduevos”, “being deprived,” in a passive sense, l aor, part. from OYP-5-AYP =FAP-, which is also found in Čt-aup-torkouai, “I derive advantage from,” fut. T-avp-rigopal, aor. Érnupov. Comp, eup-to-kw. We have also from the same root the imperf. drnºpov", aor. darmupa", part. dirnipas, 1 aor. mid. dirnvpdpnv. also l 'Apérkw, from 'AP-, “I please,” fut. dipérw, aor. iſpera, aor, pass. ripérônv. From the same root in the sense, “I annex” or “adapt," (fut. Öpow,) l aor. mpora*, perf. pass. dpipeuai, l aor, pass. #pônv, 2d perf. hpnpa, Ion. #papa, Dor. &papa, mostly in trans. “to fit, to be fast,” 2 aor. ºpapov. Homer has the participle dpåpuſa. From dipnpa came dpapw and dpap toºka). Also in the sense, “I render favourable,” fut. dpéow”, dpérouai, a Or. hpeara, mid. dpéoraorbat. Aüğdvo, déâw”, at{w, “I increase,” fut. awāńow, l aor. nºnga, perf. p. miſènual, aor, pass. nVämönv. Ax0ouai, “I am angry,” fut. dyffégopal and dxflectri oropal, l aor. ix0éo.6nv. B. Batva, “I go,” from BA-, with affix v, and metathesis, fut. (3riorouai, perf. 8éſłnka, pl. Béſłauev, 6égate, fleſłóg, conj. (3e36, inf. Beflával, part. Beſłºs, -óra, 2 aor. £3my, imperat. (370, in compounds (3d, as kata/3a : intrans. ; fut. £3moro, l aor. §§nora, transit. The Ionic conjunctive is £ia, In Homer we find £3etouai, “I shall go.” From the fut. £3moroual comes an Epic imperf. §3mordunv. From the same root we have 3/3dw, Briui, (343nut. Some compounds have a perfect and aorist passive; as, Tapaſ}aflets. dAAw, “I cast,” fut. Baxó, and in the Attic poets some “tº 139 INFLEXION. times Bax\fra, 2 aor. £3axov, 2 aor. m. Baxdumv, perf. (3é|3Anka, &c. Epic forms are, 3 dual 2 aor. act. 3Afrnv, inf. (3Anuéval, &c., as from BIBAHMI. Bíðpworke, BOP-, BPO-, 3ptºpſ, “I eat,” (fut. (3pdoo uai,) perf. 8éºpwka, part. Begpuis, pass. 3é£poua, paulo p. fut. Begpºo opal, l aor. 3pajónv, 1 fut. 3podiorouai, 2 aor. 3pov. Another form, fleſ?pºw, occurs in Homer. Budw, “I live,” fut. Budorouai, l aor. 3/3twora, 2 aor. £3tov, as from Biwut, Bíobi, Bigny, Biêval, Biots. Bidueota, in Homer, “we shall live.” BAao'rdvo, “I bud,” from 3Adorra, fut. BAaorriſow, 2 aor. £3Aaorrow, perf. Beft}Adorºrnica, and éſadornka. Bookw, “I feed,” fut. Boorknow. Boſwopal, “I am desirous,” fut. BovXiaopai, perf. pass. Beſłowanual, l aor. £30waríðnv, riſ8ov\riðnv, poetic perf. m. £8égovXa, as in wrpoſłé/3ovAa*. T. Tauéw, “I marry',” from TAM- or ‘AM-, “together,” Attic fut. yauð, mid. Yapıoğual, l aor. £ynua (in the New Testament, eydunga), perf. yeydunka; l aor. Yapriónv is found in late writers. Teyaſvuo, see 'Avºyo. Tnpd-gkw, “I grow old,” tenses supplied from ynpäw. The Attics, for ympäral, said ympával, ynpds, as if from yńpmui. Tyvº-orkw, Attic, yivajorka in writers not Attic, “I know,” from TNO-, fut. Yvºrouai, perf. §yvuka, perf. pass. Byvoo pal, l aor. pass éyvaig.6mv. As from TITNOMI, 2 aor. #yvov, imperat. Yv60, opt. Yvotny (Attic Yvºnv), plur. Yvoſ gev, Yvoiev, conj. Yvº, infin. Yvºval, part. Yvows. Tivouai or commonly Tºyvouai, “I come into being,” root TA- with nasal affix vi-, fut. Yevſo opal, perf mid. Yéyova, perf. pass. Yeyévnual, 2 aor. Yevdunv, l aor. Yelvdunv, “I begat,” or “brought forth.” The older form yetvouat occurs in Ionic or Doric poets. Also without the nasal affix (above, 106), perf. Yéyaa, plural Yéyaſlev, yeydare, yeydāori, infin. Yeydval, yeyduev, part. Yeyaws, Attic yeyds. - * Active, to marry a wife (urorem ducere); middle, to marry a hus band (nubere). 140 1NFLEXION. Two other presents formed from the perfects are Yeylike, yeydo. Toda and Todopal, “I bewail,” 2 aor. Yoov. A. AA-, “I teach,” 2 aor. 33aov, 2. aor. pass. §§any, opt. Saeinv, conj. 8a0, inf. Canval, part. Caeſs, fut. 8aria oual, perf. 3e3dinka, céðaa, “I have learned,” part. Öečads, “having learned,” perf. p. 3e3dnual. Hence, 1st, causative, Čičd-orkw, “I teach,” 8tédºw and 316doknow, 3e3(8axa ; 2d, ºfte (in a future sense), “I shall find;” 3d, 3e3dw; 4th, Čečdnut. ~ AA-, “I burn,” data, perf. &éèna, 2 aor. mid. conj. Cam'rat. Hence, 3rios, “a ravager", §niów, “I lay waste.” AAI-, “I divide,” perf. pass. 3 pers. plur. Ionic, Čečaſ arat, with derivative forms, as from a dental verb, l aor. mid. Čoaga dumv, perf. pass. (in Homer), 3éèarrat; hence &aivvut, “I give to eat,” fut. Šatorw, l aor. £atora, aor, part. pass. 3ala fleſs, and earéouai, l aor. Öatéaorbat. Adkva, “I bite,” fut. &ričouai, perf. 6éonxa, perf. p. 8éºn Yual, l aor. &nx0mv, 2 aor. £6akov. Aduvnu, bandw”, “I subdue,” fut. 8apº", perf. 8&unka, p. pass. &éðumual, plup. §§eópºriumv, 3d pers. pl. in Homer £eouijato, 2 aor, pass. 8dunu, part. 8aſſets. Another form, 3audów, is regular. Comp. &#10, which probably contains the same root. Aaptaiva, “I sleep,” fut. Šapflirouai, 2 aor. §§apôov, in the Poets ºpadov. AI-, “I fear,” fut. &eta'opal, l aor. ºetra, 2 aor. Élov, perf. 8éootka, 8éðia, plural déðuev, 8éèvre, Čečiaori, imperat. 3éðiði. In Homer, &etoia, beiðiði. Ainut signifies, “I pursue,” pass. “I flee.” Aérvvu, Seikvuto, “I show,” root AEK-, “to hold out the hand,” fut. Seºw, l aor. ºeſºa, perf. pass. 3éðetypal, 1 aor. pass. &etx0mv, &c., imperat. &eikvº for Čeſkviði. In the Ionic it is déºw, goeşa, &c. Aéuw, “I build,” laor. Éepa, perf. 8éðunka. Aéxopal, “I hold out my hand to take or receive,” Ion. 8ékouai, syncopated aor. Éeekto, &#x0ai. Perf. pass, part. º Čečeyuévos and Čečoknuévos, “watching,” “lurking.” Same root as Čeſk-vu-ut and ook-éw. INFLEXION. 141 Aéw, “I bind,” fut. pass. Seória ouai. Aéw, “I want,” used impersonally det, fut. Señorel; pass. 3éouai, “I need,” “I entreat,” fut. Beforouai. Atôpaakw, generally used in composition, “I run,” fut. aparouai, l aor. £opaga, perf. 8éðpaka. We have also 2 aor. £ºpav, 3pts, painv, pával, &pſis, as from a verb in -ui. The root is paſ, patr-, or ēpap-. Comp. Öparerns and #8papov, &pageſ. okéw, “I seem,” fut. §okforw”, perf. §ečáknka”. Also fut. 86% w, l aor. £80èa, p. pass. 3éðoyuai. The root is AEK-, as in 8éxouai and Čeſkvvu. Apaueiv. See &topdoxo and Tpéxw. Advapai, “I am able,” imperf. ºvvdunv, Attic rièvvdunv, fut. 8vvmorouai, 1 aor. mid. Čºvunordunv, l aor. pass. &vvmónv (Attic novvníðnv), sometimes éðvvdorffnv, perf. p. 3e3v.vnual. Alſo, transitive, “I put on,” diſvo, intransitive, 2 aor. £ovv, “I went into,” “put on myself,” 300, 80yal, ovs, perf. 8éövka, cf. equv, trépuka. Forêev, 3 pers, sing. 2 aor., we find Čvokev. The 2 fut. Öſaw, l aor. Čovoa, are transitive. E. "Eyeſpo, “I wake,” perf. Ynyepka, ćyfyepua. Also éypriyopa, “I am awake.” The root is dyep-, “to gather," or “collect.” EA-, “I eat,” see Śarðtw. "Ečouai, “I seat myself,” more used in the compound kafléčouai, fut. Kaffedovual, aor. Kaffnunv. 'Ee-, “I am accustomed,” perf eſota, part. 300w in Hom. EIA-, or more properly, FIA-, “I see,” 2 aor. eidov (Homer toov), ièé, ièw, teoul, ièeſv, *čav. These complete the tenses of opdo, which has no future or aorist. Pres. mid. eidouai, “I seem,” videor, l aor. elordunv. The 2 aor. eiðounv has an active sense, “I see with interest,” “I be hold,” or “gaze on;” imperat. ièow perispomenon (ièow oxy tone, ecce). The same root also signifies, “I know,” fut. Hom. etërjora, Attic eforouai, 2 perf oièa, “I know," pluperf. §§ew: fēuev for otòapev, infin. toueval, conj. ièéw, in Homer and Doric writers. The following Table shews the different tenses of this verb which were in common use:— 142 INFLEXION. INDICATIVE. { Perfect, S. oića olorffa D. tortov torre P. foruevi S. #èew Attic #&n } ;3 moe. -- ñoets D. Pluperfect, P. fºeuev poet, figuev olòe forov toragi. } #3eirov poet. Đatov jøeire jorre } : } matnv ñºeiaav ...) noav. etorouai. Future, IMPERATIVE. foró, torrow torre CoNJUNCTIVE. S. D. P. torro tortov to roorav. elöö, eièns, eiðfi, K. T. A. OPTATIVE. S. elčeſnv D. P. effelnuev } eièeſuev INFINITIVE. eiðéval. eièeins eièeinrov eièeinre elêein eiðeinrnv º eiðeſev. PARTICIPLE. eiðaſs. EIK-, “I resemble," 2d perf oika, Čolka; pl. goryuev, plup. §§kew; another Attic form is elka ; fut. eišw. For eikaariv the Attics said eſſagiv. 'Exaſvo, “I drive,” (i.e., both veho and vehor), root EAA-, (above, 144), fut. Adoro, Attic A6, l aor. Aaga, perf. Affaaka, p. pass. Anaapai, 1 aor. Addnv. 'EAYê-, “I come,” see &pxopal. "EAkw, “I drag,” forms 1 aor. and perf as from éxxv-. "EArw, “I cause to hope,” Atropal, perf. §oAta, “I hope.” - EA-, “I take,” see aſpéo. 'ENEK, 'ENEIK-, 'ENETK-, “I bear,” see pépe. 'Evirto", “I chide,” an Homeric word, has two forms of the 2 aor. ºviratov, and évévitrov. ! Otóaplev, otöare, otöaoru, occur in Ionic and later writers. Otoare is found in Aristoph. Ach. 294, and olòas in Eurip. Alcest. 780. 143 INFLEXION. "Evvvut”, “I put on,” fut. §aw, Édow, Éogouai, l aor. £ora, toga, Čaordunv, p. pass. eiual, pluperf. 2 pers, sing. ēgoro, 3 £aro, 3 plural eſaro, aor. pass. Eat'nv (eſarai and eſato are also from éð). In prose, only duºpiévvvut occurs, fut. duquégouai and dubić (from duºpiéro), l aor. iuºtega, perf. pass. mugie opiat. * ENO6-, “I shake,” or “agitate,” 2 perf. ºvivo0a. 'Etrfor rapal, “I understand,” middle of éqſatnut, Ionic ériotnut, imp. rituattiumv, fut. Šariatria ouai, l aor. Tigri ônv, Attic rituatríðnv. 'EII-, or more properly FETI-, “I say,” evétro, evvétro, 2 aor. eitrov, eitré, eitro, eitrout, eitreſu, eitrºv, l aor, eitra, an Ionic form, whence the Attics said eitas (2 pers. sing. indic.), also eiträtw, eltrártov, eſtate, and sometimes elirov or eitröv, in the imperat. For grw the poets used a tra, whence évía Tw. Tenses supplied from 'EP-, are fut. Špéo (€péra) Ionic, pó Attic ; perf act. eſpnka, p. pass. eſpnual, l aor. pass. Agri 0nv, Ionic ēśéðnv, fut. etpriorouai. The middle, in a causa tive sense, “I cause to speak,” is used to form tenses of £pardo, “I ask.” In this sense we have an aorist ripópnv, Époº, pouai, £péadai, and a fut. pricouai. From eſpnual are derived finua, finitop, &c. "Ewº", “I am employed about anything" (in Homer, and the compounds in Attic prose), imperf, eitrov, 2 aor. to trov, as in reotrov, riorités, éttornw, earía tropil, étrio"rev, &micrºtav, fut. pévo. Whence the middle "Etropat, “I follow,” imperf. eiträumv, 2 aor. Gortoumv, imperat. atréo, a reſo, fut. Vrouai. Poets after Homer had also go trouai, Šotrotunv, Šotréa.0ai. 'Epdw, “I love,” (in Epic, &c., papal, l aor. mpaordunv), 1 aor. ripdorónv, amavi, part. pass. pauevos, “loved.” EPT-, or more properly FEPT-, “I do,” fut. *pśw, l aor. *pśa, 2 perf. §opya: other forms of the present are épôw and fiéºw. Hence 'Epydúouai, “I labour at,” (see 354). "Epyw, “I inclose,” “keep off,” in Homer and Herodotus; in the former frequently €épyw. Hence épxatal, pxato, drépéal, direpyuévos. In Attic writers eſpyw, “I shut out,” eſpyw, eſpyvvu. (aspirated), “I shut in.” "Epow, “I do,” see flé w. - 144 INFLEXION. 'Epeſºw, “I lean against,” plup. pass. 3 sing. ripipelato, 3 pl. pnpéðaro, “was fixed firm,” or “rested.” 'Epeiro, “I dash down,” 2 aor. ipitrov, intr. but also in a assive form, as appears from the participle épitreſs, perf. épiipura, intr. but also in a passive form, priptugal. Obs. These verbs, though almost contradictory in sig nification, are often confused by students, and sometimes even by lexicographers and commentators, as in Aristoph. - Eq., 627. EPIA-, “I contend,” l fut. Špièrforw, l aor. mid. epièſ gagga", perf, with pres, sign. pnptopai. Hence épío and épièaívo. "Effw, “I go away,” fut. §§priorw, &c. 'Epwflaſvuº, “I make red,” pewtºw, fut. Špejorw, puffraw, perf. ripúðnka. 'Epiſw, “I draw,” has v short in flexion; umpſo, though another form of the same word (117), has the v long. We have, however, eipúa'ato, floorbal, &c. "Epxouai (from EPX-, OPX-, connected with OPET-) “I make a straight line for myself,” “I go forward,” “I come,” is the most irregular verb in the Greek language. Even the imperf. ripxöunv is seldom used. Its complement of tenses is made up from I-, which furnishes the imperf. #ew or fia, and the fut. elut (329); from EAYe- which furnishes the aor. Abov (Hom. Avtov) fut. Aeſorouai (very rare in good Attic), perf. Aft\vda (Hom. elAriadv6a); from 'I-, which furnishes the perf. in the sense, “I am come,” gen. #kw, ſkw, irdvo, ixvéouai (above, 319); in the sense, “I am gone,” otyouai, otywka, the past tenses of these verbs representing the pluperfect. The infin. pres. is gen, ieval, and the partic. laiv. 'Eatº, #600, “I eat,” from 'EA-, perf act. Śēríčoka, p. pass. Öröeopal, 2 perf. &nda, fut. 330pal: from baſ-, 2 aor. Épayov. Eſpírkw, “I find,” from "EYP-, fut. eupriorw, perf. act. eipnka, p. pass. eſpnual, l aor. eupéðnv, 2 aor, act. eipov, mid. eupéunv. Verbal adjective, euperéos. See atroºpas. "Exo, “I have,” fut. §§w, 2 aor. Goryov, imperat. oxés, subj, q x6, opt. oxoinv, inf. oxeſv, part, oxºv, 2 aor. mid. éoxöunv, oxov, axiouai, oxoiumv, axérôal, axéuevos. Also fut, oxnaw, mid, oxrigouai, perf toxnka, perf. pass. Boxn pal, 1 aor. £oxéðnv. Hence a new present, axé00. 145 INFLEXION. From éxw are formed faxw, and the compounds ºrigyo pal, Uriaryvéopai. 'Autréxw, “I clothe,” has a mid, duri axedugi. E-, “I place,” or “set up,” l aor, eiga, mid. eladunv, perf. p. huai, “I sit.” Derivative forms, *(ouai, ſº, q.v. Z Zdw, “I live” (Cº, ös, Öi, above, 343), imperat, ºn and (76i, imperf. (ov and ɺnv, -ns, -n, fut. Gioro and Giorouai. The Attics use the aorist égiov, Buºval, Blows, and the perf. Begioka. Zée, “I boil,” fut. Céro, verbal Cearás. H. THA-, “I please.” See divºdvo. Thua, “I sit,” perf. pass. of 'E-, “I set,” pluperf.3 pers. pl. aro and eſato, for fivro, imperat. Woo, infin. mortal, part. huevos, not muévos, on account of the present signification. Compound kā0nual, kā0ngo, kafloiumv, káðwpal, kaðnaðai; imperf. ékaðmunv. See tºo. 6. €AF-”, “I am astonished,” or “perplexed,” used only in the poets, 2 perf. Téðnira, 2 aor. Étapov. Hence rapos, “astonishment,” 0a0-pa = flaſ-a-ua, 0dopal, 6éaouai, &c. Gatto, “I bury,” fut. 6dvºw, p. pass. Tefláupal, l aor. £6dq6nv, 2 aor. Śrāq'nv. 6éw, “I run,” fut. 6eſorouai. See. Tpéxw. €ly yºvo, “I touch,” BIT-, fut. 6% w and 0#opal, 2 aor. 661) ov. €vifaxw, “I die,” from 6AN-, fut. 6avojuai, 2 aor. #flavov, perf. Téflunka, plural réðvauev, -ate, -ãort, imperat. réðvaði, conj. Teflunko, optat. Teóvaínv, inf. reflvåval, part. reóveals, rebunals, and Teflvetøs. From réðvnka comes a new verb, rebvriko, fut. Teflunăw, rebvričouai. epairkw, “I leap,” from €0P-, fut. 6opoſual, 2 aor. #0opov, perf. rétopa. Another form is 6dpvuual. I. "Iöw, ka0ſo, “I seat myself,” root 'EA-, fut, kaðið, aor. exafluora and ka0ſora, fut. middle ka0ićforouai. We find also ka0é(ouai as from éo, imperf, exaflet dunv, in the Tragedians kaffe'dunv used as an aor, fut. Kaffedovuai. D. G. G. 10 146 INFLEXION. "Inui, “I set a going,” root 'I-; the following forms are in use: - Active, pres. Inui, ins, &c. taorw, or feſortv, ſet for teth ió, feinv, iéval, ieſs; imperf. Inv and ſovv (in comp. dqíovv Or riſpíovv, also rightew), 3 pl. righteorav. fut. #orw, l aor. mka. Ion. Énka. Perf. eika. The laor, is used only in the sing. In the plural we have Éuev, ºre, $orav, or with the augment eluev, eire, eſorav (dqeſoray, &c.), as from 2 aor, ºv. Also in the moods is, é, eſnv, cival, eſs. Passive and middle like Tíðmut, i.e. feual, &c. Perf. eiual, eia flat, eiuévos, 1 aor. middle, nºdunv, 2 aor. middle éunv or eſºnv, 1 aor, pass. £6my or eſtiny. The l aor. middle is used only in the indic. In the moods we have oč, ćunv, eſpnv, a bai, £uevos, 60nti, 600, €6etunv, 60mval, éflets. From the perf. act. with an intransitive signification pass. we have (above, 352) 'Ikvéopal, “I come,” by the side of ſko, and ikavºo, fut. #ouai, 2 aor. iköumv, perf. (only in composition) dºpiyuai. ‘IAdorkouai, “I conciliate,” or “propitiate,” from Adouai, fut. Adorouai : imperat. (An6, or Adiós, pres, mid. Aapai". "It rapat. See Tétouai. "Ianui, “I know,” in the sing, occurs only in the Doric forapu, and forati for tornai. See FIA-. K. Kaf-vu-ual, root KA6-; the dental is also omitted (above, 86, 103) in kai-vos and ka-Ads; perf. pass. Kékagua, “I surpass,” also, “I am distinguished by,” pl. perf. Kekdaunº, part. kekaguévos, and kekaðuévos. Katw, “I burn,” (uro), Attic kaw, fut. Kawato, l aor. #Kavara, Ekna, part. Kéas, ketas, and in later writers, kavaas, erf. pass. Kékavual, l aor. Kaū0nv, 2 aor. ekdnv, l aor. mid. Čkeidunv". KaNéw, “I call,” fut. KaNéow, contr. Kaxtº, aor. ČkdAega, perf. Kékanka, aor, pass. KAmönv, p. pass. Kék\nual, opt. kekAſiumv, kékAno, fut, pass. KAndria ouai, and kekarigouai, fut. mid. kaxovuai. Kduva, “I grow weary,” fut. Kapoopia, 2 aor. Kauov, perf. Kékpınka, part. Kekunkºs, kekunois. 147 INFLEXION. Keſuat, “I lie down,” (a syncopated perfect), imperat. ketoro, conj. Kéopal, opt. Keotpnv, (as from kéopal), inf. kei a flat, part. Keſuévos, imperf. Keiumv, fut. Ketoropai. KéAoual", “I order,” fut. Kexfoopa", 2 aor. £kekAdunv”. Kepdvvvut, “I mix,” fut, kepāow, contr. kepto, l aor. exépåga, perf. pass. Kékpauai and keképaguai, l aor. ekpáðnv and ékepdoºnv. Also kipwdw, kipwmui. Kepèaſvuº, “I gain,” fut. Kepèavò, Ionic keptavéo, l aor. isépèava; also in Ionic and later writers keporiaouai, and éképônora. É. root KAA-, “I make anxious,” “I afflict,” “I bereave,” knèſoo, aor. Kékačev, perf. Kéknèa, intr. pass. kekaërjorouai. We should refer to this root the form kekd dovro, which is generally connected with Xaſouai. The anariety of the enemy when the warrior was about to shoot (Hom. Il. IV, 497; xv, 574) was as natural as their retreat ing; and as in one case the foeman is shot through the temple, in the other through the breast, the mention of retreat is rather out of place. The preposition too is Jaro, and not avd. KiXava, “I overtake,” from KIX-, 2 aor. Éxixov: fut. kikriorw, 2 aor. Škixnv, kixeinu, kixw, kixnval, kixels. We have also the Attic present kiyxãvo. Kíxpnpu, “I lend,” fut. xprſaw, l aor. Expnora. KAd{w, “I clang,” “make a noise,” fut. KAdyśw, perf. kékAayya, 2 perf. KékAnya, 2 aor. KAayov. KAato, “I weep,” Att. KAdw, fut. KAainaw, KAawaw, KAavorouai, and k\avoroupiat. KAºw”, “I listen,” imperf. KAvov, imperat. KA961, KAJre, and kékAü0i, kékAüre. Kopévvvut, “I satisfy,” fut. Kopérw, l aor. Škópeoa, perf. keköpnka", p. pass. Keköpnual”, Attic keköpeauai, l aor. pass. ékopéo-0nv. Kpd{w, “I crow,” fut. *ekpd{ouai, 2 aor. Kpayov, perf. kéxpaya, imperat, pass. Kékpax6i, as if from a verb in º-l. Kpepdvvvut, “I suspend,” from KPEMA-, fut. Kpegåga, contr. Kpeud, l aor. ekpéuaga, l aor. pass. expeudo-0mv, middle kpéuauai, “I hang,” like ſo tapal, fut. Kpeuſiaopai. Another form is kphuvnu, imperat. Kpfuwn”, pass. Kpiuva Mat. Kretvw, “I kill,” root KTA-, fut. Krevio, l aor. £kretva, perf. Extova, l aor, pass. 'ktdönv (in Homer 2 aor. º 0–2 148 INFLEXION. #Kravov, and also kraw, inf. Krdueval, mid. Krdoba, part. kºrds, mid. Kºrduevos. Kuvéw, “I kiss,” fut. Kürw. KvXívčw and kvXivöéw, “I roll,” from kvXiw, fut. Kvariº, - - 1 acr. ekºta'a, pass. ékv\to 0nv. Kupéw, “I hit upon,” is regular, but has lso the primary forms kºpoua, Škºpov, Kipaw, ekſpra. Kºw, “I am pregnant,” l aor. mid. exvordunv. A. Aayyāva, “I receive by lot,” from AAX-, fut. Ančopal, erf eixnxa, 2 aor. Aaxov. An old perf was Aéoyxa, omer has AeAdXw, “I give by lot.” Aapſ3dvo, “I take,” from AAB-, fut. Arivouai, perf. eſança (Ion. AeAd;3mka), pass. et\muual or AéAnupal, l aor. éAriºpônv, 2 aor. Aaftov. Ionic forms are Aduvopal, Aap Wyaunv, AéAappal, éAduºpónv. Aavödvo, “I am hidden,” root AAB-, mid. Aavºdvouai and Aribouai, “I forget,” from Añów, fut. Anow, perf. AéAng pal, 2 aor. Aabov, Aaddumv, mid. perf. AéAn6a, Homer has AeAdów, “I cause to forget.” Aéyw, “I say,” fut. Aéâw, perf wanting, p. pass. AéAeyuai, 1 aor. Aéx0nv. But Aéyw, “I collect,” fut. Aéºw, perf. et\oxa, p. pass. etàeyuai, 2 aor. Aeyny. Afagoua," and Aſtropai, (fut. Ata'op'al), l aor. Alora duny, Aoûw, “I wash,” from AOF-, fut. Aoéow, Aoûorw, l aor. éAdega, ÉAdeoga, contr. Aova'a, Attic pres. Aoûual (from Adopal), imperf. plur. Aoupev. Aww, “I loose, Avro, Avara ; but €Aúðnv, AéAüual. Homer has a 2 aor, pass. Aiſumu, Ayro, Aſvto, and opt. AeAuto, Pindar has imper. A50. M. Maivopal, “I am mad,” uovovual, épdunu, uéunva, synony mous with the present. But laor, act. Épinwa means “I made mad.” Mav6dvo, “I learn,” from MA6-, 2 aor. Buaflov, fut. pathiaouai, Dor. uateºuai, perf. Lepidónka. Máxopal, “I fight,” futuaxérouai, and (as from uaxéo ual) paxmoouai, Attic paxoſual, l aor. £uaxerdunu, and in Homer éuaxnordunu, perf pass. Hepaxnuévos. Maidual, “I seek,” or “desire,” root MA-- MEN-(above, 85, 106, cf. 160) perf pièuaa, pepdaal, uéuova, usuads, also INFLEXION. 149 syncopated uéuâuev, &c. pres, mid. Hºuai, imper. paleo, 1 fut. uda oual, l aor. £uagdunv; cf. Sato, 3doraoréal, &c. The root MEN- appears in the present pévo, “I am fixed,” or “remain,” with perf. Leuévnka. Also in ui-uum-okw. Meipopal", “I obtain,” perf. ºppopa, perf. pass, eſpaptai, part. eiuapuévos. MéAAw, “I am minded to do,” fut. LeMXriorw, imp. Guex Aov and huex,\ov. MéAw, “I am an object of concern,” péAouai, “I lay to heart,” fut. Heanoro, uéAmorouai, poetic form uéuſłAouai, perf. m. uéunaa. The active is gen. impersonal, as péAeluoi, “it concerns me,” &c. The compound ue rapéAet, “it re pents,” is always impersonal. Mnkdopal, “I bleat,” 2 aor. Buakov, perf. Léunka, part. fueunkos, usunkvia and ueuákvia. Míyvvut, “I mix,” and pſoryo", for pſy-orkw, from MIT-, fut. Mišw, perf. p. Méuiyuai, l aor, pass. eutx0nv, 2 aor. éputymw. Mºuvrforkw, “I remind,” root MEN- = MA-, fut. act. uvnow, “I will remind,” mid. uvigouai, “I will remember,” perf. p. uéuvnual, l aor. Guvnorðnv, “I remember.” Mukdouai, “I roar,” fut. uvknigopal, 2 aor. Buikov, perf. Méuvka. N. Natio”, “I dwell,” laor. ºvao ora, “I made to dwell,” laor. m. Evago dunu, l aor. p. evdoºnv, cf. 8aiw, and paíouai. Néw occurs in four different senses:— , (1) Néw, “I heap,” laor. Évnora, perf. p. vévnual and wevnorpta i. (2) Néw, “I spin,” conjugated regularly. Hence the derivative vröw. (3) Néw, “I swim,” fut. vevoroºpal, l aor, ºvevora, perf. vévévka. Hence wrixto, fut. vičouai. (4) Néouai" (used only in the poets), “I go, “return;" in Homer also vedual. Hence the form viororouai, fut. vío'ouai. Níčw, “I wash,” tenses supplied from virtw. ºw - ºte 3éw, “I cut with the edge,” root EEF- (found in Éqos, cf. £3púw, Bpéqos), fut. £éow ; also under the form {vo, #vorai. From this we have £ºpe, £upéw, £vpdw, “I shave,” mid. £ºpouai, £vpdunv, pass. &pnual. 150 INFLEXION. O. "O(w, “I emit a smell,” from "OA-, fut. 3&fra, Ionic, očario, perf. 6308a, with sense of present. tyw, v. divoſyo. Oièatvw, otödvo, “I swell," from otöéw, fut. oièrforw, perf. ºënka. Ovča. See above, under EIA-- FIA-. Otopia and oluai, “I think,” imp. ºdunv and junv: the other persons and moods are taken as from oleouai, fut. oligouai, aor. ºntºnv. Homer has oto, dio, and diouai. Oxopal, “I am gone,” fut. olxriorouai, perf. §xnual, oixwka, and ºxnka. See ºpxouai. OAirflaſvuo, öAirflåvo, “I slide or slip,” fut. dAtaffhow, 2 aor. &Ato-flow. "OAAvut, “I destroy,” from OA-, with affix -v- (above, 102), fut. 6Aéro (Att. dA6), l aor. ÖAeora, perf. dAuſAeka; mid. 6AAiſual, fut. GAoûual, perf. 88toxa, “I am undone," 2 aor. Aéunv, l aor. p. ºxérômv. The participle daguevos, ovXóuevos is used as an adjective signifying “fatal,” “de structive.” "Ouvvut, “I swear,” fut. Guoqual, l aor. Guoga, Judônv, perf duduoka, perf. p. duduorua, 3 pers. Guðuotal and dugºuorral, l aor, part. duodeſs. 'Ouépyvvut, “I wipe off," from 'OMOPT-, or 'AMEPT-, fut, dućpčw, l aor. duopča. 'Ovivnu, “I benefit,” fut. Gvnaw, l aor. ºvnora, pres. p. ovívapai and Övnual, imper. Övngo, 2 aor. ºváunv, imperf. duriumv, opt. ovaíunv. 'OTI-. See dpaw. - 'Opdw, “I see,” imperf. tºpov, perf act. Štěpáka, perf. pass. Saipauai. The other tenses are supplied from Oſl and FIA-, fut. 8vouai, perf. p. ºupal, &Wral, &rtal, inf. dq6al, l aor. 34p0nv, 2 perf 3rotra in the poets. See EIA =FIA-. "Opwul", “I excite,” fut. Športo, l aor. Öpora, perf. p. dpºpeuai, imperat. §poro, inf. §pflat, part. dpuévos, plup. tºpro, 2 perf. §pupa, “I am risen,” and ºpopa, generally transitive. Hence a new present pass. dpapopa, 2 aor. tºpgunv. Homer has āpaeo, as if from a present &pgouai. 'Orppaívouai, “I smell,” fut do ſpprioropal, aor. Jorg.pduny and woºpdunv. Outdo", ouráčo, “I wound,” 3 pers. 2 aor. ovira, perf. part. pass. ourduevos for oùraguévos. - 151 INFLEXION. ... 'Opet\w, “I owe,” “must,” fut. Gqeixnaw. The aor. tºpéAov occurs only as the expression of a wish, eið tºgeXov (Ionic, altº à pexov). Homer also doubles the A, as ºpeAAov. 'Oq}\lakdvio, “I owe,” “am guilty of,” “incur,” 2 aor. dq'Aéiv. II. IIaíčw, “I sport,” fut. Traíšopal and traičovual, but laor. &ratora, perf. Tétratra, p. pass. Tétraigual and Tétraiyuai. IIda'xw, “I suffer,” for tra6-0 kw, fut. Tretorouai, 2 aor. #Taflov, 2 perf. Trétrov6a, part. fem. Tetraffvia in Homer. Cf. a révôw. IIardo'oro : see TA forgo, which furnishes the passive. IIaréouai, “I eat,” &tagdunu, Tétraorua, cf. 8atéouai, 3dorao flat. IIeſtºw, “I persuade,” pass. “I believe,” or “obey,” to which signification also belong retoopa, Tétrelapai. But 2 perf. Trétotôa signifies, “I trust.” IIeadCo, TeXaw. See Tſavnut. IIéorgio, Tétro, “I digest,” fut. Tévo, as if from Tétro, perf. pass. Tétreppſal, l aor. Tépônu. . IIET- (1). This root appears in three verbs with the cog nate significations: (1) “I fall.” (2) “I spread out wings in falling. (3) “I fly or remain suspended in the air.”—(1) “I fall,” with reduplication triarto, with v affixed rítvw, 2 aor. Doric ºretov, in other dialects reorov, fut. m. Treaſov plot, perf. Tétraka or rétºrna, part. Tettnais, terreds, or Tetrºrays. (2) IIETA-, in IIerdvvvut, “I expand,” fut. Tetdow (Att. Teté), l aor. Tétara, perf. pass. Tetéraopai, Attic tréttapal, 1 aor. Šterda (nv. (3) Ilétopal, “I fly,” 2 aor. Terdunv, by sync. tTGºnv. Hence mid. Trauai, fut. Trigouai, Tetria ouai, 2aor. Étºrmv, Tró, trainv, tºrmvat, tras (mid. Ttdo-flat, Trduevos). IIé tapal occurs, but not in Attic: also totaouai, Trotéopal, and twºrd opal; but tet douai in later writers. IIriyvvu, ºrnyvºw, “I fasten,” fut. Triśw, l aor. Tméa, perf pass. Tétnyuai, 1 aor. Trixónv, 2 aor. Taynu, perf. trétnya, “I am fixed.” II:Avnul, pass. TríAvapai, “I approach,” from TeXgo", trexačw, fut. Texagg, perf. pass. Trémanual, l aor. TAdoºnv or étråd ºnv, 3 plur. 2 aor. TAñvro, as if from TAnu. IIſuranul, “I fill,” from IIAE- (TAffle, “I am full), 152 INFLEXION. imperat. TAño'o, opt. TAſiumv, fut. TAirw, 1 aor. #TAmora, F. trétanka, perf. pass. Trétrangual, l aor, pass. TAmorónv. n compounds, if u precedes trium Amul, the first u is dropped; as in ºutritramui: but we have evertutxagav, &c. IIiumpmul, “I burn,” “set on fire,” as formul, fut. Tprioto, hº 1 aor. Érpnga, act. Téºpnka, perf. pass. Trétrpngual, 1 aor. Śrpfaffnv. In compounds, if a precedes the verb, the first p is dropped; as in éparitpavtes; but it is resumed if the augment intervenes, as in everturpagav. IIivo, “I drink,” fut. Triouai, (triovua was later), 2 aor. £riov, imperat. trie (the Attics said trib). The other tenses are from TIO-, perf. Tétroka, pass. Trétouai. Hence also tritſakw, “I give to drink,” fut. Tírw. IIirpaakw, “I sell,” from repaw, fut. Trepare, Attic trepò, (repaw, “I pass over,” makes repara), perf act. trérpaka, perf. pass. Trétpāua, l aor. &mpaônv, Attic fut. pass. Trempdorouai. For the middle form, signifying “I cause to be sold," i.e. “I buy,” see ºvéouai and "píaotai. IIºrra, “I fall,” see IIET- (1). - IIAéw, “I sail,” root IIAEF-, fut. TrAeſoroua, and raev oroguai, l aor. TAevara, perf. Tétraevka, 2 aor. TAwv". An Ionic form is ratew. IIAfro-w, “I strike,” fut. TAríčw, &c., 2 aor. TAriyny, in compounds ºn Agyny, as Kate tradyny, “I was struck with terror,” 2 aor. with redupl. réiranyov”. The Attic writers use ratdoorw as the active of this verb. IIvéw, “I blow,” root IINEF-, fut. Trveſorouai and rvevorov pai", l aor. Twevora, perf act. Tétvevka, perf. pass. Trévv pai”, “I reflect,” “am prudent,” Homer has a form wwww; duruve, “recover thyself.” We have the same root in wrviſororo, rivuorkw, “I make wise.” IIpſaoréal. See ºvéopal. IIrforarw, “I crouch,” from IIET-, “I fall,” 2 aor. dual karaºrrºrmv", as if from karatºrnut, perf mid. part. "retr ºrnés". The other tenses are regular, Triśw, ºrtnča, ºr Tnxa. IIvv8avouai, “I learn by enquiry,” also reſbouai, fut. reſorouai, perf. Trévvorua, 2 aor. Tv6óunv. P. 'Péča, ºpew, “I do,” fut. §éčw, *pśw, l aor. pass. exfleſs, 2 perf opya. 'Péw, “I flow,” root PEF-, fut. §eſa oual, l aor, fiftewara, INFLEXION, 153 2 sor pass ºnv, fut. Avigoua, perf fiftinka, as from 'Priyvvut, finyvºw, “I break,” “rend,” from FPAT-, priorow, pused. fut. §ričw, 2 aor. pass. §§§dynv, 2 perf. §§wya intransitive. 'Pirro and Éirréal, “I throw,” and “I keep throwing," (jacio and jacto); in the pass. and imperf both forms are in use; but all the other forms are from fºr rw only. The is long : hence flirte, ÉNeal, aorist pass. égéſpºny and fiftºnv. 'Paivvvut, “I strengthen,” fºopal, “I am active,” fut. fluoro, p. pass. Épéopal, imp. §§ogo, “farewell,” inf. §§§6 a flat, l aor. §§ºotnv. >. Xadw”, “I save,” found only as orida, but raoſs, oraoſ, gaoûort, imperat. a'aoû. We generally find the secondary form oraſo, fut. a dow, l aor. Čorwara, perf oréawka, pass. géo wouai, and géorwual, l aor. Čač0nv: sometimes resolved in Homer, as in the fut. ordworw, &c. 23évvvut, “I extinguish,” fut. offéra, perf. pass. offegual, 2 aor. Boºnv, inf. rſ3rival, perf. §oſºnka in an intransitive sense, “I am extinguished.” 2eſw”, “I shake,” or “drive,” from XEF- (whence also aeſw, a dw, ordio, ado), l aor. £orgeva, mid. Čorevdunv, p. pass.go oriual, “I rush,” plup. Goro ſunv, l aor. £ororiſ0nv, 3 aor. Gorūnv. From a do come the 3 pres. imperat. mid. Todate, 2 pl. gov offe, and the 3 pres. ind, goural, pl. orouvral. >keódvvvut, “I disperse,” fut. oºkečāorto, Att. a keó6, perf. pass. Šakéðaguai. Another form is a kiövnu, akiövapai; also keodo", kebaſto", and kíðvnut”. XxéAAw, “I dry up,” transitive, fut. o.ke/A6, mid. orkeaou ual, fut. akaAſ, or oxaafforw, l aor. Éakn\a, perf. Fork\nka, part. §ork\nais, “being dried up,” 2 aor. £orkAny, “I was dried up,” fut. mid. akāriorouai. Xudo, gunxw, “I smear,” fut. optiow, from audiw, Ion. guéw ; 1 aor, pass. Gopinxónv. Xunxo is not Attic in the present. Xırévêw, “I pour out,” I draw forth,” root XIIA6-, (above, 302), fut. atreforw, perf. pass. Éatretoruai. Cf. ºrérov ta, retaropal, where v is similarly inserted before 0. Xropévvvu, a répuupu, “I strew,” or “lay down,” and otpavvvut, fut. atopéow and otpadow, l aor. éo tapega or totpwara, p. pass. Earptopai, aor, pass. éa topéorèmv. 154 INFLEXION. T. TAA- =TAA-, “I bear,” “dare,” fut. m. TAriorouai, l aor. in Homer, éréaugora, perf. Tétºnka, pl. réTAap ev, part. Te rands in the Poets. 2 aor. &rAmv, TAmbi, TA6, TAaínv, TAjval, TAds (in Homer, rétXabi, retAaínv, retAdval). TA-, “I stretch out the hand to,” imperat. Ti. Hence 2 perf. Téraya and a new pres, retdyw. From this verb, reivu, borrows its perfects téráka and Tétáuai. Cf. TEN yéyaa, MEN-pièmaa ; and see above (85). Téuvo, “I cut,” fut. Teuto, Ionic tapéo, 2 aor. Tenov, rarely €rapov in Attic, 2 aor, mid. Tendumu, more fre quently érapidumv, perf. Tétunka, p. pass. Tétunual. Teixio, “I make,” or “construct,” is regular, relºw, grevča, Térvyuai, Štúx0nv. But although we have reteil Xatai, “they are made,” the active form réteuxa is also used in a passive sense (above, 352). Hence we have the secondary verb Tvyxávo, “I hit the mark,” “I light upon," “I am successful in obtaining,” or, “I happen on a place or person,” “I am somewhere just at a particular time:" fut. Tetêopal, aor. Étuxov, (epic túxnga) fut. Tetúxnka. In Pindar rörorai is an aor. synonymous with Tuxeiv; cf. Točov, which contains the same root. Tikto, “I bring forth,” fut. Těšw, Téopal, 2 aor. re kov, perf. Tétoka. "ivo, “I pay,” “expiate,” fut. Tía w, perf. réºrika, perf. p. Tétigual; mid. Tivouai, “to punish: Tivo Ionic, tivu, - Attic. TOP-, “I pierce,” found only in the aor. £ropov, Topeiv. Hence (1) Tºrpāw, “I bore,” Attic retpaívo, fut Terpavéo Ionic, l aor. Grétpnva, also Tpnga, l aor. pass. Gretpávönv, perf. pass. Térpnual. (2) Titpºorko, “I wound,” from fut. Tpégo, perf. pass. Tétpoſtal, l aor. Tpa,0nv, fut. pass. Tpw Ömorouai and Tpºorouai. Tuniyo”, “I cut,” l aor. &Tunša, 2 aor. Tuayov, intran sit. 2 aor, part. pass. Tunyets, these two in compounds. See répuw. Tpépw, “Inourish,” fut. 6pévo, perf act. Térpoqa, perf. pass. Té0pappal, l aor. £6pépônv, 2 aor. Tpdqnv. The 2 àor. Tpapov has in Homer a passive sense, as ºrpaq'ev, “he was bred.” Tpéxw, “I run,” fut. 6péopal, l aor. 36pe£a rare. INFLEXION. 155 More commonly from APAM-, fut. *papopual, 2 aor. £3pa pov, perf act. &eepāunka, pass. ©eepdunual, perf. m. Époua. Tpºyte, “I nibble,” or “eat with the front teeth,” fut. Tpºčouai, 2 aor. Tpayov. Tvyxavo. See Teixw. Tºrto, “I strike,” fut. Tvrtrida, perf. rerºrtnual, but also regular. Y. ‘Yºria Yvéouai, “I promise,” from Uttoxopal, fut. vºroo Yri gouai, perf. Utréaxnual, l aor. Urea-Xéðnv, imperat. Utrooxé 0n+1, 2 aor. vireoxdunu. q). pAT-, “I eat,” has only the fut. (payouai (which is Hellenistic), and 2 aor. Čºpayov. The other tenses are formed from éorðia, and éðw. - (Paiva, “I show,” aor. §pnva; intransitive éqſavônv, q'awnv, pavoupal, répnva, “I am manifest,” (above, 352). ©EN-, “I, kill,” has acr. erepvov, and perf. pass. Tépa flat, réparal, répavtat, inf. reqaadal, fut, requiaopai. Cf. MEN-, &c. and see above, (85). 'Qépw, “I bear,” root pFP-, only in the pres, and imperf.; the other tenses are supplied from OI- = FET-, (comp. “weigh,” &c.), 'ENEK-, 'ETK-, Ion. Čvetko, fut. olorø, oforouat (hence a pres, otorw, imperat. olore), aor. ºveyka and nveykov (Ionic ºveika) perf. a. Švnvoxa, pass. evnveyua (Ion. évrivelyuai), l aor. rivéx0nv (Ion. rivetx0mv), fut. p. vex0n aouai and otodia ouai. The derivative popéu is conjugated regularly, but there is an epic infin. popnval. qbevyw, “I flee,” fut. pelºopal and pewfougal, perf. tré ºpewya, 2 aor. Épuyov, p. pass. Trépuyuai. qºnut, “I say,” root pA-, like formul; but the aorist &qnv is generally an aorist like etrov, the frequentative pairkw, £qaorkov, being used to express the continuous act of speak ing. . In conversations we find the shorter form ñut, as in & mul, traſ, traſ, “boy! boy! I say;” ºv 3’ eyeſ, “ said I;" # 8' 3s, “ said he,” and in Epic writers, i, “he said.” ºppéw, “I carry quickly,” from popée, occurs only in composition, ékºppeºv, eloqpeiv, 8tappeſv, imperat. eloqpes, as if from a verb in -ui. q}0&vo, “I come before,” “anticipate,” from pfláw, fut. p6qaw, laor. pºaga, perf. a. ptaka. Also fut. pfligouai, 156 INFLEXION. 2 aor, pônv, p.63, ºptainv, pönval, pºds, 2 aor, mid. part. $63 mevos. 40tw, “I destroy,” trans., and pøtvw, “I fall,” or “waste away,” which takes its tenses from the middle voice of ºptio, fut. p9ía ouai, p. Eq6iuat (3 plur. Eq6ivrat), part. ºp6tuevos. Hence pólvéw and pºwwºw. q)ſe, “I flee,” or “put to flight,” 2 perf. part. Te ºpvčas. Hence reqvyuévos, “having escaped:” hence also *: ww, “I bring forth,” fut. piſaw, and purouai, perf. Té gºvka, répua", 2 aor. ºpuv, “I am by nature,” (above, 327). 'Eqºnv is a later form. X Xaipw, “I rejoice,” fut. xapriorw, in later writers xapri goua, 2 aor. exipnv, perf act. kexcipnka, pass. Kexipnual and kéxapua. In Epic, 2 aor. Kexapdunv, 1 fut. Kexaphow, and l aor. mid. Éxmpdumv. Xavčávo, “I grasp,” or “contain,” (as a vessel), 2 aor, exačov, perf. kéxavča, fut. xeirouai. Cf. orévêw. Xéw, “I pour,” fut. Xevow, Attic Xéw, l aor. £xeva, #xevaa, Attic ºxea, perf, a.kéxiſka, pass. Kéxiual, laor. éxiànv. Xpri, “it is necessary,” oportet (impers.), opt. Xpein, conj. xpñ, inf. xpmvat, Xpiv, imperf. Expmv, more frequently xpºv, part. xpedv, Attic for xpdov, fut. Xpriorei. Xpavvvu, xpovvuo, “I colour,” from xpdo, xpºw, xpeſº (all properly signifying “to touch the skin” or “surface"), fut. xpdaw, l aor. Expwaa, perf. pass. Kéxpwouai. Y. Ydw, “I rub,” inf. Vºv, fut. Wºjaw, &c. Yùxw, “I cool,” 2 aor, pass. Vºyny, &c. Q. 'Q0éw, “I push,” fut. dow or ºthiaw, l aor. Éwaa, inf. ºral, perf. a. ºwka, pass. Ewouai, l aor. Čajadny, fut. pass. worömorouai. Qvéopal, “I buy,” has the pass, aor. £oviðmy with sylla bic augment, and the perf. §§vnual both passive and depo nent. The Attic writers also used, as the aor. of this verb, érpudunu, ºrpíago, or ºrpio, ºrpional, ºrpiaiumv, "píagdal, ºpt duevos, from the same root as ºritpdakw. PART IV. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION § I. Prefatory Remarks. 357 FROM the formation of individual words, and their inflexion through the various modifications of the noun and verb, Greek Grammar naturally passes on to con sider the cognate, but subsequent, procedure, by virtue of which (l) an existing noun or verb developes itself into a secondary noun or verb, or (2) two distinct words are com bined in one, and furnished with a single set of inflexions: the former we call derivation ; the latter is termed compo sition. $ II. (1) Derivation. 358 The process of deriving one word from another is effected in the same way as the formation of words in the first instance, namely, by the addition of pronominal ele ments, so that a new crude form becomes the vehicle of the inflexions. There is naturally more variety in the second ary formations of nouns than in those of verbs. For while the person-endings of the verb have anticipated one pro minent distinctive use of all three pronominal elements, the cases of the noun are, as we have seen, connected only with a special developement of the second and third elements. Hence, in the derivative forms we find the converse. In the nouns all three pronominal elements are used, in their distinctive senses, and in combination with one another, to form nominal derivatives, while the verbal derivatives are limited to that special developement of the second and third elements, which we find in the cases of the noun. § III. (A) Derivative Nouns. 359 In the formation of nominal derivatives we observe that the first pronominal element expresses that the thing proceeds from, or immediately belongs to, the subject, the second, that it has a relation to the subject, the third, that it 158 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. is a mere object, or something removed from the proximity of the subject. 360 a. The first pronominal element, in the deriva tive forms of nouns, appears generally as p-, rarely if ever as Tr-. b. The second very frequently, as a -, -, y-, k-, ri-, tv-, v-, 6-, 3-. c. The third only as r-, or v-. d. The forms p-, A-, as degenerations from the 3-, 6-, representatives of the second element, play a prominent part in the formation of nouns. e. The first element is combined with the third, under the forms M-v, u-T, with the second, after the third, in M-v-u-, pt-v-k-. f. The second element is combined with the first under the form or-º-; with the third as F-T-, or-v-, -v-, Ti-, t-, 8-v-; with p-, as Ti-p-. g. The third element is combined with A, p, in t-A-, T-p, and doubled in -t-t-, -v-T. 361 The following are examples of these formations. a. Ti-pri, “an honouring” or “appreciation” proceed - ing from the subject; ºvn-un, “a calling to mind;” rôt pos, “a falling.” Often with a, 6, prefixed (above, 91), as 8er-uðs, “a binding;” Beg-ads, “a placing.” The force of this ending is well shown by a comparison between the Latin primus, “the first of a series beginning with the sub ject,” and the Greek Tptº-tos, “the last of a series ending with the subject:” between al-mus, “the nourisher,” and alu-m-nus, “the nourished.” b. *tun-cris, “an imitation;” ſpº-ta, “a friendliness;" itrard-rms = irri-kós = ºrtre-iſs, “equestrian,” or “having relation to a horse;” &n-tūs “an eating;” uopt-êios, “of or belonging to fate; &nué-otos, “popular,” and the like, are all relative or qualitative words, and recall the sense which properly attaches to the genitive case. Sometimes -n appears for -ta, as in eux-n, “a praying.” c. Ypat-tós, “written;”xplo-rós, “anointed;” 8e-wds, “dreaded;” oreu-vös, or ger-Tös, “revered,” are all objective words, expressing the results of an action. d. Words in -Aos and -pos generally express a quality or relation, as opposed to an object; comp. &et-Ads with el vös; Heyd-Aos with mag-nus; Avy-pos with a rvy-vés; ix. 6-pos with [ć]:é-vos, &c. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 159 e. A combination of (a) and (c) expresses the action, as proceeding from the subject, in connexion with its results (above, 79): thus, from Trpay-ya-ui we might have ºrpay pºds, “a doing” (a), and we have really trpášis = ºrpāk-ois, “a relative doing” (b), Tpayo-s = ºrpáyo-t, and Tpak-tds, “done” (c), and by a combination of (a) and (c) we have Tpāy-ua-t- and re-trpay-pe-vov, “done as the result of doing.” This last combination may take in addition (b), as in dip-ſo-vi-a, ap-uo-vi-kós, in which case the quality con nected with, or produced by the result is expressed, as well as the result itself: for dp-uds= “a joining;” ap-uo-vſ-a = “the quality produced by such a joining”; ap-uo-vi-kos = “the sort of person who possesses such a quality.” f. When (b) is combined with (a), the relative word becomes subjective, as &\to-ais, “a taking ;” dAaj-al-uos traidv, “a song of triumph on taking.” When we have (b+c), the relative word becomes objective, as pâs = p&For, “that which is of the quality of light;" kaAAo-ort-wn, “that which is of the quality of beauty” (nearly equal to káAAo-s = käAAo-T); dan0--vds, “made up of that which is true;” to 6-tn-s = to 6-Tya-T-s, “equality;” dx0m-èav, “annoyance,” i.e. that which is of the quality of grief or pain. When Ti- is combined with p-, we have only a qua litative extension of the meaning of ti-; compare oiki-twp with olkm-tris; co-trip, 64-tepa with 86-rms, &c. We have the combination T + p (sometimes 6p) in the comparatives of adjectives, and in words signifying in strumentality, or a thing carried farther in a certain direc tion; r + A is more rarely used in the same sense; compare roqa-Tepos, “farther in wisdom;” £dpa-6pov, “farther in depth;” exé-TAn, “the handle at the end of the plough,” The combination t + T, marks the superlative, as a opa-ta tos, “first of a series of wise men.” The combination v-T, which is the third person-ending of the plural verb, is of constant use in the formation of active participles: it implies collection: compare tras = ºrā-vt-s with qua-mtus, and the names of towns, such as Tapas = Tapa-vts with Tare 7twº. 362 I. Of these formations the following may be considered as appropriated to derivatives of verbal origin: (l) all those in -uos, -um (a); (2) those in -ois, -oria, -eta, 160 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION, -rus, -ris, and some of those in -us (b); (3) those in-ros, -vos, -ua-t, -ué-vos, -utov, -uovn, -tmp, -top, -tepa ; many in -v-r-s, and some of those in -tns (c, e, g, f). 363 II. The following may be referred to derivatives from nouns: (1) substantives from adjectives, those in -ía (b), -ºrnt-s (f), -ov-vn (f); (2) substantives from substan tives, some of those in -rms (f): -ēns, -8-s (f); -itov (f); together with diminutives -lov, -taxos, -vaos, -ičevs. (3) Ad jectives from substantives: those in -tos, (-aios, -eios, -olos, -ºpos), -eos, -i-kos, -i-vos, -īvos, -avos, -nvos, -pos, -Aeos, -v-T-c. 364 Thus we have, I. (1) &er-uds from déw; Yveſ-un from yi-yve-orkw; (2) rpášis from Tpda'aw; bu-ria from 640 ; traič-eta from tratê-eſto ; trpak-Tüs from Tpdoorw; ºpa-tis from pnuſ; 7pa qe-Js from Ypſipw; (3) Ypar-tos from Ypſipo; a Tv-vos from otvyéto; pAéy-fia-t, ‘pxeyd-uévos, ©Aey-uovni, from q'Aéyw; Aet-utov from Aetºw; ow-trip, re-relpa, from gº-Ço; fini-top from eipnka (root ºpe-); tra-trip, d-ºrd-top from ºrda (above, 22); Túrrow = rſt-to-virs from Túrro; Kpi-tiis from kpt-vo. 365 II. (1) pix-ta from p(\os, lord-rms from toos, Čikato -oriivn from 8tratos; (2) trird-rms from ſºrros, kpov-ſens, kpov-ſtov from kpóvos, &eorºróri-3-s from ēeatrörns, traíð-tov, Tatē-to-kn, from traſs, 'Epaſt-vXos from "Epws, der-3ews from derós. (3) dyop-aios from dyopa, Tarptos, "ratpºor, ratp:kos from Tarip, dvěpeſos from durip, #5A-lvos from {\ov, Tapavrivos from Tapas, pºove-pds from pôāvos, 6apora-Aéos from 0áporos, xapteis - xapte-vts from xapus. § IV. (B) Derivative Verbs. 366 In order to see what verbs are derivative and what are primitive, it is necessary to classify all verbs ac cording to the genesis or origination of their crude forms. The conjugations given above are arranged according to the characteristic of the root, and are designed for the conveni ence of the learner. The true classification, however, de pends upon the contrivances adopted for the formation of a present tense from the root as exhibited in the second aorist. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 161 367 I. Primitive verbs, or those which are not formed from existing nouns. The simplest and oldest verbs are those which are formed from a monosyllabic root, which is prefixed to the person endings (a) without any change, as el-uí = €o-uí; (b) with guna = a, as pn-pit = pa-ya-uſ; (c) with reduplication with out guna, as tri-Trø (root ret-); (d) with reduplication and guna, as rí-0m-u = ri-0é-ya-ut ; (e) with an hyperthe sis of guna (above, 145) as greiſła for gríð-yw, peſºw for Øvºyo, Lat. fugio. The vocalization shews that even such verbs as Aéyw and orpéque must have been formed by some such affix as -ia (above, 20). Another large class forms the present by adding-la to the root, the characteristic of which is generally lost in a conse quent assimilation. Thus, from Trpay-yo, we have Tpda'aw, &c. (above, 103). Another class adds v to the root, as in Téu-v-w. This is sometimes accompanied by an euphonious ectasis of a labial or guttural in the root, as in Aa-p-ſ3d-vo, Tv-Y-X4-vo, which is perhaps due to hyperthesis (above, 320). The same element sometimes appears as T, after labials and guttu rals: thus we have riºr-t-w root TvT-, kpúr-t-w root ºpuſ?-, Tik-T-to root rek-. In some verbs we have a combination of v and F in this strengthening adjunct: this appears as vn = v-ta in 3dp-wn-ul, Tría-wn-ul, &c.; as vu in Čeſy w-ui, where there is also a guna or expression of ia, indi cated in such cases as a Bé-v-vvut by a reduplication of the v. The vowel in v-, vv- is often transposed before the liquid. Thus we have patva, Aajvo from the roots ºpa- and Aa-. 368 II. Secondary verbs, or those which are obviously derived from existing nouns or verbs. The pronominal affixes used to form derivatives of this class are the same in kind with those used to strengthen the present in the other case. The terminations most in use for this purpose are the following: -ów, -é, -ów, -áčo, -íčo, -toro, -eiſw, -aſva, -ávo ; as Tu-4-0 from Turi, pia-4-0 from pixos, uto-0-6-0, from uta:00s, a kev-a-úo from a kevn, wou-í-ào from vapos, 7am-t-gro from yduos, traid-et-to from traſs (traß-s), ornu ai-vo from anna, ev6-4-vo from ev60s: the termination -é6, D. G. G. |1 162 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. -º-00, seems to be appropriated to derivatives from simple verbs; for instance, pxey-é-0w from pxéyw, pów-W-0w from ºpôtvo, where it will be observed that the e represents , which often follows y, and v belongs to the vu of the primi tive form. The termination t-ork-, -v-ork- is inserted between strengthening pronominal adjunct v in the verbs opx-to k-d-vio, dA-v-ork-d-vo, &c. There are some verbs the root and the in -àw, -ew, which must not be classed among these secon dary derivatives. Such are ëpd-w = &pg|Fw, which must be connected with pat- = 0epair-: , cf. patrérns: kaxéo = kaAéFw, connected with KAéFos, k\ſw, &c. § W. (2) Composition. 369 A compound is an union of two or more words of which the last only is inflected, the preceding words being in a dependent or construct state, and having consequently lost all inflexion. But if an uninflected word is placed first, this sort of fusion cannot, strictly speaking, take place: and we then have juasta-position (trapdbeoris) instead of composi tion (orévôeoris). It may happen that an oblique case of a noun will be prefixed as the representative of some special construction, in which case its flexion is only partially, if at all, affected. The Greek Grammarians call the real or organic compounds synthetic, and the others parathetic. § VI. A. Synthetic Compounds. 370 Synthetic compounds are made up (a) of a substan tive preceded by its epithet; (b) of a noun preceded by a dependent case; (c) of a verb governing a case, and then, whether the verb precedes or follows, it is represented by a derivative in ori- or 1-. 371 The flexion of the first part of the compound is necessarily affected by the synthesis. The latter part may retain its original declension. With regard to the altera tions of the first part, we may observe that the usual link of connexion in (a) and (b) is the medium vowel o, elided before a vowel: an original v, will generally keep its place before consonants. The last part of a compound affix will generally evanesce, especially in the case of ua-r, as in arou’-axyta for atopataAyía. In the case of (c), the of or is often elided, and the of a represented by e or even o. The verbal affix often vanishes altogether, when the verbal DERIVATION AND 163 COMPOSITION. is the final part of the compound. In fact, the love of abbreviation in these long forms is so great, that a com pound adjective in los has very rarely a feminine in n = ta. 372 a. Second part unchanged: "roxy-trovs, op66 pavris ; both parts changed: ev64-bikos from eiðeſa Číkm. b. Second part unchanged: Meyaxó-trous, vouc-‘púaš; both parts changed: gianpo-uſtwp from oićripov unitnp (22); f orrop'-axyía for a rouaros &Ayos. 373 C. yerbal preceding: dpxé-saxos, dpx-0éºpos, Av-ori-trovos, pºly-aortis, TAríč-irros, @ép-aortis, puyd-ua os, as from dpxn kaków, dpxn bewpías, Aſois tróvov, givis doºrſèos, TAñāis frtov, popa doºrſèos, pvyn payms. Verbal following: ëpyö-Aaſºos, Aoyo-troids, troAv-ºpdyos, tratē-ăyoyos, ixóvo-ºrgans, as from épywv Aaffii, Adywv troin orus, troXAtov paymoris, traičov dywyn, iX0Vuv traßmats. From these compounds new verbs in -éo may be formed, as from A100-£36Ao-s we have A100-30Aé-w; from auto-któvo-s, auto kºrové-w. 374 The peculiar forms Aetto-tašía, pauvé-unpus seem to be the nearest approximation to the parathetic compound that a synthesis of verb and noun is capable of making. 375 When the verbal follows, a difference of accentu ation occasionally indicates whether it is to be taken in an active or in a passive sense. Thus Auðo-ſ36Ao-s means “a person who pelts with stones;” A106-3oxos, “one who is pelted;” puntpo-któvos would refer to Orestes the matricide, untpá-ktovoi to the children of Medea, who were slain by their mother. By a peculiar refinement, words com pounded with épyo- are oxyton when they signify a bodily action, but proparoxyton, or, by contraction, properispo mena, when they denote merely an operation or habit of the mind: compare A10ovpyós, “a stone-mason,” with ta voºpyos, “an unscrupulous rogue.” 376 When a synthetic compound is considered as an individual word without reference to its origin, it is liable to euphonic changes which may be inconsisent with the rules for the developement of its separate parts. These changes consist chiefly in doubling liquids, as in iodpporos, 'Irtröðappos (105); or in lengthening a vowel, as in duri pifluos, ovvoivvuos. - 11–2 164 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. § VII. B. Parathetic Compounds. 377. Parathetic compounds, when the first part is an uninflected particle, are in most cases capable of thesis or separation, although, while the separable parts are in contact, they are liable to the same affections as the consecutive syllables of one and the same word; for example, the v in év and ɺv, is assimilated according to 101 a, omitted ac cording to 93, or specially retained according to 95, Obs. This arises from the peculiar mobility of the letter v, which is observable also in the case referred to in 367. This is particularly observable when a preposition is prefixed to a verb, and this separability is also shewn by the place of the augment (above, 313). But the same holds with regard to other particles and combinations of words, as ovkéri, rovov, evayyexos, which may all exist in separate parts. The in separable particles d-, av-, implying negation or intensity, and 8vo- denoting difficulty, adversity, are never divided from the words with which they are connected, and, although an augment is placed in the first syllable of the verb in composition when it begins with a vowel, the syl labic augment precedes the whole compound: compare 8vonpéotovu, eunpyérovv, with éðvariºxovv, nutſkovv (315). The student must bear in mind, that, as a general rule, there is no parathetic compound of a verb with a-, ed, or 8vo-, but only derivatives in -e-w from compounds of nouns with these particles, in the same way as verbs are derived from other compounds, whether parathetic or synthetic: compare et roleſ, ovv-épêew with evepyetéw, ovvepyéw, from evepyérns and givepyos. 378 When the first part of a parathetic compound is an oblique case of an inflected word, it is either prefixed separably and unchanged: as in A679 Taxatós (AEschyl. Agam. 1198; Soph. CEd. T. 1395), kvvvdorornua, vavorikAw tos, &c.; or it passes by a series of changes into a regular synthesis: compare &ucas-tróAos = 6tkas toxéov, with olovo TóAos; door-tropos for dºg-trópos = €v 63% ropewópevos, with Tovtd-tropos; beds-boros = 0eois-àorós, with 666&wpos, 0ed ãotos; cakes-ta\ds = ordkos TáAAww, with £iqoqºpos. PART W. SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. CHAPTER I. ON THE PROPOSITION IN GENERAL, AND ON THE SUBJECT IN PARTICULAR. § I. General Considerations. 379 Construction or Syntaa (Xºvračis) gives the rules for expressing and connecting Sentences. 380 A Sentence expressed in words is called a Propo sition or Enunciation. 381 Every Proposition consists of three parts—Sub ject, Copula, and Predicate. Thus, if we say: 86eds éotiv dyabós, “God is good,” d eeds is the subject or thing spoken of; dyabós is the Predicate, or that which is said of the subject; and éotiv is the Copula or substantive verb, which always connects the subject with the predicate, with or without the negative particle ou, according as the subject and predicate disagree or agree. a. In the Greek language the copula is very often im plied in some form of a finite verb, which contains the pre dicate also; thus we say: 6 fºrtros Tpéxei = 0 fºrtos éat. Tpéxov, “the horse is running.” b. And even the subject may be contained in this ver bal, form; for Tpéxei may be equivalent to 6 &tiva èar Tpéxov, “a certain person is running;” and oraxt{ét may express d oraxtriyktris éoºri oraAríčov, “the trumpeter is sounding his horn.” c. Impersonal verbs explain this usage by the apposi tion of a sentence which follows; thus, Xpri are uſuveiv Tooro—to pituvely ore—xpetºv čotiv; or “it is fitting that you remain” =“that you remain is fitting.” d. This explains the fact that the neuter plural, which is strictly speaking an objective case (above, 156), is con 166 SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION. strued with a singular verb; so that ra. Öa Tpéxel, “the animals are running," really means: “as to the animals, it runs,” or “there is running,” (curritur quoad animalia). 382 In Logic, propositions are divided according to their substance, their quality, and their quantity. Syntax does not concern itself with the latter divisions, and still less with the modern distinction of synthetical and analyti cal propositions; but its rules are dependent on the division of propositions according to substance, that is, according as they are categorical or hypothetical. 383 Categorical propositions contain a direct assertion, or predication, either unqualified, as 66eós écririy dyadés, “God is good;" or qualified, as 6 &v0pwros forws duapravel, “the man perhaps is in error.” The former are called pure, the latter modal or adverbial categoricals. All words and sentences, which thus qualify the main predication, are of the nature of adverbs or secondary predicates (#36). 384 The Hypothetical proposition consists of two sentences. If it is a conditional hypothetical, one of these is a categorical proposition, and the other a sentence de endent upon it: as et ri yet, 8tóworiv, “if he has anything, e gives.” If it is a disjunctive hypothetical, both mem bers are categorical, but they are rendered hypothetical by the conjunction which connects them, as h exei fi oux éxel, “he either has or has not,” and if the conditional is then applied, this inference follows: # 3:30aw # ou 3:30aw, “he either gives or does not give.” 385 These differences refer only to the predicate. The subject is regulated by the same laws in every kind of pro position. Consequently, the methodical discussion of syn tactical rules should begin with (I) those which concern the subject; and should then consider in their order (II) the categorical proposition, and under this head the differ ent kinds of predicates: (III) the hypothetical proposition, and under this head the doctrine of the moods, negatives, and co-ordinate sentences. § II. The Article and Relative. 386 The chief instrument of Greek Syntax is the demonstrative pronoun ös. When it appears in the form às, -i, 3, it is called the relative pronoun; when in the form SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 167 c (3s), i, ºrd, it is termed the distinctive pronoun or definite article (above, 229, 4, and 5). 387 If we compare the inflexions of 8s, j, 6, and 0, j, ºrd (above, 237,238), we shall observe that the latter, in all the objective cases, loses its connexion with the second element, and takes, in its stead, the third element. This points to the fact, that, whereas the relative pronoun signi fies here in all its cases, the distinctive pronoun expresses this relation only in the nominative, masculine and femi nine; while in the objective cases it expresses the opposed relative there, and throughout its use corresponds to that of the indicative pronouns, 36e, oùros, and ékeſvos, as opposed to 8s, h, 3. 388 The distinctive pronoun is written 8s, j, Tó, when it stands by itself, but it loses the nominative sign in the masculine when it stands in apposition to a noun, or serves the purpose of a definite article. This is best explained by the converse practice in modern High German, in which we write gut-er Mensch, “a good man; ” but de-r gute Mensch, “the good man.” 389 . As marking the simple antecedent, the use of d (ős), m, rd, is comparatively rare. Yet we have such hrases as: 3rt to popauðv éotiv, ro yévout' &v (AEschyl. 1055). 390 Generally the Attic writers do not use 6 (8s), ti, •rd, as a demonstrative, except when partition coupled with diversity is implied; and then most frequently when the op §. position is marked by uév–8é; as Tów Toxeutov (or of troAé atol) of uév č6aſuačov rá Yiyvöueva, of 8é éºdov, of 86 ovve orkevd Covro ; or without the pév, when only one opposition is referred to; as, Aſkos duvov číokev, 6 &é eis vadu katépuye. In the oblique cases, we may join the opposed pronouns by •re kat, or ?–7; as Zeus"rd re kai Ta véuet: and 7 roſaw ºf roſs tróAepov aipeg flat uéyav. 391 When in this opposition between two subjects, we refer not to a thing but to a person, it is customary to substitute kal 6s, for 6 &é; as, kal 6s, drovoas Tavra, Éworew aurov čk ºrns ºrd:#ews. And persons thus opposed are coupled by kai; as, erićpknkev 6s kal 6s. In narrating a dialogue, 3’ &s signifies, “ said he" (like the Latin inquit), 168 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. In Demosth. de Corom. p. 248, we have as pèv—els ás 3é, for ras uév–els ºrds &é. 392 Originally, no doubt, the relative pronoun was nothing more than an emphatic repetition of this distinc tive pronoun. Thus Homer wrote (Il. I. 125): da\dº ra pév troAtwv éé Tpadouev, td &éðaotai, “the things we sacked from the cities, these things have been divided.” And this use of the demonstrative for the relative, which was regularly adopted by the Ionians, was retained occasion ally by the older Attic poets: as in AEschyl. Ag. 642: 31 TAfi udariyi, triv "Apns pi\eſ. But in the stricter Attic Syntax, 6 (6s), i, td, like Öde, ouros, and ékeſvos, is opposed to 3s., ii, 6, as its correlative or antecedent; and while the latter, as relative pronoun, is limited in its application to some sentence containing a finite verb, with which it is intimately connected, the former, as a definite article, may stand before any word or sentence, which is capable of per forming the functions of subject or epithet, and may even convert to this use the relative sentence itself. 393 That the student may see at the outset how en tirely the proper understanding of Greek Syntax depends upon the use of the relative and article, it may be convenient to mention beforehand their various applications. 394 The article marks the subject as opposed to the predicate. 395 When the relative sentence has a definite ante cedent, it is equivalent to the sentence preceded by the article. Thus d rountris is equally represented by d divöpw tros, d rotov, and d div6pwros, Ös troueſ. 396 But if the antecedent is not definite, the relative sentence is the dependent member of a hypothetical pro position. And here the student will observe, that what ever holds good of a relative pronoun is equally applicable to an adverb or conjunction of relative origin. Thus, Šaris wroteſ ravra, dyadds écririv = et ris troteſ raúra dyadds éotiv. And m &tóworiv h où 3íčwortv = efre &ſdoorw eite ou 3:8waiv stands on the same footing; for , like el, is a relative par ticle. 397 The student will also observe, that the indefinite antecedent is sometimes expressed without any effect on the SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 169 relative clause. Thus, in dvěpes re ka; tırırol, which means, “where horses, there men,” re is an indefinite antecedent to the relative kai; and in et ris Tavra rotoſn, dyados &vein, which means, “as often as any one did these things, he would so often be a good man,” the particle àv is the inde finite antecedent to the relative ei. § III. Use of the Article Proper. 398 The chief employment of the definite article is to distinguish the subject from the predicate; for, from the nature of the case, the subject is considered to be somethin definite, of which something general is predicated or denied. 399 If the subject is of itself sufficiently definite the article may be omitted; as: péyas 8e Bagwei's oux, 3rd roºrov kou%; (Arist. Plut. 170.) for here a particular “great king," i.e. the Shah of Persia, is referred to: so that uéyas (3aoriNews is almost equivalent to a proper name. 400 The article is necessarily omitted, if the subject, though certain, is indefinite; as: frtros éteke Aaytºv, “a certain mare (equa nescio qua) brought forth a hare.” yovri ris àpviv exe, “a woman, i.e. some one in par ticular (mulier quardam), had a hen.” 401 The article is also omitted, if it is implied that the subject and predicate are so intimately connected that either may be predicated of the other; as oux àpa orwpporávn év ein alous, (Plato, Charm. 161, A.) i.e. “ orwg poorêvn and alòas would not appear to be iden tical.” 402 All predicable and hypothetical words or sen tences may be turned into subjects, or their epithets, by prefixing the article to them; as: a. Adjectives: of dyado, eiºauovoval, “the good (men) are happy.” b. Participles: o riºttwy, “he who strikes.” 170 c. SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. Infinitives: ró el rpárgely, “the-faring well," i.e. “Success,” or “prosperity.” d. Adverbs: - of raxai, “the (men) of olden time—the then men.” e. Cases of nouns without a preposition : o Alós, “the (son) of Zeus.” f. Cases of nouns with a preposition : , , of £ºv tº 6aorixeſ, “those with the king.” g. A dependent sentence: ri tph dipta aúrov dpeti, “the virtue he showed before he came to the throne.” h. A conditional clause: To fiv reforwaev Juás, “the alternative that we shall persuade you.” i. A relative sentence: oveev Tów Śora is aloxºvny éort pépovira, “none of all those things which tend to shame.” 403 Hence, we may place between a substantive and its article any words or phrases which may thus be converted into subjects or epithets, and that too, if neces sary, by repeated insertions; as: n (((Töv ((td. (Tns ºrdNews) rpáyuata)) trpatrövtov))) dperii, “the virtue of (((those who manage ((the affairs of (the state.” 404 Consequently, whatever words or phrases have the article prefixed, or stand between the article and its substan tive, describe and define, i.e. they are epithets: and conversely, if the article is prefixed to a substantive, and the adjectival word or phrase, which agrees with it, neither has the article prefixed nor stands between the article and substan tive, that word or phrase is not an epithet, but a predicate. Thus: of Nºevöeſs Adyot, or of Adyot of Wrevèeſs, means “the false words or sayings;” and similarly in the oblique cases, But in the following passages, Jrévêeſs is a predicate: Either (A.) Primary, (below, 416), in of Aoyá, Jrévêeſ; elorív, “the words are false.” Or (B.) Secondary (below, 441), in of Adyo Nyevček éAéxông av, “the words were spoken and they were false’’=“the words which were spoken were false." SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 171 48% Or (C.) Tertiary, (below, in 3 pdvris rows Adyovs Nºevèeſs Aéyet, “the prophet speaks words, and they are false” =“the words, which the prophet speaks, are false.” § IV. The Relative and its Attraction, 405 The relative may be either in the nominative case, expressing the subject of the verb which follows it, or in some oblique case, expressing the object of the verb. But it always agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person; as: of rep £opew, ouro Tpoſëwnev (Thucyd. 1, 83). 406 To mark the fact, that the connexion between the definite antecedent and the relative sentence is identical with that between the definite article and the clause to which it gives a fixed value, Greek syntax allows the relative to agree with its antecedent in case also, if the antecedent is in the genitive or dative, and the relative would other wise appear in the accusative, thus making one objectice relation suffice for both clauses; thus we find: peračíčws aurº toº aftov ostep autos éxels, for 6trep. ei, trporpépetal roſs pºols ofs àxel, for oils. This usage is called the attraction of the relative into the case of its antecedent. 407 If an antecedent demonstrative pronoun is affected by a preposition, the antecedent may be omitted and the preposition transferred to the attracted relative; as: peretéutrero &AAo otpd revua Tpos º Tpdatev eixe, for Tpos ékeive 6 rpdadev etxe. Hence we have phrases, such as ouveka for roſtov čveka 3rt; duff &v for duri toºtov Šti, &c. 408 The phrase oios el, oiós écriv, is sometimes ab sorbed by attraction into the antecedent clause, and becomes a mere epithet; thus we have : #papal oſov rod dwepés for épauai dvěpós rotoſtov oios ori, el. And if an antecedent noun is wanting, oios is still placed in the case of the antecedent with the article prefixed; as: Toſs otols muſv rekai wuſu XaAerov i önuokparta, for tolovros divöpáow oioſ écruev jueſs Te Kai wueſs. 172 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. For the omission of oiás ºr riv after rotooros, see below,597. 409 Sometimes the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative; as in Eurip. Orest. 1629: 'EAévnv učv ºv ord Śioxéral rpgöupos ºv huaptes, dpyriv Mevexép Totovuevos, #3' early, ºv dpār āv alôépos º oreoworpevn re row flavova wrpos oréðev. where we have a sample of both constructions. 410 This sort of inverse attraction is very common in such phrases as: riuqueruévot 6avuarta 3) &ra (Plato Symp. 220, A), and 6avuagrós we meta-0mv Jºr' autov (Id. Phaed. 92, A). So in demonstrative particles: 8mvat keiðev 86ev rep #kel (Soph. (Ed. Col. 1227) for ketore 66ev. 411 We find the same and similar peculiarities in the use of those correlative phrases which have emanated from the direct interrogative: for as the relative answers to the definitive sentence, so does the indirect to the direct question. Thus ris écriv; would be answered by our oùa Borris écrir. And from the intimate connexion between the interrogative and the negative sentence, we find 6orris after the negative owbels, as in oveets eativ Šaris ov, which may assume the case of the correlative throughout, the verb écºr, being omitted; thus: N. ováels öorris oux àv troinorete raûra, for ováeſs earriv Šartis ow. G. K. T. A. ovoevos drov ou kareyexage, for ovees iv 8 row ow. K. T. A. and so on. Compare this with interrogative sentences, such as otegée àvtiva oux droarrigerðai (Thucyd. III, 34), for ris éatív, Švriva oux oleate d. 412 A negative question often forms a mere paren thesis, amounting to an exaggerative statement: thus we have in Demosth. de Coron. p. 241: tí kaków oux traoxów Tov, for rāv driovv kaków T. Hence, in Soph. Antig. 2, the same force is conveyed by an indirect interrogative, for droſov oux, kaków means, “every sort of evil.” - Similarly, we have a transition from the participial SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 173 parenthesis ºri uadºv = “on what inducement,” (cf. r1 traflaiv =“on what compulsion”) to 3rt paſſav, in Plato Apol. p. 36, B. § W. General Cautions respecting the Relative and its Antecedent. 413 The student must learn from the first to distin guish between those usages, according to which the relative or adjectival sentence is attracted into and absorbed by the antecedent, and the converse practice according to which the antecedent loses its power, and the relative passes over into a primary predicate, and even into a secondary predi cate, or adverbial phrase. Thus, we have have seen above, that the qualitative relative oios may become by attraction a mere epithet (408), and oiás or may be omitted between its antecedent rotooros and another relative (below, 597). But conversely, by an idiom which has passed from the Ionic into the Attic dialect, oids re, with an omission of its antecedent roſós re, becomes a mere predicate, equivalent to &vvarós; for oiós re eluſ = 8vvatós elul-ćivapai (below,596). Or, if rotooros, Togouros remains as the predicate, dare is substituted for oiós re with either the finite verb or the infinitive, so that the relative becomes a mere adverbial adjunct, or secondary predicate. The apparent contradic tion in these cases arises from the fact, that the pronouns totooros, roorooros, &c., however apparently definite, are, as expressing a kind or class, and not individuals, really indefinite antecedents. So that, in fact, the participle without the article may express this sort of consecutive or illative sentence. For éxwv = totoutos date éxeiv, may be expressed in Latin by qui habeat, or talis ut habeat, and we shall see that the prolepsis, or tertiary predicate in the oblique case, may approximate to this (below, 494). And here the English language is liable to a confusion; for “who has” is used indifferently for qui habet and qui habeat: but this will not justify the teacher who allows his pupils to suppose that Greek syntax permits the same laxity. CHAPTER II. ON THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PREDICATES. § I. General Principles. 414 IN the categorical proposition there are, as has been already mentioned (above, 404), three kinds of predi cates. (A) Primary, when there is nothing between the sub ject and predicate, except the copula, either expressed or implied. (B) Secondary, when the predicate is connected with the subject through a verb which already contains a primary predicate. (C) Tertiary, when in the second case there is also a TpóAnvis, or anticipation of a distinct predication of some thing additional. 415 (A) Primary predicates are the following: (a) Attributive nouns, whether substantives or adjectives. (b) Participles. (c) Werbs of the indicative mood. (B) Secondary predicates are the following: (a) Ad verbs. (b) Cases of nouns and participles (1) without, or (2) with prepositions. (C) Tertiary predicates are oblique cases of substantives, adjectives, and participles. - § II. A. Primary Predicates. (a) Nouns. 416 When a noun is predicated directly, the copula is either a verb expressing easistence, subsistence, &c., such as eiut, Yiyvouai, Éqvv, kvpio, Téaw, Jºrdpxw; or a verb express ing appellation, designation, nomination, appointment, &c., such as kaxoSuai, drovo, KAww, ovoudſonal, Totovua, kafli a tauai, diročeſkvvual, euptakouai, vouſouai. Verbs of the former class are usually added in the infinitive to verbs of appearing, seeming, &c., such as paivopal, 8okó, which may also serve as copula without any such addition. (a) 0 €eós écriv dyadós. (b) d €ptov ćpaatns kaxeſrat. SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 175 (c) to 8é rqi kmp paiveral elva. (d) Taºta ačuvarov čqavn. Regularly, these primary predicates agree with their sub jects in gender and number; except that in a general sen tence a neuter adjective may be predicated in the singular of a masculine or feminine subject, whether singular or plural, as in the last example, and in such phrases as évadpearov ou Lyooroul/Tes. 417 As the predicate is necessarily a general term, it is generally distinguished from the subject by the omission of the article; as : d 2wkpárns nu ävöpwros. 6 áv0pwtos jv goq6s. See however above, 401. 418 When the predication is thus distinct, the copula is often omitted; as: Aévkos G frtros, “the horse is white.” 419 The copula is very frequently omitted, when the following qualitative phrases form the predicate: ppoſeos, €roſuos, figolov, XaAeróv, diffios, ovvards, oiós re, dēśvaros, dvdykm, xpetºv, 6éus, ºpa, &c.; as: qpovča ºrdaretariuata (Soph. GEd. Col. 660). They are often predicated in the neuter plural; as: XaAerd eart replyfyveg flat (Herod. Ix, 2). § III. Primary Predicates. (b) Participles. 420. The active participles are not very often used as primary predicates, for the tenses of the verb will generally express our meaning with sufficient definiteness: conse quently, d ſtros Tpéxes will be more common than 6 ſºrºros éar Tpéxov, which is equivalent to it (above, 381). But we find such phrases as: 680s i öpwpévn fiv dyovoa diva. (Xen. Anab. IV, 3, § 5), and in an emphatic passage we might say: 6 div0pwards égºtiv ću tvéov (cf. Hºschyl. Agam. 629), or: G traſs éar Travt' dyvotov kai travt’ atroſłAérov eis rov ŠtědorkaAov (cf. Plato, Phaed. p. 239, B), or, in the perfect, d Xpnopios éotal dečopka's (AEsch. Ag. 1150). 421. The passive participle in -uévos is very often pre dicated; indeed, as we have seen above (333), it is a sub 176 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. stitute for certain tense forms: and for the sake of emphasis, we have such phrases as: käpt' dropowows norða yeypappévos (AEschyl. Ag. 733). 422 The participial forms in -tês and -réos are also very often used as primary predicates; thus: rooro ou pnzán éott uot. darknréa doºrſ orou ri aperri. 423 The verbal in -réos is often used as a mere infini tive, without inflexion, and governing the case of the noun, which in the direct predication would have been the sub ject. Here, the dative is taken in immediate connexion with the substantive verb, and éortſ uot, €ortſ orot, “there is to me,” “there is to thee,” &c., mean, “I have,” “thou hast” (to do so and so), i.e. “it is right or necessary for me and thee to do so.” Thus, for darkn'téa Čortſ-rot ridpetii, “virtue is-for- thee to cultivate,” we may write darknrēov Garſ-got triv dperſiv, “it-is-for- thee to cultivate virtue." i.e. “thou must cultivate virtue;” and so, if the verb implied governs another case; as: étributinteóv čart-oro Tris dperms (See below, 523). 424 Just in the same way, we have 8tkatóv Čotiv ćué raúra roleſv by the side of Čikatós elut raora troueiv; whence we have the negatives et un dötko Ye, or dºukoinv pévr' év et uri, i.e. “I ought to do so.” Similarly, we have &#16v čort, onxów éotiv ćué, K. T. A. by the side of d£iós elut, ºn Nós eiuſ. And as 8e7 = 8éov čari is equivalent to 8traigv čar, we may have both troXAoû 3éw rooro roleſv and troAAoû bef piè Tooro roleſv. 425 As the verbals in -Tös and -reds are of a quali tative or adverbial nature, like the adjectives mentioned above (419), we often find them predicated in the neuter plural ; as: ovyyvägt öv iv to row8 pagónvas Aéxovs. (Eurip. Med. 491). ovvektroté' éott got kal Triv rpſ)a. (Aristoph. Plut. 1085). 426 For this reason, and because the stress in the combination éari uot, €atí got, as expressing the subject, falls upon the dative of the pronoun, the substantive verb SYNTAX 177 OR CONSTRUCTION. is often omitted, and sometimes when the subject is clear, the pronoun also is wanting; thus we may have : yvvaikos ovoapitos morantéa (Soph. Antig. 678), for oveauſos 8e7 muás mooraaffat yuvaikos. 427 We observe this in other combinations of écriri with the dative; thus, in Homer, Il. xv.1, 159: Tāow & Tapiov aſpati polvov, Trāoriv includes the subject and copula—“all had their mouths gory with blood.” 428 In the emphatic predication of the active parti ciple we occasionally find an omission of the copula: thus in Æschyl. Agam. 280, we have reiſsm TapayyetMaora for mv T. But this cannot take place in a conditional sentence. Apparent instances to the contrary are corrupt. - § IV. Primary Predicates. (c) Tenses of the Finite Verb. 429 As every verb has reference to action, and all action must take place in time, whatever is predicated by a verb is a predication of tense. 430 A predication of tense has reference either to the time of speaking, or to some other point of time which - must be defined. In the former case the tense is called definite or determinate; in the latter, indefinite or indeter minate. 431 In Greek the following are the definite tenses, which relate to the time of speaking. The present, which expresses simultaneity, i.e. quod significat rem geri eo ipso tempore, quo loquimur. The future, which expresses posteriority, i.e. quod significat fore, ut res geratur post id tempus, quo loquimur. The perfect, which expresses anteriority, i.e. quod significat, rem gestam fuisse ante id tempus, quo loquimur. Thus: Ypdqw, “I write, or am writing," i.e. “now, at the mo ment of speaking.” ypgvw, “I shall write,” i.e. “at some time after the moment of speaking.” D. G. G. 12 178 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. yéºpaqa, “I have written,” i.e. “at some time before the moment of speaking.” 432 The following are the indefinite tenses, which re late to some time specially defined. The imperfect, which expresses simultaneity, i.e. quod significat rem geri aliquo tempore, de quo loqui mur. The aorist, which expresses posteriority, i.e. quod significat fore ut resgeratur, post aliquod tempus, de quo loquimur. The plu-perfect, which expresses anteriority, i.e. quod significat, rem gestam fuisse ante aliquod tempus, de quo loquimur. Thus: gypaqov, “I was writing,” i.e. “at some specified time.” gypava, “I wrote,” i.e. “after some specified time.” gyeypdqew, “I had written,” i.e. “before some specified time.” 433 In all these cases, the indeterminate tenses are derived from the determinate : so that the imperfect ex presses continuous action, like the present, and the aorist contains the adjunct or-, by which the future expresses time to come, as well as the augment, which expresses past time. We have seen (above, 289) that there was an original form of most Greek verbs, which expressed only single acts, and which, as it occurs only in an augmented or past tense, is called the 2d aorist. Now we find that this aorist, as well as the regular indeterminate tense called the first aorist, when they are used in any mood except the indica tive, denote single acts or transient time: and the first aorist conveys this meaning occasionally even in the indica tive. Thus, if we use the imperative aorist Ypdvov, we prescribe a single act of writing, and Attic usage obliges us to employ the present imperative pin k\érre, to prohibit stealing in general, and the aorist subjunctive un KAéºns, to prohibit a single act of theft. The true signification of the aorist in these usages is particularly apparent in the cases, where it is said to be employed for the present indicative, but where it really denotes that something followed a given event, and is itself completed and done with : so that no SYNTAX OR 179 CONSTRUCTION, thing farther need be said on the subject. Here the singleness and transient nature of the act is manifest: it is included between the previous event, to which it refers, and its own completion, which is represented as immediate. The verb #vera and its compounds are very frequently used in this way to denote the dismissal with approbation of something which has been said or done: e.g. in Eurip. Troad. 53: ërńvea' dpyds riºrſovs, pépo be gol koivous égavtſi 't' is pegow Advows, &vač. i. e. “I like your placability—I received with assent and approbation your gentle words, as they fell from you; but enough of that. I have a proposal to make.” Cf. Soph. Ajaw, 536. Phil. 1434. Eurip. Med. 223, 708. Alcest. 1097. Iph. Taur. 1025. Iph. Aul. 657. Herc. Fur. 1237. - 434 The perfects of intransitive verbs denote the state or condition which is consequent upon an action. Whether, therefore, they retain their original forms or receive new inflexions, they become present tenses, and may have their own futures, as well of the active as of the middle inflex ion; thus: 6vifaxw, “I am dying;” flavopual, “I shall die;” réðvnka, “I am dead;" hence Teflunkw, id.; Teóvričopal, or reflvñºw, “I shall be dead.” Similarly, if the present is active, as farmui, “I am placing;” ornka, “I have been placed;” or “I stand;” arričw, éatričouai, “I shall stand;" and in the same way, perhaps the well-known verb fixio, adsum, “I am come,” has been formed. (See above, 319, 352.) 435 This rule is particularly applicable to perfects of a passive form: as uuvijakw, “I am reminding;” pleuvnual, “I have been reminded;” i.e. “I remember;” fut. peplungouai, “I shall remember.” ºpápo, “I am writing,” “I .am being writ; ten;" ypapricouai, “I shallºpépoua, be written; YéYpapuai, “I have been written,” i.e. “I stand or remain written;” Ye ºpds/ouai, “I shall stand or remain written ;” as in the following ollowing example: p 12–2 180 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. Meteyypaqrigeral, dAA’ ºrtep ºv to Tparov ćyyeypdveral (Aristoph. Equites, 1371): i.e. “no one shall be transferred by private interest to another catalogue, but as he was at first enrolled, so shall ouces kard arovods he remain inscribed.” § W. B. Secondary Predicates. (a) Adverbs. 436 The name of the adverb (151) implies, that it is intimately connected with some verb, which contains a pri mary predication ; and it may be said, that all secondary predications are adverbial words and sentences (383). 437 We have seen above (260), that adverbs, etymo logically considered, are cases of nouns, pronouns, or adjec tives, which express the time, place, causes, form or manner of an action. 438 The only difference, therefore, between the adverbs and other secondary predicates consists in this, that while the adverbs signify general affections, the cases of nouns predi cate specially some secondary relation. Thus we may say, specially: étréoriue. Th Xtraptºn, or év Aakečaſuovº, or generally: étrečníuel Keſ. And we may say, with reference to a person's general state, ëxel Kaxtos, bene se habet, “he is well,” or we may append a particular reference, éxel Kaxtos to a toua, or row ordinaros, bene se habet quoad corpus, “he is well in his body.” In fact, the use of a verb with an adverb, as well as with a case, is a degree less definite than the employment of two cases with the verb. Thus, if we say, Tataorget fid/334), “he strikes, and a stick is the instrument,” we add one particular; if we say, traºrdorget to Xupas, “he strikes, and his manner of striking is violent,” we add another particular: but we may say, Tatarget laxupés fid/36%, “he strikes violently with a stick;" and we may add to this an accusative case expressing the object: Tataoget toxupés fid/364 Tov čvow: we have then three adjuncts to the primary predication, SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 181 “ he is striking:” i.e. “the manner is violent, the stick is the instrument, the ass is the object of his striking.” 439 The relative sentence, with an indefinite antece dent, is of an adverbial nature. For it is an equally adverbial predication to say generally: “I will go to London conditionally,” and to say, more distinctly, “I will go to London, if you will accompany me;" i.e. condi tionally, on your accompanying me. § VI. Secondary Predicates. (b) Cases of Nouns. 440 . As the Greek language is in an etymological, as well as in a syntactical state, it expresses the relations of case, both by inflexions, and by an apposition of those inflexions to certain pronominal adverbs called prepositions. The preposition, as an adverb, belongs to the first class of secondary Predicates: but as the special meanings of the prepositions depend on the cases with which they are used, we must consider, in the first instance, the syntax of the cases themselves. § VII. (a) The Nominative. 441 We have seen that the nominative regularly desig nates the subject, and that it is predicated directly through certain verbs, which serve as copula. As the nominative cannot represent the object of the verb, it is clear that the words, capable of employment as secondary predicates in the nominative, are those which are adapted for the expres sion of the adverbial relations of time, place, manner, degree, &c. These are, in the first place, participles, as temporal predicates; next, adjectives and pronouns as predicates of place and manner; and, finally, those nouns which are by their nature categorical. In general, those words, which appear as tertiary predicates in the oblique cases, are best suited for secondary predication in the nominative. 442 The following examples will explain this usage : (a) Participles as predicates of time: yeXdoras navyń pm (Plat. Phaed. 101 B.), “he laughed gently and said,” i.e. at the same time; 8te 7A0ev ćyov autº Ta rapa row ovuudyov 8topa (Xen. OEcon. 4, § 20), which Cicero renders (Cato, 17, § 59): quum cenisset ad eum eique 182 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. dona a sociis attulisset. We should say indifferently, “he came and brought,” i.e. at the same time, or “he brought with him.” (b) Adjectives as predicates of place or manner. We have them both in Soph. Ajaw, 594 sqq. : tº k\ewd Saxapuſs, or uév trov vaſets dATAayktos evöatutov Tāoriv reptºpavtos alet, where k\elvd. is the epithet, and dAirAaykros the local pre dicate, whereas eveatuov and trepiq'avtos are predicates of manner: “Thou, O glorious Salamis, dwellest in the midst of the breakers ever happy and glorious.” These predicates of manner are often best rendered by a primary predicate, as: “Thou art happy and glorious, where thou dwellest.” Thucyd. III, 56: étrépyeafle &eivoſ, “You are formidable, when you attack.” Sometimes this predicate expresses the cause of the main predication; as in Soph. Antig. 941: Čečx0n dài XoAos traſs 6 Apvdivºros, “he was bound, because he was so keen in his wrath.” Id. Trach. 936: kdvraj0' 0 traſs 8wortnyos our' dèvpudrov éAeſtre+ ow8év, “the boy, like a miserable creature as he was,” or, “for he was a miserable creature.” When the Greeks wish to ex press very strongly this mixture of the manner and cause, they add the mere adverb to the adjective; thus: m kakos kakios tapmael vuktos ojk v muépg (Eurip. Troad. 448), “since you are a base wretch, you shall be buried in a base manner.” dy' tº 0ſ)arep Štos to kavoov kaAri kaA6s ofreis (Aristoph. Ach. 253), “as you are a pretty lass, bear the basket prettily.” The Latin writers imitate this idiom ; thus Virgil. Æneid v, 447: Ipse gravis, graviterque ad terram pondere vasto Concidit. 443 There is often a kind of prolepsis in these adverb ial adjectives, i.e. they express the effect of the main verb. Thus we have, Soph. Aj, 945: SYNTAX w - v OR 183 CONSTIRUCTION. * r r - Téðvnkev n ketvous YAvkvs, euot trºpos autº be reptwds, i.e. “the effect of his death was grief to me and joy to his enemies, but to himself it brought pleasure.” So Eurip. Hippol. 796: w - - r - w - r Avrnpos muſv toward’ d’v čkAttrol ~ * douous. Thucyd. III, 23: - r kpwaraNAos étretrifye. ou r £3é/3atos - e in - auri. 444 (c) Nouns used in a sort of apposition, which really involves the main category of the sentence. Thus, when we say (Hom. Il. II, 673): Nupeds, Ös káAAirtos dump ºrd "IAlov madev, the main point asserted of Nireus is not his having gone to Troy, but his having been the handsomest man among those who went thither. We have an instructive instance of this mode of predication, in connexion with the predi cates of time, place, and manner, in Soph. (Ed. Col. 718: a 3’ eurpetuos ékiraya' d'Aſa Xepal trapatropéva TAdºra 6packet røv čkatoutdöwv Nmp;fºwv dróAov6os, where the construction is: rječniperuos (epithet); trad+n, Xepal trapartouévn (predicate of time); 6pºoke (verb con taining the primary predicate); Extray}\a (adverb of man ner); data (local predicate, almost equivalent to adverb of place); rav ć. N. droxov6os (noun in apposition, which involves the main category of the whole sentence); i.e. “the well-poised oar, when graspt by the hands, bounds surprisingly in the sea, and keeps pace with the hundred feet of the Nereids'.” 445 There are certain words which are used specially in this sort of predication, and in a different sense from that which they bear as epithets. Such are the pronouns • It was necessary to dwell at some length upon this subject, to which sufficient attention is rarely paid, because the whole doctrine of tertiary predicates depends upon it. Perhaps the first writer who treated this subject accurately was K. O. Müller, in the Gött. Gel. Anz. for 1838, . 1110, who applied this doctrine to the passages from Soph. Aj. 594, (Ed. Col. 718. quoted above. - 184 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. and adjectives, which denote separation, locality, and quan tity: e.g. aurós, uéoros, Trás, &AAos. a. With the article, or as an epithet, autos is idem, “the same.” Without the article, or as a secondary predicate, autós is ipse, “self.” In the oblique cases, as a mere pronoun without the article, it is equivalent to the oblique cases of is, i.e. “him, her, it.” Thus: d autos durip = “the same man,” 6 dump autós = “the man himself, r; yºun avrov = “his wife,” or “the wife of him.” b. With the article, or as an epithet, uéoros means that which stands between two other objects. Without the article, or as a secondary predicate, puéros is a local predicate signifying the middle point or part of a particular object. Thus Bury St. Edmund's is juéorn ºrdAts, because it stands half-way between Cambridge and Ips wich. But a market-place is €v pérn Th tróAel, because it stands in the centre of a particular town. c. With the article, Trás and &AAos signify the entirety or whole residue of a collection of objects; thus, of travtes are cuncti, of &AAoi are reliqui. But without the article, they are merely pronominal words expressing collection and difference. "Ekaortos is either a pronominal word of this kind: or it is a secondary predicate expressive of sepa rate locality. 446 To this idiom we may at once refer the absolute use of the participle in the nominative (151). This is particularly common in the case of those verbs which are used impersonally; here the participle appears in a sort of causal sense: as ééov attéval, “since it was necessary to depart;” 86%av Tavra, “because these things had been determined;” and sometimes with tºs, as in the regular causative sentence (below, 616, Obs. 3); thus: as Tóð' aiua xetuatov TóAw (Soph. OEd. T. 101). The adverbial nature of the participle in this construction is established by the fact that an adverb may be substituted for it. Thus, in Thucyd. Iv, 20; doraq,6s 6Toréptov dpędvtov, the author might have written &önxov čv for doraq,0s. 447 This adverbial apposition of the nominative of SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 185 the participle sometimes assumes an appearance of great syntactical laxity, as when a nominative plural is placed by the side of an impersonal verb in the singular; thus: Tposłvveſłaxero Tns opuns at vnes toxung agai Tapakivºv veſſelv (Thucyd. III, 36); or, where a nominative singular stands by the side of another nominative in the plural; thus: Adyot 3' év d'AAñAotoriv éâfid60w Kakol púAaš ČAéyxov (pºaka (Soph. Antig. 260). § VIII. (3) The Genitive. 448 The Genitive signifies that the object referred to is considered as the source from which something proceeds —that it is sustaining a loss—that something is being taken from or out of it. All the meanings of this case in Greek Syntax belong to one or other of the three following classes: a. The Genitive of Ablation, or the ablative case ; as: araXAdºttetv riva voorov, liberare aliquem a morbo, “to free some one from a disease.” b. The Genitive of Partition, or the partitive case; as: £30&d got rôv xpnuditov, dedi tibi de meå pecunid, “I gave you a part of my money.” c. The Genitive of Relation, or the relative case; as: 8taq’épet Ta. €Tepa Töv čTépov, “as compared with one another, the things do not differ.” 449 To the first two classes belong all those usages, which are expressed in English by the prepositions “of” or “from.” And whenever we wish to express that an object is the cause of some action, or the source from which some thing else proceeds, the material of which it is made, or of which it is full; that it is something from which we desist, from which we are separated or set free, or of which we are deprived; in all these instances we have the Greek genitive, as an ablative case. And when we wish to ex press that an object is a whole, from or out of which we take a part, e.g. the meal of which we partake, the sub stance from which we derive a sensation, and the like, we employ the Greek genitive as a partitive case. oveev 186 450 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. The transition from the ideas of ablation and partition to that of relation is immediate. Indeed, the word proportion, which is applied to the latter, refers more literally to the former. And there are many examples in which it would be difficult to say whether the genitive sig nified relation or partition. Thus, “to be king of a country,” dvdoorew tris Yns, may be periphrased into: “to be king in regard to the country;” or, “to belong to the country as king.” There is always this option in the case of posses sives, comparatives, and superlatives: for it matters not whether we consider the genitive as a partitive or relative case. We sometimes find in the same sentence two geni tives, one of which is partitive and the other relative, and yet the difference between their significations is so slight, that they might be termed both of them partitive or rela tire; thus in Plato, Respubl. p. 439, A, we have: oº Toºro Bires Tów Tivos eval, i.e. “tanquam partem eorum, quae ad aliud quid referuntur.” We might have expressed either genitive in English by the phrase “belonging to”—“as be longing to those things which belong to something else.” 451. The relation of time, and those of price and value, are expressed by genitives, which are strictly partitive. For as the genitive expresses some indefinite point of conti nuous time rather than the whole continuance (below, 459), it is clear that the idea of relation emanates from that of par tition. So too, in the genitirus pretii, it is clear that a divi sion into parts or proportions is presumed when we speak of the value of one object in terms of another. For if we say: “he buys land for gold,” we mean, “he buys a cer tain portion of land for a certain proportion of gold.” It would be easy to give any number of examples; but it is more useful to the pupil that he should apply the true doc trine to the instances which he meets with in the course of his reading. 452. If the partitive genitive follows a transitive verb, we signify that a part of the object is affected. If the same case follows a middle verb, we signify that we have become a part of the object; thus: £xw roºro, “I have this;” Exo too dpyvptov, “I have part of the money;” exopal too dpyuptov, “I cleave to the money—I am, as it were, part of it.” Similarly: tó trip five to reixos, “the fire SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 187 lighted the wall;” rô trºp five roº Teixovs (Thucyd. Iv, 100), “the fire caught a part of the wall;” to trip fivato Tov retxovs, “the fire caught the wall,” i.e. clave to it. 453 The genitive of partition or relation is particularly common after éxw, keſual, fixo, with ei, or an adverb in -os, signifying quality; as, travos étrio triums #xel, “he is suffi ciently well off in regard to understanding.” Sometimes there are two genitives, as in Thucyd. 1, 36; tı Képkupa ris 'Iraxias kai Xikexías kaxtos trapdraou keira, “in regard to Italy and Sicily, Corcyra lies well for a coasting-voyage.” 454 The absolute secondary predications with the participle (above, 446, 7), occur more frequently in the genitive than in any other case. The genitive is here causal, i.e. ablative (above, 449), and the Latin ablative is used in precisely the same manner; thus: époi kafletſ?ovtos = me dormiente = “while, or because I was sleeping at the time.” It is a mistake to confuse this with the genitive as express ing the relation of time, for the secondary predication is contained in the participle itself. § IX. (Y) The Dative. 455 The Dative signifies that the object referred to is considered as the point of juxta-position or immediate prox imity—that it is receptive of accession or gain—that some thing is being added to it. The Greek Dative is therefore diametrically opposed to the genitive. (a) The latter signifies separation, the former provimity; (b) the latter denotes subtraction, the former addition ; (c) the latter expresses comparison of different things, the former equality or sameness. Thus, compare: a. [Ioxvkpateſ dußmore with taxwrpdºreſ' vios éoſo. b. 8:8wuí got td Xpriuara with Čáopas Xpnudºrov. c. oºrds Čortiv 6 autos ékeive with étriotrium étriatriums Ataqopos. 456 Hence the Dative is capable of expressing what ever is close at hand; (a) occasions, (b) instruments, (c) agents, (d) conveniences and the contrary, (e) special limita tions. In general, where we use the English prepositions “with" (not signifying company, but see 457) “at,” “in,” 188 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. “to,” or “for,” we may employ the Greek dative; as in the following examples: a. Kauvei vdorp, “the disease is the occasion of his suf fering.” b. Tatarrel fid/334, “the stick is the instrument with which he strikes.” c. Tavra AéAektat itſu, “these things have been said, and we are at hand as the speakers.” d. MevéAaos, 5 &n Tövée TAoûv €orreſ\aptev, “for whose convenience we engaged in this expedition.” e i atpatid girov oux exev autº, “he found that the army had no provisions,” i.e. “the army presented itself to his mind under that aspect.” 457 The learner will observe that the use of the dative in (a) and (b) is little different from that of the adverb of manner. Thus the datives in Tºpče tº Tpdtrip eyeveto, &pou? trapmadev, are equivalent to adverbs in -os. The same is the case with the use of airds, to signify a collective accom paniment; compare such phrases as trèvre vavs Aapov, kaº pitav Towtov autoſs dwepdau (Thucyd. Iv, 14), i.e. “to gether with its whole crew,” or, “men and all;" with the adverbial datives, Tavèmuel, &nuorſº, tétºn, &c. 458 The usages (c), (d), and (e) really differ very little. In each instance, the dative presumes juxta-position for a special purpose, which is a limitation. Thus, if we said taura AéAekta, Ug' mutov, we should imply that we were the cause from which the speaking proceeded: the mere dative muſt denotes that for us, or as far as ace are concerned, these things have been said. 459 From the same limiting power, the dative be comes equivalent to an adverb of place or time. As a mere locative, the use of the dative without €v, or some such preposition, is mostly confined to the poets. But its use in expressions of definite time is very common; as, Tapnv Tº Tpirm iuépg, “he was here on the third day.” Here again we see the difference between the genitive and the dative: for vuktós, juépas roleſv ti, means to “do a thing,” not on some particular night or day, but “by night” as opposed to by day, and rice versä, i.e. at some point in the night or the day-time (above, 451). SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 189 § X. (3) The Accusative. 460 The Accusative signifies that the object referred to is considered as the point towards which something is proceeding—that it is the end of the action or motion described. 461 As the case of transition, therefore, it is properly used to express the immediate object of transitive verbs, which are so called because their action passes on from the subject to an object. And even when the verb is intransi tive, or has its action completed within itself, it may be followed by an accusative denoting the more remote object. Thus we may say both Aapſ3diva Trºv dottòa and Tétrany pai Tiju kepaariv. 462 According to the same principle, we may place two accusatives after the same transitive verb when we wish to express that a nearer, as well as a more remote object, a person as well as a thing, is affected by the action of the verb; thus: a. enſ?aſovs Xpnuata frnorav (Thucyd. 1, 27), i.e. ro– gabant—quos ? Thebaeos—quid? pecuniam : so that either xpnuara-irngav, or enſłaíovs-fitno av, constitute a single transitive verb. - b. rows troAejatovs rmv waiv directepſkapev-i.e. “we have deprived—whom?—the enemies—of what ?—the ship.” }, this class we may refer verbs of teaching, asking, clothing, depriving, speaking and acting well or ill, &c. 463 If such sentences are expressed by a passive verb, the accusative of the person becomes the nominative; but the thing is still expressed by the acusative; as: of troAéuot triv wavv diſpupéðngav. 464 Verbs, whether active, neuter, or passive, may have after them an accusative of a cognate signification: this is called the Figura Etymologica : as : a. dpås apátai traighw dvorwardras (Eurip. Phoen. 65). b. c. Kwévvetſow rootov Tov kívčvvov. TAmyriv Tétranyuai. 190 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 465 Space of time and place are expressed in the accu sative; as: a. Kd6mvro èv Makečovíg Tpeſs ôAovs ºnvas. b. dréxei 8éka orraðiðvs. 466 The accusative denotes motion to a place; as: rí Čnta Xpſets; m 36povs a tetxeiv šuous; (Soph. OEd. Col. 643) 467 An accusative is sometimes put in apposition to a sentence; as in Eurip. Orest. 1103: 'EAévnv Krávogev, MeveXép Avirriv trikpav, “let us kill Helen, to grieve Menelaus,” or, “which will be an affliction to Menelaus.” 468 Sometimes a verb in the infinitive is similarly attached to the accusative by way of additional explanation; as: épn ékeſvov otpatnyeiv, “he said that the other man was general.” This is one form of the objective sentence (see below, 588). § XI. Contrasted Meanings of the Oblique Cases. 469 From the separate examination of the oblique cases, the learner may derive brief rules respecting their distinctive significations: The Genitive denotes motion from a place. The Dative — rest in a place. The Accusative — motion to a place. And The Genitive implies separation. The Dative — conjunction. The Accusative — approach with a view to con junction. These differences of meaning appear most clearly in the construction of the cases with prepositions. § XII. Secondary Predicates. (b) Supplement to the Cases. Prepositions 470 The Prepositions, usually so called, are pronomi mal adverbs indicating place with reference to some object, which is regularly expressed in an oblique case, the geni tive, dative, or accusative—and in direct apposition to the SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 191 adverb. Some prepositions admit of only one case in this apposition; some admit two; others may be construed with any one of the three cases. 471 The prepositions which admit the genitive only are: divtſ, dºrd, ék or éé, and trpo. Those which admit the dative only are: év and gºv (ºv). And eis admits only the accusatire. 472 The following are prefixed to the genitive and accusative: dia, kata, Utrep. The dative or accusative may follow dvd. 473 The following may be followed by any one of the three cases: dupſ, ärt, peta, Tapa, Tepi, Tpds, and Jiró. § XIII. (a) Prepositions with the Genitive. Avti and IIpó. 474 "Avt. and irpá, signify “on behalf of,” “in front of,” “instead of.” “for the sake of:” the only difference between them being this: duri signifies, “in loco quodam, qui ex adverso stat,” whereas Tpo is more general and denotes, “quodcunque ante oculos est.” The genitive ob viously expresses relation, as in the following examples: 'Avºrſ: oux év ris att' papVev &AAos dun' éuov (Soph. Aj. 439). IIpg: képôos aluma'al Tpo 3tras 36Atov (Pind. P. Iv, 140). Bpagićav &muorig 30avav ev th troAet "po Tris vov dyopas ovans (Thucyd. v., 11). Tov § XIV. 'Atro and é. 475 'Aro and ék (&) are followed by a genitive of ablation. The latter answers to the Latin ea', the former to the Latin ab, as well in origin as in signification. Thus: érotuns ºn tims otpatia's otions ék Te Tns Kepkūpas kał dro Tris ſite:pov (Thucyd. VII, 33.), i.e. “an army being now ready out of Corcyra and from the mainland.” Obs. Although diró, ab, signify motion from the surface of an object (eatrinsecus), and éâ, ea, motion from within an object (intrinsecus), it may be a matter of indifference 192 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. which of the two we use: compare Thucyd. Iv, 38: &la TAewa as autoſs d to riov čk the riteipov Aakecauovítov dump Grify yeaev, with Æsch. Pers. 355; dump Yap "EAAmv ć 'Admvatov otpatov ćA00v Aeče. § XV. (3) Prepositions with the Dative. 'Ev and a ſu. 476 'Ev and gºv (Évv) agree in origin and signification with the Latin in and cum, with this proviso, that instead of in with the accusative, the Greeks employ the longer form, eis = €v-s; for which see the next section. 'Ev signifies super-position ; avv, conjunction ; as: Kačuetov dyo XaAkéois d6pool a v v 8taois Épapov, & v Xep 3' 'Au%itpiſov koxeou Yvuvov Twdoro ov pairyavov fkero (Pind. N. 1, 51, 52). For the difference between orºv and uera, see the note on Soph. Antig. 115, 6. § XVI. (7) Preposition with the Accusatire. "Els. 477 'Ev and els = €v-s really do not differ more than ěk and Čš-ék-s, "pö and Tpos. But this -s affixed conveys a more decided expression of motion. Eis signifies ad or in (cum accus.) i.e. “to,” or “into ;” as: els pokéas as Tpos orvuudyovs Topeiſeto (Demosth. Philipp. III, p. 113, § 16). Obs. Here the more advanced student will observe that els bºokéas, strictly speaking, designates the name of the country, whereas as Tpos ovuudyovs is a personal reference: from which mode of speaking arose the use of as alone with names of persons, in nearly the same sense as els with names of things; e.g. Toéopets Tétouq'ev as Bagºča, for as Tpos /3agiNéa (Demosth. Philip. 1, p. 54. § 55). Pindar sometimes uses for els the shorter form év; as: dueivew év koixóredov vatros Geoû (P. v., 37). § XVII. (3) Prepositions with the Genitive and Accusa tive. Atd. 478 Ald denotes separation or disjunction. With the Genitive of ablation, therefore, Ča signifies that something is done, “through and out of;” with the Accusative of SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 193 motion and reference, that it is done “through, and towards, or with reference to,” i.e. “along of,” or “on account of." Thus with the genitive: a. 3rd “through” ºrdons &le;ex0av rins Eºpºwns (Herod. VIII, 3). b. of "EAAnves étrekaxéravro Aéyovres & “by means of" dyyáAwv (Id. VII. 203). - with the accusative: exo ydp &xw &id “on account of” oré Kouk daxov 3potów (Soph. OEd. Col. 1129). There are some idiomatic usages of 3rd with the genitive, which scarcely require explanation; thus, Šid pixias iéval tivi, “to go all-through—friendship for some one ;” i.e. “to be thoroughly friendly,” and so forth. The learner will find it easiest to recollect that Šid with the genitive corresponds to per, with the accusative to propter. But in Homer, Pindar, and other poets, 8ta with the accusative sometimes signifies per, with this proviso, that it answers to the question quo 2 “whither?” and not, as with the genitive, to the question unde? “whence?” so that the meaning is rather “along” than “through;” e.g. ēld trövtov kvua répéva as éndu dvargav (Eurip. Hippol. 762). § XVIII. Kará. 479 Kard with the genitive denotes vertical motion or direction; with the accusative it signifies horizontal mo tion or direction. a. [3m Če kat' OVAſutolo Kaprivov (down from the sum mits) xwduevos knp (Hom. Il. 1.44). b. kata tróðas (at their heels) to ethºvyov čvéetkvvvral (Thucyd. Iv, 126). Thus of kard x86va are the living (Eurip. Hippol. 452), but 6 kard x0ovás (Soph. Antig. 24) is the dead. In com position with kard, a verb governs the genitive, if the action comes down upon the object, but the accusative, if the action merely follows the object in its own line of motion. Hence, kard with the genitive is sometimes ren dered “against,” and kard with the accusative, “in accord ance with.” In the former signification, kata is opposed to D. G. G. 13 194 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. dvd ; in the latter, there is but little difference in their use (below, § XX). § XIX. 'Yrép. 480 ‘Y-Tép,-which is connected with rept, and appears as the comparative degree of U-tra, designates the apex of the compass; whereas repl denotes the circle described. If the genitive follows, wrép signifies super relatively; but if the accusative accompanies it, the meaning is ultra, with motion implied. Thus, a. of Utrép flaxdorans, “those who live above, with regard to the sea.” b. Urép 'EAAñatovtov oikovai, “they live on the other side of the Hellespont—if you go that way.” As the protecting champion fought over, as well as before his friend, we find both wrép and Tpd, with the genitive, in the sense, “on behalf of;” as in Eurip. Alcest. 690: p.m. 0vna Y Jºrép toº avčpós, ove’ exº to 6 row. But there is an implication of hostility in the use of Utrép with the accu sative: thus Utºp dutxaktav, Pind. I. v., 29. Sometimes, wrép corresponds in meaning to the cognate rept, as in Herodot. II, 123: Ta Aeyóueva Jrép ékdatov. It stands in a certain parallelism to dupi and kūk\p in Soph. Antig. 117: ords 3' UTép plexd5pov pove:galow du q xavºv kvKA 'p Adºxals, k. T. A. § XX. (e) Preposition with the Dative and Accusative. º 'Avd. 481 'Avd with the dative is nearly equivalent to Urép with the genitive, or ét} with the dative, i.e. it means super, “up-on;" as: eiße avd. akdºrrº Atós alerós (Pind. P. I, 6). But this usage is confined to the Poets. With the accusative, dvd signifies sursum per, “up-to;" or “up-by:’ as, dvé6aive Meadv6ios alrdAos alytov és 6axduovs 'Oövoranos dwd £67as peydpolo (Hom. Od. xxii, 142). Obs. The learner must be taught to remark the constant antithesis or parallelism of the correlatives dwd and kará, SYNTAX OR 195 CONSTRUCTION. which appear as equivalent particles under the shortened forms &v and kév (below, 501). We may represent the force of these prepositions by either of the following forms: ; 4. kard Q- * --Otiſcº +: *S Thus dug, kard, may signify “backwards and forwards,” “hither and thither,” (ultro, citroque); &vo, karw, “up and down” (sursum, deorsum); kard implies affirmation, dud, negation ; kata signifies progress, dvd, retrogression, and so forth. But sometimes, it seems a matter of indifference which of these prepositions we employ. Thus we might say, Tovs diprous troxeſv Kar' 3/30Åov, or du jutoſłoxaſa ; divd kpatos, or kata. 8wapuv; dvd Trévre, or ka0' étrºra; and cator0morav diva tas tróAets, or kata tróAets 8tekptông'av. éake § XXI, (C) Prepositions with three Cases. Aug; and Trept. 482 Augſ, utrinque, and IIept, circum, are nearly sy nonymous; the former denotes an imperfect, the latter a completed circle. Hence dupi is sometimes strengthened by the addition of kūkA* or rept, as in dupixavºv Kūk\p, duqi rep; Kprivny. We find dupi chiefly in the Ionic writers and in Poetry; tep occurs everywhere. a. Augſ, IIept, with the genitive, signify, “around, with relation to, yet separation from, something else;” as: du pº ºrdxios oikéovoi (Herod. VIII, 104). retavvaro Teph atteſovs juepts (Hom. Od. v., 68). Hence: “about or concerning;" as: tota& d a plans Aéyw traič0s flavoiſons (Eurip. Hec. 580). trepſ re ypauldrov Čvvduews kai ovXAaſłów Kai Év0uðv Kal approviſov (Plat. Hipp. Ma. p. 285, D). b. 'Appſ, IIepſ, with the dative, signify, “around and upon, or close by," as: trétaous pſyvvoru du pº aduati (AEsch. Pers. 199). reptAppſ, pév rāqi kepaxfire tidpas signify, (Herod. VII, 61). Or c. IIept, with theexow accusative, motion gº extension around.” Thus Herodotus, in the passage just 13–2 - 3. 196 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. quoted, adds rep &é to ròua kiöðvas, because while the tiara remains firm on the head, the tunic floats about the body; but see the preceding example; so also : du pº re dotu peoplew ipd fleoſow (11. XI, 706). d pièv ºn tre p? IIlepinv &létpiffe riuépas auxuds (Herod. vi.1, 131). § XXII. 'Ett. 483 'ET by itself denotes super-position. With the genitive therefore it signifies superposition with separation. There are two applications of this meaning. We may either imply, that, although there is total separation, yet the object is so placed that a line drawn from it would pass over or through the object designated by the genitive: or we may signify, that, although one object is placed on the top of another, yet the whole of the superimposed object does not rest upon the supporting surface. In the former case, étri with the genitive may denote direction or motion at a certain height; e.g. a ship at sea was considered to be up in the air ; hence, such phrases as traeiv ćr. >duov (Thucyd. 1, 116), “to sail in the direction of Sa mos.”. Past time is considered as up or above (cf. the aug ...; ment é- for avd., 289); hence: étrº Aapetov ćyévero, (Herod. VI, 98), “it happened in the time of Darius.” In the other case, it with the genitive denotes partial superposition, as when planks are laid across piles fixed at intervals (Herod. v., 16: tºpia èr gravpóv JºnAdv garnke), or when burdens are laid upon the head or shoulders, so as to extend beyond them on both sides, (Herod. II. 35: of uévéri riov Rega\éov popéoval, at 8 yvvaikes étrº Tºv duov). Hence such phrases, as ét} 0póvov ka0íčerbal, ép' ſtrov dyeſota, in sitting and riding the legs hang down by the * S1010. With the dative, Čºr signifies absolute superposition, i.e. rest upon or close to ; as: olkéovres étrº XTovuévi (Herod. vi.1, 75). With the accusative, éti signifies motion with a view to superposition ; as: avaffaively € p’ ſtarov. - º f y * -- w 197 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. § XXIII. Merd. 484 Merd denotes companionship (above, 78). With the genitive therefore it signifies, “connexion, with relation to ;" i.e. separable connewion ; as: pºeta ºutdov čvi oike rive kał made (Hom. Od. xv.1, 140). With the dative perá is found only in poetry; and then it signifies, “connexion, close upon, or among;" i.e. as a part of the object; thus: pl et a 3é Tpiratotaw àvagorev (Hom. Il. I, 252). Meta with the accusative signifies, “motion with a view to companionship;" as: Bn 3é Met' 'I&opewma, uéya troAéuoio usunxeſs (Hom. Il. xIII, 297). § XXIV. IIapó. 485 ſlapa is equivalent to apud, with an implication of motion, i.e. it means “from the side of.” (a) With the genitive, trapd goû is: apud me a te; (b) with the dative, trapa goí, is: “apud te—a me vel aliunde;” (c) with the accusative, trapd gé, is: “progrediens a me, vel aliunde, ut apud te sit.” Thus: a. dyyexín fixel trapd Baglamos (Herod. VIII, 140). b. Erikpateſv trapa tº £3aorixá (Herod. Iv, 65). c. hyayov aurov trapa Kºpov (Herod. 1, 86). Obs. The usage of trapd with the genitive and dative is tolerably uniform ; but there are certain idiomatic usages of this preposition with the accusative, which require a few words of explanation to connect them with the general definition. Thus, trapa signifies praeter, “besides," i.e. “in addition to,” as, oux écriri trapd raor' &AAa (Arist. Nub. 698), i.e. taking them and placing them by the side of these things, quo fiet ut adjiciantur. It signifies praeter, when it is almost synonymous with contra, “against;” as: trapd 86%av, praeter opinionem, as if two contrary things were compared; by a similar transition we have in English a “beside the question,” for “out of,” or, “inconsistent with.” In Demosthenes, trapd with the accusative means propter, “on account of,” as in our vulgar idiom, “all along of.” Here it is a less usual construction than did cum accusa two. 198 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. § XXV. IIpăs. 486. IIpos or r-po-ri is only a lengthened form of IIapó (above, 78); but, containing in itself a significance of motion onwards, it denotes ad-versus rather than apud. (a) With the genitive: Tp 6s untpos, is a matre versus me cognati, “relations on the mother's side; (b) with the dative: trp 6s tº Auévi, “close by the harbour,” motion thither previously being assumed. (c) With the accusative: Tpos tow owpavóv, is “towards heaven,” ad coelum versus. Hence irpos roºrov, “from,” or “in consideration of these things—as a motive;” Tpos Tourois, “in addition to these things—as an act;" "pos raûra, “with a view to these things—as an end.” Obs. 1. It will be observed that ºpds, with the dative, does not perceptibly differ from trapd with the same case. But, although trapd with the genitive is directly opposed to trapd with the accusative, we find trpos with the geni tive apparently used as a synonym for Tpos with the accu sative. Thus, in the same sentence (Herod. II, 121): Tov pév Trpos Bopéw éorreóra, Tov će Tpos vdrov. This arises from the motion implied: for in regard to a direction it matters little whether we consider it as indicated by a line proceeding from or tending to a given point in the compass. This interchange is observed, but very rarely, in the use of Tapa with the genitive". The employment of "pos with the genitive, in adjurations, as opposed to that of vn and ud with the accusative in affirmations, is to be explained in the same way; for Tpos detºv means, “in the eyes of the gods, as seen by the gods,” where the Romans said, per te deos oro. Although old with the genitive is equivalent to the Latin per in other uses, the student must be careful not to substitute bid for Tpos in this usage. Obs. 2. Students should also remark the difference between the prepositions trpás, perd, §v, which may all be occasionally rendered by “with,” cum. Thus, “they fought with their enemies” (cum hostibus), is, trpos rous évavrious éudyovro ; “they went on the expedition with their allies” (cum sociis), is, ue to rév čuppaxtov čarpa Tevov; and “they conquered with the aid of the gods” (cum diis), is, £0 v toſs 0éoſs évíkww. * See the note on Soph. Antig. 937, p. 207. SYNTAX 199 OR CONSTRUCTION. § XXVI. ‘Yºró. 487. Yºró, from which wré-p is formed, signifies with the genitive, motion from beneath ; with the dative, posi tion below ; with the accusative, motion or eatension under neath; thus: a. i kal veoogov Tóvã' wºrd Trépôv (Eurip. b. kaAm ºn 6 TAataviorp (Hom. Il. c. wºr'"IAlov ºpto wavgärns otpatós ordaas Androm. 442). II, 307). (AEsch. Ag. 459). One of the most frequent usages of the genitive with Utro is that which expresses the cause, under and out of which an act is performed. The difference between Jiró rov, Ek Tov, 3rd Tov, Šid ri, is well given in a passage of Philo-Judaeus (1, p. 162): Tpos Tiju Tivos Yévégiv troAAd 8e7 ovvex0eiv. To ºp' oº, to é à oð, Tô & of, to 3’ & Kaſ égri to uév Up' ov, “To atriov’” ºr of 88, “rī (An'" & " oš Če, “épyaxeſovº” 8. § 3e, “n airía.” “Iöe rów 6 révêe w oš w - r - evpnorets 'Yap, koo-ſtov 4 g ...” autuov zy w y - v piev autov Tov w eolº º q, 76% over “WAnv” &é, td régorapa atoixeſa & ºv ovvexpdön: “öpyavov” 3e, Adyov Geow, 3' ot, ovveakevda'6n' Tris &é karaokevns “airíav” rºw dyadórnta toû Anuoup'you. Like the Latin sub, Jiro with the accusative expresses extension of time up to, but not through, a specified period; thus, Jºro vſkta, sub noctem, “up to the beginning of night.” § XXVII. Quasi Prepositions. 488 Many nouns are used as prepositions with the genitive: such are ëtznv or Tpdºrov, “instar;” eveka (cºvera, Ill) or ēkati, “ergo;’ xàpiv, “gratiâ,” &c. &c. Thus: a. Kuvos &tknv, “just like a watch-dog” (AEsch. Ag. 3). b. Tpdºrov alyvtſov, “like vultures” (id. ibid. 48). c. dé0Aww y' ºvera, “for the matter of prizes at least,” i.e. “as far as they are concerned” (Pind. O. 1, 99). d. TrAríðovs ékati, “for the matter of numbers,” i.e. “as far as numbers go;” or, “if it had depended on that" (AEsch. Pers. 337). e rôAuas xdpw, “thanks to his boldness” (Soph. Antig. 368). They are sometimes used with other prepositions: thus we have 200 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. dupi row ºvera (Soph. Phil. 554). dro /3ons évéka (Thucyd. VIII, 92). Teph Tāv dpåvrov čvekev (Lys. de Evandr. Prob. p. 176). éveka Tow Totovtov xipw (Plato, Polit. p. 302, B). § XXVIII. C. Tertiary Predicates. 489 The tertiary predicate, as has been already sug gested, implies some sort of TpéAnvis, or anticipation of a primary or secondary predication in the nominative case. Thus, in the example given above (404): 3 pavris rous Adyovs Nzévêeſs Aéyei, we imply either the primary predicate of Adyo Nzévêeſs elaſv, or the secondary predicate of Adyot Nzévêeſs Aéyovrai : for the meaning is “the prophet speaks, and his words are false" = “he speaks, and the words which he speaks are false" = “he speaks, and his words are falsely spoken.” 490 The most convenient rule for translating this idiom is to take the tertiary predicate as the primary one, and to make the verb which contains the primary predicate dependent on a relative; as if the phrase: o givoképes Triv 3opav iryupotatny exei, which means “the rhinoceros has its hide very strong” (as in the French idiom: il a le front large), were to be rendered by its equivalent: i öopa, ºv d Éwoképtos exel, taxwportiºrn éarív, “the hide, which the rhinoceros has, is very strong.” But the other plan may also be adopted, and the primary predication added, as if we were to say: 6 givoképws &opáv exei kai i öopa aurov taxwpotdºrn attv, “the rhinoceros has a hide, and it is a very hard one.” The only difference in the two cases being, that the hide is assumed to exist in the former mode of rendering. 491 The article, which distinguishes the subject of this tertiary predicate (above 404), is sometimes replaced by the demonstrative, as in: dirópºp ye tºe ovurerXéYueta #éve (Eurip. Bacch. 800), which is equivalent to: 6 #évos ouros, ovure"račyueffa, ãropós ris eartív. And in this case, the predicate is often represented by an interrogative, which is to be explained in the same way: for SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION. 201 Tívas roſ' ºpas rarèe not bodčete; (Soph. (Ed. T. 2.) == rives elov at £ºpal afºe, is uo. 60¢ere; “what are these supplicatory seats, which I see you occupying here ?” 492 The words, which occur as secondary predicates in the nominative, are of most frequent use as tertiary pre dicates in the oblique cases: and of these the participle has the most extensive employment. For while other words are discriminated from their immediate subject by the article prefixed to the latter, the participle is sufficiently distinguished by the absence of the article in its own case. And the student cannot be too early impressed with the fact, that the participle without the article can never be rightly rendered by the relative sentence with a definite antece dent, which is equivalent to the participle with an article. 493 . The following example shews the connexion be tween this sort of tertiary predicate and the secondary predi cation in the nominative: ou yap d'pawn kpive ºre Triv číknv Tijvee, traivoſuevo be rep; otö jutºv ueurtów (Thucyd. III, 57), in which aq’avn and usurröv are tertiary predicates, and étrawoſuévol, a secondary predicate in the nominative; thus: “this judgment, which you will give, will not be unknown; for you, the judges, are praised, and we, the parties, are free from reproach.” So also Xen. Anab. IV, 1. § 13: oxoMaiav Štrotovu triv tropetav troAAd &vta rā wro {ºyia. 494 Sometimes it is only necessary to connect the predicate contained in the participle with that contained in the finite verb, by introducing a copulative conjunction: thus, as we render ºx6ev dyov, “he came and brought” (442 a), we may render, Yvvm ris àpviv eixe kaff €kdoºrny nuépav dov aurº Tíkrova'av : “a certain woman had a hen, and it laid her an egg every day.” 495 But if the oblique case is connected with a preposi tion, it becomes necessary to express this preposition by a relative sentence or some descriptive word. Thus, above 493, the word “parties” was necessary to give the full force of repſ. So also in the following cases of participles: (a) The substantive has the article: dateves év rpós iry ſovras roºs éxôpoſs (Thucyd. 1, 36), “being weak, while his enemies, with whom he stands in contrast (tpds), 202 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. will be strong;" and āAAws re kał Ureſºuvov triv trapaſverw exoviras Tpos dwevövvov triv duetépav dispéaorw (Id. III, 43), “especially as the advice which we give is responsible, as contrasted (irpos) with the freedom from responsibility with which you listen to us,” or “especially as the advice which we give is responsible, whereas you, the listeners, who stand in contrast to us (rpos), are irresponsible.” (3) when the substantive has not the article: 3éðiuev an étrº èleyve guéunv kptow kafligrºueta (id. III, 53), “we fear that what we have to meet (šºr) is a prejudged decision.” (y) when there is no substantive: paxpmyopeſv év eièdow ou 3ovXduevos (id. II, 36), “because I do not wish to enlarge on the sub ject, when my hearers (év) are well acquainted with it:" cf. id. III, 53: "pos élèóras travra Aexe£eral, “those, to whom the speech will have been addressed ("pös), know all about it.” 496 . This is, of course, particularly observable when the participle represents a local predicate (above, 442 b). Thus we have in Herod. v., 29: éu dvertnºvín tº xºpm, “in the country where it extends upwards from the coast." The karé(3morav is to doºrv, which follows, shows that this is the meaning intended. 497. Sometimes, as might be expected (above, 413), the tertiary predicate approximates to the final sentence. This prolepsis implies that the quality denoted by the adjec tive is conveyed to the object by the verb. As in Thucyd. IV, 17: toos Agyovs pakpotépous trapd to elw80s ow punkv vovuev, i.e. date pakpotépous elva. This idiom is found even in Latin, which has no article; as in Pers. 1, 17: liquido cum plasmate guttur Mobile collueris : i.e. ut mobile fiat : and even in the nominative; as in Juv. 1, 83: paullatimgue anima caluerunt mollia sawa : i.e. ita ut mollia fierent. 498 The Greek idiom did not even shrink from a nega tive use of this prolepsis: thus we have in Soph. Antig. 856: w Tov w w w r wºn f 3 epov Toruov ačakpurov oßes pi\ov arevače, : i. e. dare ou 3axpúovow autov. CHAPTER III. ON THE HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON THE MOODS, AND NEGATIVE PARTICLES, - § I. General Principles. 499 It has been already remarked, that there are two kinds of hypothetical propositions: and that they always contain two sentences. In the conditional hypothetical, these sentences are connected as antecedent and relative. In the disjunctive hypothetical, both sentences are relative. The one kind, therefore, may be referred to the doctrine of adverbial or dependent sentences: the other will fall under the class of co-ordinate sentences. § II. Conditional Propositions. 500 In the conditional hypothetical, the conditional, or relative, sentence is called the Protasis (tpdraqis), while the sentence which follows is called the Apodosis (dróðooris). It thus appears, that what is logically conse quent, is grammatically antecedent. 501. The Protasis of a conditional preposition is most generally and regularly expressed by the relative particle et, and when it is thought necessary to express an ante cedent to this relative, the particle div, or in Epic Greek ke, appears in the apodosis. These particles are shortened forms of the antithetic prepositions dud and kard (above, 481, Obs.). 502 There are four classes of conditional propositions, which imply respectively I. Possibility, without the expression of uncertainty: e; tı £xe ôtóworl=“if he has any thing he gives it” = si quid habet, dat. II. Uncertainty, with some small amount of probabi lity: éau tº exn, daiore = “if he shall have any thing (which is not improbable), he will give it” = si quid habeat, dabit. III. Mere assumption, without any subordinate idea: e; tı âxot, 6.80in &v=* if he were to have any thing 204 SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION. (i.e. as often as he had any thing), he would give it" = si quid habeat, det. IV. Impossibility, or when we wish to indicate that the thing is not so : a. et r etxev, &ov &v= “if (which is not the case) he had anything, he would give it” = si quid haberet, daret. b. ei ti taxev, ºwkev &v=if (which was not the case) he had had any thing, he would have given it = si quid habuisset, dedisset. 503 Circumstances may occur, under which the apo dosis of one of these cases may follow the protasis of another: thus, we may have the protasis of I. with the apodosis of III., as in Soph. Antig. 901 : &AA' et uév obv ráð' éortly €v fleoſº ºptAa, traffèvres év čvy Yvoluev nuaptnrötes: where a special supposition is followed by a general senti ment. We have the protasis of IV., a. as well as of III, with the apodosis of III., in Plato Apol., p.28, E: Bewd dy einv eipyaguévos, el rére fuevov kai éxivöövevov, vºv tº droximotu Triv rašiv, because the facts of his past life are opposed to the mere supposition which he makes. 504 The apodosis is very often used in cases III. and IV. without any protasis, and with the same distinction of meaning, as if a protasis had been expressed; thus we have in Soph. Aj.88: pévolu' àv' ºffeXov 3’ &v čkrös ºv ruxelv, where the optative is used, as it very often is, to express a constrained future, “I suppose I must remain,” and the indicative expresses, “but if it were possible, I should like to be out of the way.” 505 The most common substitutes for el, in all these cases of protasis, are the participle without the article, and the relative with indefinite antecedent. with scarcely any difference of meaning: I. et ri čxei §vov ti x:exei Cº. 8towai - Thus we can say, SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. Exn ëxov ti II. édiv ev Cz Tt ºw } 205 &aire ** Czly eXm III. et ri yo *xºv Tu }* div. */ Cz exot IV. (a) et r elyev éxov ri ty Ot éčíčov &v. * el Yev (b) et ri * 3/ wn e Yeov ºrt éðtokev div. */ taxev 506 The student must observe, that, as āv is the ante cedent of ei, when such an indefinite antecedent requires to be expressed, and both &v and ris of Ös, we may write édiv = et àu and Ös āv, or örris, or örris &v if we wish to express the English “whensoever,” or “whosoever,” in regard to the present or future apodosis, that is, in those cases when these indefinite antecedents are not expressed ot in the apodosis. 507. The following is the general rule respecting the use of div (ke, kev) in the formation of conditional propo sitions. (1) With the optative, &v is always used in the apodosis, seldom, if ever, in the protasis. (2) The sub junctive never stands in the apodosis, but always in the pro tasis, and is generally attended by áv. 508 a. In the apodosis, év is always placed after the word, which produces the greatest influence on the predica tion, which gives its colour to the sentence, and which therefore comes nearest to the notion of an antecedent. Thus we should write: eitrot &v. Tavr’ &v etrot. pudao T' &v ettrol rajra. ouk dºv ud Auota etrol raúra. éčokovu du èuoi raora pdatorra el reſv. ouk div ščákovv ćuo, raûra udatorra eitreſv. Tí obv čv éðdkovv goi paatara eliteſv; b. In the protasis, &v always follows the relative word, which expresses the condition, such as Ös, Štws, wis, &c. 206 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. (above, 503), and coalesces with el, Öre, weiðn, which become édiv, 3rav, Štreiðav, &c. These combinations are always followed by the subjunctive mood; whence the rule for beginners: Relativa et particulae relativa cum &v sub junctivum evigunt. § III. General Rules respecting the Use of the Moods in Conditional Propositions. 509 In the Attic writers it is only the indicative mood which can, without the aid of the indefinite antecedent àv, form the apodosis of a conditional proposition. Of course, it is only this mood which can stand by itself in a catego rical proposition. 510 Only the indicative and optative, assisted by div, can form the apodosis of a conditional proposition. 511 The other moods and the participles belong to the protasis or to the adverbial sentence: except that the infini tive and participle may be converted into subjects by prefix ing the article (above, 402, b, c), and that the participle may form the primary predicate of a sentence (above, 420). 512 It is the practice in most treatises on Greek Syn tax to discuss the uses of the moods according to their conjugational subdivisions. This is false in theory and mischievous in practice. The functions of a mood should be separately stated, with reference to the different kinds of sentences in which they may appear. An examination, however, of the use of the moods in conditional propositions, amounts, in effect, to a general discussion of their distinc tive employments. § IV. The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional Propositions. 513 It has been already remarked (292), that these - moods are by-forms of the future and aorist. The sub junctive was originally a determinate tense, like the future, and signified “the probable occurrence of something after the time of speaking” (431). The optative, as an aorist, signified “the probable occurrence of something after the time specified” (432). Thus, in Homer, we find these forms used as tenses in categorical predications. SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 207 a. The subjunctive opposed to the aorist ow Yap to rotovs toov divepas, otºe towpat (Il. 1, 262). i.e. “for I have not yet seen such men, nor is it probable that I shall behold such men hereafter.” b. The optative parallel with the aorist: 6 &e Yeppidotov Ad 8e xeipt, Tvøeſöns, uéya pyov, 3. 8wo divöp (bépotev olo vºv 6porot elaſi (Il. v., 303). i.e. “he, Tydeides, took up a great stone, which it is not probable that men of our time would take up, if similar circumstances were to occur.” 514 With this signification of probability is intimately connected the implied ground of such probability, namely, frequent occurrence; insomuch that in later Attic Greek the adverb troAAdkis, “often,” is used in a protasis to sig nify “perchance,” or “probably," i.e. “as often happens" (Heindorf. ad Plat. Phaed. p. 19). Hence we find, that, in the protasis of conditional propositions, the subjunctive, preceded by the conditional words and āv (506), and the optative without àv (507), presume a repetition, or fre quency of occurrence. If the subjunctive is followed by its cognate tense the future, we have seen that the con ditional proposition looks to a probable result; if the optative is followed by another optative with āv, we have a mere supposition (499): éâv tº \ \xn, Čaire, “whatever he shall have, or as often as as he shall have any thing, he will give it.” & div & T \{xoi, Štěoín dv, “whatever he might have, or as } often as he had any thing, he would give it.” But if the continuous present and past tenses are used in & the apodosis, the implication of frequency is more strongly marked: * / wº 9 - 46 Gav rivas Utön, traveſ, “whomsoever he sees, as often as oùs &v he sees them, he praises.” et rivas Utöol, étrºve, “whomsoever he saw, as often as he oùs saw them, he praised.” Where the present tense presumes the fact, the imperfect assumes it. 208 515 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. If in this last case the frequency of action requires a more distinct reference to the condition, the antecedent &v may be appended to the imperfect indicative, to the frequentative in -orkov (355), and even to the aorist indi cative; thus we may write, with nearly the same signifi cation: étrºve & Tuvas er ous } *3 érrive div tool, • * , ergºverse, aw (Ionicë.) w - -A étrºvecrew av. When the apodosis alone appears, the student will gene rally find it easy to supply from the context the frequenta tive protasis. 516 Both the subjunctive and optative may appear in the protasis without any expression of the apodosis, and often without any relative word. Their signification in this usage is in strict accordance with their original meaning— namely, the subjunctive commands or deliberates concern ing that which is present: the optative wishes, or prays, that something may become present. 0. a trevowuev, YKováuevº iſoo uoi, Yépov (Eurip. Hec. 505). “Let us hasten, let us make all speed; lead me on, old man.” Interrogatively: eſtwuev h guyêuev; ) tº opdaouev (Id. Ion, 758); “Must we speak, or hold our peace? or what shall we do?" b. Without el: d Traſ, yévolo tratpos eūTuxérrepos, To 3’ da\' époios' ka? Yévol' div og kakós (Soph. Aj. 550). “My son, mightest thou be more fortunate than thy father, but like him in all other respects, and then thou wouldest not be a bad man.” With et or ws: et uot yevo to pööyyos év /3paxior (Eurip. Hec. 830). “O, if I had a voice in my arms ” as 6 tdöe topov čAotto (Soph. Electr. 126). “O that he who has done these things were destroyed!" 209 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 517 In this sense the indicative is often used with ei, el Yap, eifle, and especially in the case of digeMov, which appears, either with or without these particles, and followed by the infinitive. This presumes, like the corresponding protasis (502), that the wish cannot be realized. Thus we find: -- effe orot rôte ovveyevöunv (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, § 46), “O if I had been with you there!” (which I was not). eff & pea’’Apyoºs uti čiar'rdoffat gxdqos KöAxwy is alav kvavéas Xuatanyà?as ! (Eurip. Med. init.) “O if the Argo had not been obliged (as it was) to fly through the Symplegades to the Colchian land" 518 The mere wish is often expressed interrogatively by the optative with trios div, “O how could it be done !” as: trós du Juiv čuqavns $py? Yevoluny &s º' Begbe Tpoor pºn; (Soph. Phil. 531). “O how could I show my gratitude by my actions !” § W. The Imperative in Conditional Propositions. 519 The imperative differs very little in any of its usages from the subjunctive. 520 It sometimes appears, like édu with the subjunc tive, as the conditional protasis of the future; thus: 6átre ple, 8tti taxiata, tºas 'Atóao repriorw (Hom. Il. xxiII, 71). i.e. “the sooner you bury me, the sooner I shall pass the gates of Hades,” edv ue as taxigºra 6d trus, TVAas A. as T. repriorw. Also with kai interposed; as: Aaffé, kai eigel (Plato, Theatet. 154, c), “take it, and you will know,” i.e. £av Aaſºns, eigel. 521 In its more common use, as a hortative, delibera tive, or imperative form, we have already seen that the subjunctive often takes the place of this mood, with this difference, that except in prohibitions, when both moods are D. G. G. 14 210 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. employed, the subjunctive is used for the first person, and the imperative for the second. This appears most clearly when they are both used in juxta-position, or antithesis; thus: A. origita B. got y' tº karapate own tº 'yw; A. “Hold your tongue; i.e. you must hold your tongue.” B. “What! must I hold my tongue for you?” a korouev kolvi, Kai el K.T.A., duriaeye, kaſ got reſcopal (Plato. Crito, 48). “Let us consider the matter together, and if you can, confute me, and I will give way.” 522 The imperative is often a mere exclamation, as in eité, dye, ºpépe, ide, ičov, &c. And these imperatives are often prefixed to the first person of the subjunctive to urge the deliberation, thus: ºpépe, tí got 36 katapayev; “Come, what must I give you to eat!” 523 The future, which is the regular apodosis of the subjunctive and imperative, is often used to express the latter, chiefly, however, in interrogative-negative, and in prohibitive sentences; as: traßes, où a kévérôe; (Plat. Symp. 212, D). “Slaves, go at once and see " (below, 540). 524 From the interchange of the imperative, sub junctive, and future in other cases, arise some uses of the former which may remind us of the fact (above, 293), that the imperative differs from the indicative only in the form of the person-endings. Thus, on the one hand, we find constructions in which a question is followed by an impe rative; such as: olorff' wiv 6 pdorets, as draipopev x0ovds; 66morov juïv girov, où a travíčouev (Eurip. Cycl. 131–3). “Dost know what thou must do, in order that we may sail away from this land? Furnish us with corn, of which we are in want.” Or by a prohibition; as: olorſ' we uéteiffel kai gopwrépa paveſ; td Xfmotd un got Aviſpa paivéa 60 trote (Id. Med. 600, 1). SYNTAX OR 211 CONSTRUCTION. “Dost know how thou must alter thy prayers and appear wiser? Let not good things ever appear grievous to thee.” But, on the other hand, we find that the future of the relative clause in the question is attracted into the impera tize which follows ; thus we have: olorff obv 6 pāorov; unit' dirogaragóñs (3ta, K.T. A. (Id. Hec. 225). “Dost know what thou must do?—neither be torn away by force,” &c. And even with a sentence interposed: I. olorðd vvv & uot yewéo-0w ; 6, orów to ornuaíveiv ráče. I. degua roſs Éévotal Tpdates (Id. Iph. Taur, 1204). I. “Dost know what must be done for me?” Th. “Thou must tell me this.” I. “Put chains on the foreigners.” The Latin comedian, from not understanding this idiom, has endeavoured to express it by a transposition: tange sed scin' quomodo (Plaut. Rud. III, 5, 18), which has misled Bentley and other scholars. 525, We find the imperative, in deliberative interroga tions, without any direct evidence of such an attraction; as: tí obv; 3 troXAdkis épotº, keto 60 vöuos juïv; (Plato, Legg. p. 801 D). “What then?—according to my repeated question, must a law be laid down 2" This probably arises from a transition, by means of 3ri, from the direct to the oblique oration. This transition is distinctly seen in the following passages: laws &v eſtrotev, 3ri, 'Q Sékpates, un 0aduate to Aeyóueva (Plat. Crit. 50, c). By the side of the future : Xpri Šeća, 8t, ºv uév čqtevrai, Tpos Tovs pin duvvopévovs kºrd a 0 to or av, oſs 3é yévvaſov K. T.A., Gvavtayajvatoi dir' autów oux d tº a a (Thucyd. Iv, 92). § VI. The Infinitive as a Substitute for the Imperative. 526 The Infinitive, or adverbial mood, does not take its place in the protasis, except as a substitute for the Imperative. As an adverb, or secondary predicate, it is 14–2 212 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. appended to the finite verb, which contains the main pre dication, as an explanatory adjunct (above, 468). In the same way, however, as the gerundive, or inflected form of the infinitive, assumes to itself a significance of obligation, which is properly conveyed by the substantive-verb (above, 423), the earlier Greek writers use the infinitive, without the substantive-verb on which it depends, as an imperative, to express what must or ought to take place. Thus: kal raûr' lºv efore Aoyičov, kāv Ad/3ms p’ ºvevapiévov ºdokeiv Eu' men pavriki pin8év ºppoveſv (Soph. OEd. T. 462). 527 Sometimes also as the expression of a wish or prayer; as: tº Zev čkyevérôa. Hot 'Abnvaſovs rioraoréal (Herod. v., 105), where it cannot be said that the substan tive verb is necessarily understood; for we might say in English: “O that it might be allowed to me, &c.” and the Latin utinam marks a similarly dependent clause. § VII. The Negative Particles Mr. and O.J. 528 The distinction between un and ot, depends upon their respective applicability to the different members of a conditional proposition. For Mn belongs to the protasis ; OJ to the apodosis or to the categorical proposition; in other words, Mn negatives a supposition, i.e. it prohibits or forbids; OW negatives an affirmation, i.e. it affirms that the case is not so; or, to express the rule according to the principles already laid down, un is used in all those dependent sentences which are connected by a relative or relative particle with an indefinite antecedent expressed or understood, conse quently, un is also used with the participle as secondary predicate, and with the infinitive as representing an ad verbial sentence; whereas ou is used in all other cases. The following is a comprehensive example (Soph. Antig. 676): éyò 3 &tws a pn Aéyés dp0ós rate ovk &v Čvvaiunv unt' émigratumv Aéyew, SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 213 i.e. “but I neither could be able, nor may I know how to speak to the effect (below, 602) that you are not right in what you say.” § VIII. M.) in the Protasis. 529 The following are special examples of unin de pendent sentences, implying an assumption or prohibition: a. Indicative: el pin yīyveral, “if it does not come to pass,” and so of the other tenses. b. Imperative: pin KAérre, “do not steal” (in general). - c. Subjunctive: pin k\évns (more rarely un, KAévels), “do not steal” (this particular thing: above, 433); éav um yévnrat, “if it shall not come to pass.” d. Optative: pin yévoiro, “may it not come to pass" =“O if it could be avoided !” el un yévoiro, “if it were not to come to pass.” e. Infinitive: 0eo roMºral, un pie àovaeías ruxelv, “let me not incur slavery;” To un Yevéo-0ai, “the supposition that it has not come to pass.” f. Participle: un öpów, “if he abstains from doing.” Obs. Mn with the participle signifies “if not” (si mon), and generally accompanies a positive apodosis; un oil with the participle signifies “unless,” and is always attached to a negative apodosis; thus: 3rav č' ſknital, rnvikaºt' eye, kakos pm &póv čv env ráv6' 60' div on Not fleds (Soph. (Ed. T. 76), i.e. si non faciam. 8vord Ayntos yap div env roldvöe pin ou katoucteiptov ºpav (Id. ibid. 12), i.e. nisi miserear. On this abundance of negation see below, 530, Obs. § IX. OU in the Categorical Proposition or Apodosis. 530. The following examples will show the use of ov in absolute negations. a. Indicative: oux olds re écriv, “he is not able.” 214 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. b. Optative with div; oux év yévoiro, “it would not (under given circum stances) come to pass.” c. Participle indicating a fact, i.e. a causal or concessive Sentence: ow pov, “as abstaining from doing,” either “because he does it not” (615), or “although he does it not” (621). Obs. In the direct sentence, a repetition of ou confirms the negation; as: dkovet 3 ovčev ovčels ováevös (Eurip. Cycl. 120). This pleonasm sometimes occurs as between two sen tences; thus in the comparative uáAAov 7, the ow of the first clause is repeated in the second; as: fixei Yap & IIépons ovečv ri pāAAov ćr' muéas # ou kal ér' Juéas (Herod. Iv, 118). So also when un with the participle has a negative apodosis (above, 529, Obs.), and when un with the infinitive follows a doubly negative word (below, 603). § X. Ov and un after Relatives and Relative Particles. 531 OJ is used after relatives, when the antecedent is definite; because in this case there is an affirmation; but pin follows the relative when the antecedent is indefinite, be cause in this case there is an hypothesis. Thus: a. Ös ou roleſ raúra = d ou rotºv raûra = &re ou rotºv raúra = is, qui non facit hac. b. 6s un roleſ Tavra = 6 pm trolºv raúra = si quis non facit ha-c = qui hac non faciat (above, 413). 532 The same consideration qualifies the general rule respecting the relative particle ei (529); thus: a... rāqov meandels Tºe, káv pneels éâ (Soph. Aj. 1184), de eo quod probabile est: but b., et rows flavévras oux éâs 6drrew trapºv (Id. ibid. 1131), de eo quod certum est—si, id quod facis, prohibes quominus sepeliamus mortuos. SYNTAX OR 215 CONSTRUCTION. 533 The same applies also to adverbs of place; thus: a. MéAAovo, Yap o', el Tºvče un Arièeis Yéov, évraú6a réuvew, ev6d uri troº’ mºtov ºpdos ºrporável—de loco mescio quo (Soph. Electr. 379): but b. iikov'rd o' àkwv čva Avrols XaAkeiſuaqi ºpograagaağae. tº' dravºpºrº Táng, iv oute povnv oute tow uop priv |3potoº &\leet—de loco certo et praisenti (AEschyl. Prom. 20). And so of other relative words (above, 396). § XI. Ov, when it negatives the primary notion of a word or phrase. 534 Oi! is sometimes so closely connected with a word or phrase, that it not only negatives it, but even affirms the contrary. Thus we have: off pnu, not, “I do not say,” but, “I say no,” nego; oux Utrioxvovna, “I refuse;” ov 6éAw, nolo; oux hkuota, praesertim ; ouk duelvov, “it is better not ;” ou travv, omnino mon; ni ou 3rdavoris, “the pre vention from breaking down;” i ou repreixois, “the stoppage of the blockade,” &c. From these we must care fully distinguish the hypothetical phrases: to un ötaxv0m val, To pun trepiteixto 6mvat, &c. (529 e). § XII. Oi! and um in Interrogations. 535 As the direct question is inferentially equivalent to the categorical negation, it will follow conversely that whenever ou is found in an interrogation, a positive answer is expected; thus: āp' owk ºrtiv do flewis; nonne agrotat? (“he is ill, is he not ? Proculdubio Yes"). The combination ovk ouv is very often used interroga tively, and the inference implied is so distinctly affirmative, that the note of interrogation is frequently omitted, and oukouv; = nonne igitur? is considered as equivalent to igitur, and the categorical oikovv, “therefore not,” is dis tinguished from it by a change of accent. 216 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. As Yap belongs to the categorical proposition (615), ii vdp; expects an affirmative answer. The combination &AAo ti -; “is there anything else than—?” necessarily anticipates an affirmative response. The n is very often omitted, and āAAoti alone is then equi valent to nonne? as in Plato Resp. p. 369: áAAor yeapºds Mévels, o 8é oikočduos, “of course one is a husbandman, and the other a builder.” 536 If a mere hypothesis is called in question, the answer expected is necessarily negative; thus: a. "EAAnv row earl, “I suppose he is a Greek.” b. our trov"EAAmv čart, “I suppose he is not a Greek." Hence interrogatively: c. * *rov "EAAnv art; num Graius est? i.e. “he is not a Greek, is he? or, “he is not a Greek, I suppose." “No!” 537 Since, therefore, ºn forbids or negatives an assump tion, its appearance in an interrogation presumes a negative reply; thus: dpa uſi éortiv datevris; num agrotat? i.e. “he is not ill, I suppose,” or “he is not ill, is he?” In questions, ºn is often combined with ovv under the form putov. § XIII. Mr. after Verbs of fearing, &c. 538 These interrogations with an and the indicative mood, like the prohibitions and deprecations with un and the subjunctive or optative (529 c, d), are appended to verbs of fearing, with this difference: a. If the object of our fear is regarded as certain, we use the indicative. b. If uncertain, we use the subjunctive or optative. Thus: a. [in dupotéptov juaptikapev, “we have not lost both, have we?” Answer: “No 1" But by preferring poſłougal, we do away with the nega tive, so that poſłońual-un signifies forsitan, “perhaps;" and poſłowpat-un duºpotépov juaprikapev = “I fear we SYNTAX º missed OR CONSTRUCTION. 217 both—it is but too probable” (Thucyd. III, There is the same difference between poſłońual pm and owk olò' et, as between forsitan and haud scio an : the former signifies that it is probable; the latter that it is unlikely; thus: oux àv olò' et évvatunv (Plato, Tim. p. 263) = poſłougal pun ou 3.jvopal. In the same way: pui 36xnariv etxer' ék 6eów, “you had not a mere fantasm sent from the gods, had you?” Answer: “No” But if we prefix orkoreire, we annul the particle pin, which had negatived the hypothesis, so that: orkotrepre-pin 36know etxer' ék fletov (Eurip. Helen. 119), will signify, “look to it, if you had not some vision sent from the gods”—i.e. “it is more than probable that you had.” b. un 6dvo, “let me not die"—nego suppositionem me moriturum esse, vel pono me moriturum non esse. 8éðouka-un 6dvo, “I fear I shall die—it is but too pro bable.” Similarly: épn Čečolkéval um flavot, “he said he was afraid he should die;” for the optative, being by nature an indeterminate tense, is properly used after other past tenses, (above, 292, 513; below, 607). 539 We may also say, poſłońual-un ow-64vo, “I fear I shall not die;” eqoſłotunv-un ou-0dvolut, “I feared I should not die,” according to 534. § XIV. Construction of oil ºff. 540 (a) OJ with the future or subjunctive in interro gations. When the interrogative ou is used with the future tense, the result is a positive command (523); when it is used with the subjunctive, the result is a deliberation nearly amounting to a resolve (521). The former construction most frequently occurs in the second person, the latter in the first; as: ou uéveſs; quin manes 2 “will you not remain?” i. e. “stop !” 218 SYNTAx or CONSTRUCTION, and it is expected that the person addressed will do so (535); oux to ; nonne iboº “shall I not go f" which implies, “of course I shall.” 541 (b) Mri with the future indicative or aorist sub junctive. But if we prefix un to the future indicative or aorist subjunctive, the result is, of course, a prohibition (529, c); - thus: a. Aéðels ēē pnáčv ráv ćuol befoyuévov (Eurip. Med. 804). £3. GAA' éeptéra' undév čváees Airns (Íd. Phoen. 385). 542, (c) The interrogative with où followed by the prohibition with piſi. Since, therefore, the interrogative ou commands, and ºn without interrogation forbids, and that too with the same inflexions—the future or subjunctive—both constructions will be used when a command is followed by an equiva lent prohibition; thus: ow giya; untév távº' épéis kard ºrtóAw (AEsch. Sept. c. Theb. 232). 543 (d) Interrogation and prohibition combined. Generally, however, the command and prohibition are brought under the influence of the same interrogation; thus: ow aſy' avče, unté àexíav dpeſs; (Soph. Aj. 75). tº beiva Aéao', oùxī avykAetores atóua, kai ºn pediaeis avºis airytarovs Aéyovs; (Eurip. Hippol. 498). 544 (e) OU and un coalesce. Lastly, the Greeks were very fond of coupling the ov and uri, and prefixing them to a single verb used interro gatively, according to this rule: that ou un with the second person of the future (a) conveyed a prohibition; while with the other persons of the future (3), and with the subjunctive (Y), où ºn enounced a categorical negation; thus: SYNTAX OR a. CONSTRUCTION. 219 oº un övoruevris Šael (p(\ois (Eurip. Med. 1120); où pin ºrpooroforeis Xeſpa, flakyewares 3' tow (540), pino éâoudpée poptav Triv onv ćuot (541); (Id. Bacch. 343). ow un ppevidaeis u', dAAd 8éopuos puyºv . cºore rôo' (540); # orot Taxiw dvagtpévo 3ſknv; (516, a) (Id. ibid. 792). 8. of got un uébévouat rore (Soph. El. 1052). où rot un roté d'ék Tövő' éðpavov 'y. & Yépov, drovrd tis &#ei (Id. QEd. C. 176). kal rôvö’ drovo as ot; tı un Anq66 36Ap (AEsch. Sept. c. Theb. 38). oùre yap yiyveral oute yé yovev oveč obv un yévnTai (Plat. Resp. 492, E). 545 This last construction was considered so entirely equivalent to the future, that it was used as the apodosis of éav and the subjunctive (502 II); thus: #y vikriorwaev, où primore éo BaAworiv (Thucyd. Iv, 95). CHAPTER IV. ON CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. § I. Recapitulation and Definitions. 546 THE learner has been already taught that the article, as the mark of definiteness, distinguishes the subject and epithet from the predicate; that the relative with a definite antecedent is tantamount to an adjective or epithet; that nouns and participles, connected with the subject by the substantive verb, and all finite tenses of verbs, are pri mary predicates; that cases of nouns and participles con nected with the subject through a primary predicate are adverbial, or secondary predicates, and that there are ter tiary predicates, or anticipations of distinct propositions, in the latter case. He has also seen that the relative, or relative particle, with an indefinite antecedent, marks the protasis of a conditional proposition, and he has been shown how the negatives ou and un contribute to the greater dis tinctness of these rules. It only remains that he should now recognize these principles in their application to con nected, but separate, sentences: for the previous investiga tion has not presumed that there has been more than one main proposition. 547 Connected sentences are either co-ordinate, or one of them is subordinate to the other. The relative, with a defi nite antecedent, forms an adjectival sentence dependent upon the antecedent: the relative, with an indefinite antecedent, forms an adjectival sentence subordinate to the antecedent or apodosis. If these two sentences are, as has been hitherto supposed, completed in the antecedent or apodotic clause, they are considered to make one categorical or one hypothe tical proposition, as the case may be. But if, as is the case with the disjunctive hypothetical, there are distinct alternatives, which require a conditional proposition to carry them on to an apodosis, or if, as is the case with copulative conjunctions, the two clauses stand on the same footing of categorical predication, we have not one sentence, but two co-ordinate sentences. And if, in any of the cases considered SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 221 in the preceding chapters, the sentence is adverbial, or dependent upon a predicate already expressed, or if it follows a former predication as a consequence, explains it as a cause, or limits it by a concession, we call the sentence subordinate. 548 According to these subdivisions, co-ordinate sen tences are, a. b. Copulative. Disjunctive. c. Distributive. And subordinate sentences are, a. Temporal, when they are supplementary to the tenses of the verb. b. Objective, when they are supplementary to the cases of the noun. c. Illative, or consecutive, when they follow a former predication as a consequence. d. Final, when they declare the end of what is pre dicated. e. Causal, when they explain the cause of what is asserted. f. Concessive, when they strengthen or limit by an admission. § II. Copulative and Disjunctive Sentences. 549 Copulative and disjunctive sentences stand upon very nearly the same footing; for every copulative sentence is, to a certain extent, disjunctive, and vice versâ. Indeed, in some cases, where we use a disjunctive formula, the Greeks employ the closest copulative connexion, re-kai. 550 There are two modes of expressing the union of distinct propositions: (1) By the use of a relative with its indefinite antecedent, and then we signify, that, where there is such an object, there also we find such another object; as āvāpes Te Kai ºrtot, “where horses, there men;" (2) When the enumeration is expressed by a repetition of the same demonstrative or relative pronoun, as kal &věpes, ka? frtol; or divāpes re ſtarot te: and here the first conjunc tion may be omitted. 551 Practically there is no great difference between the uses of these copulative conjunctions: kal and te alone 222 SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION. generally indicate mere addition: kal repeated gives an emphasis to the enumeration: and re kai join the two statements or objects so closely together that they may be almost considered as one. As might be expected, the former clause, with the indefinite re, is often less emphatic than that which contains the kai. This is very apparent in the phrases, rd re àAAa kat-àAAws re kat—which means “especially," i.e. “as well in other matters not worth mentioning, as” &c. 552. The commonest form of this disjunctive sentence is that in which the members are connected by m—7, (originally jë—rié), the former being sometimes strengthened by rot. As n is a relative particle, originally identical with kaſ, this may be considered as a construction strictly analogous to kal—kat, though the meaning conveyed is quite the converse: for kał &vêpes kai frtroi would mean, “as well men, as horses,” quum viri, quum equi. But m divêpes ºf frto would signify “either men or horses,” ubi equi, ibi non viri. That a negative was implied appears from the use of the Latin aut-haud in disjunctive sen tences, and by the repetition of oil after m in negative com parisons (530, Obs.). But that i does not itself contain any negative signification is clear. For it is used as a mere relative, quam, in positive comparisons, and is really synonymous with the copulative conditional etre, by the side of which it sometimes appears; except that the con ditional force is more fully retained in cºre, which is fol lowed by pri, while admits ow: cf. Soph. Antig. 38 (where m could not stand): kai beièeis Táxa eſt' evyevris répukas eſt' éo.6A6v kakti. AEschyl. Ag., 1374 (where it is a distinct protasis): gº 8 aively ere ue Véyetv 66Aes, Guotov. Eurip. Electr. 900 (where is followed by i): 6v efºre ń 0ncºre oriv d Traynv d6es ; .*.*. ets p Tr p IIom. Il. II, 349 (where it is followed by h and ov): 'Yvºueval eſte Vedèos réayers né kai ovki. Soph. Aj. 178 (where etre follows #): iſ fia kAvtov čvapov - Wrevo 6eſa', d'êuipois eſt' éAapnſłowials. 3. SYNTAX OR 223 CONSTRUCTION. 553. In general, the student will observe, that, if the disjunctive retains its conditional force, it is followed by pri; if it merely states contradictory alternatives, by ov; cf. AEsch. Eum. 168: f oru * 7" º ei - 3 a w r Oikottos eu're - 3: Mr1, kpwov tkmv, with Thucyd. VI, 60: eſre dpa kai rā āvra ºnvºcal etre w Oue 554. The combination re-kai is used in the disjunctive sentence, when it is intended to express that the two alter natives present themselves in close combination; as in Hom. Il. VIII, 168: Tvèetºns &é &idvěixa peppnipušev frtrovs Te o Tpéya kai évavti/3tov paxéraotai. AEschyl. Ag. 807: r w r 6 tº r yvºore 3e Xpovº otarevtſopewos * w tov re 8tratos kal Tov f Troxly - 9 dikaipos - olkovpouvra troXu'rtov. 555 The comparative or superlative co-ordination of Togoûrip (Togourov) -ãorp º is of the nature of a copulative sentence with re-kai, though it sometimes amounts to an illative, and sometimes to a causal sentence. Thus Plat. Resp. II, p. 372, D: 3a p uéy a row to rāv ‘puxdkov ºpyov, to a ow tº a XoAñs Tºv &AAwv tra et at ns ëv ein Čečuevov might be expressed by, “their work is the greatest and therefore requires the greatest leisure;” or, “ their work is so great as to require the greatest leisure.” Without this mode of viewing the construction, the student would fail to understand several passages in Thucydides. Thus, dog kai follow oux fixtata = rogoûtº udurra in I, 68: and ow8évos xeſpov = Tooroúrip travrov duelvov in VI, 89. In v1, 11, 6aº Kał, without any real antecedent, may be rendered: “because,” or “inasmuch as,” and the parti cles have the same meaning in v1, 92, where there is a sort of antecedent in the particles aq6èpa and ikavíðs. In IV, 108: évévoruévois Tris 'A6mvatov Švvduetos étri to a o 0t ov & a n to repov 8tepdvn, means “they were mistaken in the power of the Athenians, by as much as that power after wards appeared different from their notion of it,” i.e. the emphasis falls on the preposition in 31 eqavn. In VII, 28: 224 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. tov trapdºoyov rocodrow toinorai is followed first by a causal örov, and afterwards by an illative dio're. 556 The comparative clause with m is of the nature of a disjunctive sentence, though the sentence, in which the comparative appears, is in effect an antecedent: thus, ovëév Kpelagov iſ pi\os gapnis, means, “where there is a sure friend, there is nothing better.” 557 In the emphatic sense of “even,” “also,” the Greeks used the copulative kaſ, where the Latin prefers the disjunctive rel, or the compound et-iam. Sometimes, the force of this kai is best expressed by throwing an emphasis on the auxiliary in English; as in trós kał 8taxet, eité (Eurip. Hippol. 1171); “say, how did he die?” In this emphatic sense, kal, followed by other particles, has many distinctive uses: thus we have, kal &m, kaf rep, kat rol, in concessive sentences; kaº priv, in calling attention to a statement; kal &m kai, in making an important addition; and so forth. 558 "Eri, which, under the form et, is the commonest copulative conjunction in Latin, generally appears in Greek as a temporal particle only. § III. Distributive Sentences. 559 Distributive sentences, which are generally in some sense adversative also, are most frequently expressed by the particles uév and 8é, signifying “first" and “second,” when the opposition or distribution is in each case positive. But when a negative in the first clause is followed by a positive sentence, which corrects or explains it, the pro per particles are ouk—da\d, just as in German we have sondern instead of aber after nicht. Thus we have in the same passage (Eurip. Med. 555): oux, fi gö kvíčel,-gov pév ex0aipov Aéxos Kaivns 3é viſuqins inépp retànyuévos— d'AA' as K. T. A. 560 One of the commonest forms of the distributive sentence is that, which has been mentioned above (390), when the article is used as a pronoun, for the purpose of distributing a number of persons or things into different SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 225 classes. In this use, we often find routo pièv–Touro èé, for To pièv–To 8é. 561 When pèv and 3é are appended to the disjunctive #, the compound becomes a copulative particle: thus riuév–73é, mean “both "–“and,” or, “as in the first place, so in the second place.” 562 Although 3é is the proper and most usual anti thesis to uév, other particles sometimes take its place when the opposition is intended to be more distinct. Thus we find roºt’ &AAo (Soph. OEd. C. 605) and Toºt' auths (Id. Antig. 167), opposed to Tooto gév; and TAliv, Ye univ, dAAd, and dAA' àuws, are opposed to pièv alone. 563 Aé is often placed in a clause which is opposed to what precedes, although there may be no pièv in the first clause (above, 390). This is particularly the case in the Platonic phrase, to 8é, which means, “whereas, intruth,”— “whereas, on the contrary,”—quum tamen (see Heindorf. ad Theaetet. § 37). 564 If the same word, or a synonym, is repeated in the second clause, 86 is also repeated, though there is no introductory pév; thus Soph. (Ed. C. 1342: doºr' év čáuotori roſari ools arrioro o' dywy, arriorw 3' éuavºróv. 565 We sometimes find that the introductory clause, which contains the pév, is, strictly, speaking, dependent upon that which follows with the 8é. Thus in Demosth. Mid. p. 573: un roſvvv du pév eitrn ris trapdvoma oºrws dpyićduevot paiverfle, év če Trotſ, un Aéyn Tpºws didketa fle, the meaning is: “Do not, while you give such a manifesta tion of your anger in the case of illegal proposals, exhibit mildness of character in the case of those who act illegally without speaking:” for the orator certainly does not wish to deprecate the anger of the judges in the case of those who made illegal speeches. 566 Connected with this usage and the preceding, we find a double pév in the preceding or dependent clauses, followed by a double őé in the apodosis, or quasi-apodosis. Thus, in Plato (Apol. 28, E): beivá áv enveipyaguévos et &re uév pie of dipxovires étatºrov, tdte pévow ékéivot rat row £uevov, toº 3° 0éoù rétrovros, évraúða 3& Attopa D. G. G. 15 226 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. riv ráčºv, it is clear that the two sentences with név are dependent on those which follow with 3é. 567 As a further result of the same usage, we find that 3e sometimes stands, as it were, arbitrarily in the apodosis; as in Herod. v., 40: étré, Toivov replexöuevöv ge dpéopew Tris éxes yuvaikos, gº de Tavra totee. When uév stands by itself, without any corresponding 36, the latter, or some equivalent, is virtually implied, and pév looks forward to the completion of the sentence, just as ow looks back to what has been already said. Thus, when Socrates is going to catechize Meno's slave, he asks the master: "EAAny név čari Kai éAAnviče ; “he is a Greek, I suppose, and talks Greek " (Plat. Meno, p. 82, B;) here an et ée an is obviously implied: “if he is not, he will not answer my purpose.” This is particularly obvious in the combination, uév obv. Thus, in the answer travv učv ovv, which is so common in the Platonic dialogues, there is a manifest suspension of part of the sentence: “you are right as to what you have said, but what follows?” (Ti & gretta;) So also in the corrective uév obv, where the main point is conceded, but some emphatic addition or correction is appended to the concession; thus in AEsch. Ag. 1363: Tač’ &v Čikatos riv, Utrepôtºws uév obv, the justice is admitted, but its exceeding righteousness is proclaimed. And in the comical passage, Aristoph. Eq. - 910: dropºvšāuevos & Ann' duoſ Tpos triv kepaxmu atovo, the axAavrotréAns, by answering Guod uév obv, Šuot uéu oùv, does not dissent from Kleon's servile proposal, but only wishes that the humble office may be transferred to himself. 568 In colloquial Greek, the combination uév ov obtained a sort of ironical significance, equivalent to our “O yes,” or, “no doubt" (Arist. Ran. 241), especially with oi! prefixed (Id. ibid. 556). 569 The distributive sentence becomes emphatically copulative, when oil ſtovov, or oux 6t, are opposed to d\\d with or without Kai. Thus: o Xokpatns ov uovov goºds jv, dAAd kał dyados, is equivalent to 6 S. goq6s re jv Kal dyados. SYNTAX OR 227 CONSTRUCTION. 570 When for où advov we have oux àri or un öri, there is an ellipse of Aéyw, or some such word, in the one case, and of Aérye in the other. But the effect is the same. So also, when the second clause contains a negation, as in Dem. c. Tim. 702, 2: oux àti rāv čvtov directepmunu &v, dAA’ ow?' év ščnv, “I do not only say that I should have been deprived of my property, but I should not even have been alive.” So in owy Śorov and oux oiov. 571 . If, however, we have oux àTws in the former clause, it means “not only not ;” Demosth. c. Polycl. 1225, 12: ; Śē yń oux &Tws rival kaptov fiveykev, dAAd kal to iſotop tréAttev: “not only did the earth bear no fruit, but even the water failed.” 572 Sometimes the same opposition may be effected by pri Ti ye āj: as in Dem. Ol. II, 24, 21: ovk vi ä’ autov dpyouvra ováč tols pixois Titattew itép aurou ri toleſv, puri Ti ye &n toſs fleoſs, “when a man is idle, not only can he not call upon the gods to help him, but he cannot even apply to his friends” (i.e. much less to the gods). § IV. Temporal Sentences. 573 The temporal sentence is, strictly speaking, a periphrasis for the temporal adverb. Thus: “he came late,” is equivalent to “he came when it was too late:” and so of other explanatory additions to the time indicated by the verb. It has been mentioned, that all indeterminate tenses presume such an addition (432). Besides the adverb, the cases of an inflected noun may be used to express a point or duration of time (459); and the infinitive, with the article and a preposition, may of course serve the same purpose. Thus it is that it matters little whether we say, év tº Adev autóv, or öre fixtev, tapeyevdunv. 574 The most common forms, however, of the tem poral sentence, are those which are expressed by the parti ciple, or by means of some relative particle. 575 Almost all those cases, in which the participle can appear as a secondary predicate in the nominative case, are instances of the temporal sentence. 576. a. The following express contemporary acts: yeX6v eite, “he laughed and said,” or “when he said he 15–2 228 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. laughed;" raúra Aéyov čákpve, “when he said these things he wept.” The same may be remarked of participles used absolutely (446,454): as énow kaffeſºovros, me dormiente, “while I was sleeping.” Sometimes the particles dua, autíka, eú00s, uérač, are added to the participle: as in Herod. IX, 57: áua kara AaBºvres Tpoorekéató a pi. Id. II, 158; uetašū dpvaawv e Travorotºro. 577 b. The following express subsequent actions: raºra troínoras, drégn: or in the absolute case, droëavóvros Aapetov, ri Baaixeia dvexºpngev is Tov traiča Töv čkeſvow Fépènv. Occasionally this secondary predication of an antecedent action is so connected with the main verb as to make, in fact, but one periphrastic tense; especially in the use of éxa with the aorist participle: thus drudgas exei róvávěpa, which is literally “having dishonoured the man, he keeps him so,” (i.e. dishonoured), is equivalent to “he keeps dishonouring,” or “continually dishonours.” Some verbs, such as piéAAw, “I am minded;” 6éAw, “I am willing;” Botſ\opal, “I desire;” make a sort of periphrastic future with the infinitive mood. 578 There are certain verbs, which are always used with the participle of the verb, to the action of which they communicate, in fact, only an accessary value. Such are Aavödvo, rvyxdvo, Yaipw, pödvo, and oixouai. Thus (a) Xavóóva, raûra totôv, “when I do these things I escape the notice of (1) myself (i.e. I do so unconsciously); (2) others (i.e. I do so secretly).” (b) Tuxov trapóvres, “when they arrived there, they just hit the mark,” i.e. they were there just at the time. (c) Xaipovow étrawouvres, “when they praise, they are glad," i.e. they praise gladly. (d) 340mv diſpurduevos, “when I arrived, I was before them,” i.e. I arrived first. (e) otyeral treaſov, “when he has fallen, he is gone,” i.e. he has fallen away. So that the main verb may always be rendered by an adverb. 579 Relative particles give a precise expression to every sort of temporal sentence. The antecedent is some times expressed, and sometimes contained in the tense of the verb. The following are examples of the use of these particles: SYNTAX OR 229 CONSTRUCTION. a. Contemporary acts (eodem tempore) are expressed by: 8te, rivika “when,” antec. Tore, rnvíka ; fluos, wº, “while, as long as,” antec. Thuos, Tétos. 6 €raºpos étreyévero (sc. rāte), &re ord ºpaqes. muos, p(\at kat' oikov 6 £évos (posſ, tnuos flupaios Affov, as Juás Adºpa (Soph. Trachin. 531, 533). 580 b. Repeated acts (toties, quoties): 3rote, 8te, als, 8Tws, generally without any antecedent: of present and future acts, with &v and the subjunctive; of past acts, with the optative alone (Art. 514). a. Tøre on, 6tav & Xpm towns, eutvYéſs, or t t 3. - w w f w e ev w e/ - v * w 3/ * * r 6tav & Xpm tourians, eutvYmorets. ormvík' &v 060s TAoûv mułv etkm, rnvika.00' oppoſueffa (Soph. Phil. 463). ék Yap 'Opérrao riots a geta 'Arpetoao &Tarot' &v riſ8 form (Hom. Od. 1, 41). |3. Utrepôāv Ti v The muerépas oikías 6 elye Qūdvews, drát év date, 6tarpiðot (Antiph. p. 113, 3). 581, c. Subsequent acts (postguam): éireſ, reiði, é; ºv, dip' ow. étré, éé péyyos Atov karépôito (AEsch. Pers. 377). toMAoſs uév de vuktépots ovetpact {uvein', diſp' où"rep traſs émos areíAas otpatów 'Iadvov yńv olxera (Id. ibid. 177). 582 d. Continued action (usque dum): €ws, tos ov, els ö, als, Éate, péxpts or àxpts ov, &c. If the act is past and certain, we put the indicative in the adverbial sentence; as: Tololorëe tdoras evºpóvas oveſpagi $vvexópnv čvatnvos, is Te 8m tatp: &rAnu Yeyoveſv vuktíqoit' oveſpata (AEsch. Prom. 655). But if the act is future and probable, we use the sub junctive with div; as: 230 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. ëyu de Triv trapova'av avt.Ariora, Twymy is T' &v Aids ºppovnua Awqºmon x6Aov (AEsch. Prom. 376). 583 e. Previous acts (priusquam): "piv h . The particle Tpſv, which is a locative form of rpg, belongs properly to the first member of the comparison, and ought to be followed by some relative, such as j = quam, or, more fully, i öre = quam quum. But, in accordance with Greek brachylogy, the adverbial relative is generally omitted, so that Tpſv, which is properly an antecedent, is used as a relative". Learners will observe, therefore, that "piv and Tpiv i öre are considered as identical. In the adverbial sentence after Tpiv we may use either the indicative, sub junctive, optative, or infinitive. a. The indicative; of acts certain and past, when ſpiv = “until :” nyóunv 8' dump datov uéytotos tav čkeſ Tpív pol tüxn Tod? &méarn (Soph. (Ed. T. 775). Positively: Negatirely : oùk ºv daénu' ow8év– Tpiv éyò a ptariv goeſ a kpdaeis irtov dreaudrov (AEsch. Prom. 479). 6. The subjunctive; only after a negative sentence, of an act both probable and future, almost always with the particle àv. After a future: oux, Taiſoroual Tpiv du ré tºv atov köptov atrioto Tékvov (Soph. (Ed. C. 1040). i.e. “I will not leave off, till I shall have made you master of your children,” so that ſpiv čv = Tpiv h 6tav, or éay ºn Tpôtepov”. * This catachresis has gone so far, that Trpiv frequently appears with an antecedent trpótepov, e.g. Thucyd. 11, 65. Plat. Resp. p. 402, B. * So Diphilus (apud Athen. p. 291, B): où yap Bačišw trpátepov du un öokupidow, whence we may explain the well-known ellipse in St. Paul (ad Thess II, 2, 3): 3rt, Čdiv un &A0m ti droaragia Trpiotov, ſoil 300arat Adelv 0 Kūpios]. SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 231 After an imperative: pin Tpokaraytyvoork’, 6 Trétep, Tpºv &v y' dkoworms duºporéptov (Arist. Vesp. 919). After an optative in the apodosis, interrogatively: Tís &v číknv Kpfvetev ñ Yvoin Adyov Tpiv du Tap' duq'oïv uv6ov čkudón rapn; (Eurip. Heracl. 180.) IIpy with the subjunctive, but without àv, is poetical. After an indicative: elööri & ovéév ćpte Tpiv Tupi bepuſ, toda ris irporation (Soph. Antig. 620). After an imperative: um atévače Tplv p.d6ms (Id. Phil. 917). Y. The optative; in oratione obliquá, after an optative, and of a past act, almost always without &v3. After a negative sentence, if the oratio directa has passed into the oblique; as: dºrnydpevs undéva BáAAeiv, Tplv Kºpos êu Tàng flein (Xen. Cyrop. 1, 4, § 14). €3éovro um direAtely Tphy dºv drayayot (Id. Amab. VII, 7, § 57). After an optative; as: &Aoto ºff to Tpiv udflou (Soph. Phil. 961). 8. The infinitive; whenever the subsequent act is re garded as an object; as : Tpiv h orvupiša, ºpewyov. Aéâat 66Aw arol ºrph, 0aveſv & /30ſ-oua, (Eurip. Alc. 281). 5 N v f ovde 77 avore Tau f * , , ; S. w - X6\ov, adºp' olòa, Tplv Katao knvaí riva (Id. Med. 92). * The question, whether trpiv čv with the optative is allowable, is the same as that respecting the correctness of 6tav with the optative; for Tpiv &v= Trpiv h 6tav. If therefore for 3rav, in AFschylus, Pers. 450, we ought, as most critics think, to write &T' ék; in the same way, Trpiv div, Štreičáv, &c., whenever they are construed with the optative, must be changed into ºrptv, Tet, &c. Wide Blomf. et G. Dindorf. ad AEschyli locum; L. Dindorf, ad Xen. Cyrop. 1, 3, § 11. IV, 5. § 36. Hellen. II, 3. § 48. II, 4, § 18. v., 4, §47. 232 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. The different tenses of the infinitive are thus used: Tpiv čeitwelv = priusquam coenem; Tpiv Četvnaai = priusquam caenarero; Tpiv Čečeitrunkéval = priusquam a caená surrewero. § W. Objective Sentences. 584 An objective sentence is, properly speaking, the epexegesis or lengthened form of an objective case; and it is intimately connected with the indirect question, or the cor relative of the interrogation. Thus, if the question were Tí Épus durixavos ; the answer might be (Soph. Antig. 79): to Big Troxltov påv ºpw durixavos : and if the question were, ri Aéyes; the answer might be Aéyw, 3rt duapravels: if Tís écriv; the answer might be ouk olda ögºris earív: if trios ºokeſ: ; the answer might be §okeſ uo ws "Hºpatorros XaAkevel. But if the object is something within the immediate experience of the subject, the participle may be used, and we may write olda Yévviſ oras, for oièa 6+ y&uvnora. Hence there are three forms of the objective sentence: (A) with the infinitive; (B) with the indirect interrogation expressed by 6t, or as and the finite verb; (C) with the participle. 585 (A) An objective sentence is very frequently expressed by the infinitive mood, which is made depend ent upon the objective case governed by the main verb. Thus we may say, r - £3ouxomaſ ore 8éopaſ orov AéYew, w r 8okeſ orot where in each case the infinitive expresses the action desired of, or determined on, by the object of the verb. 586 This infinitive is particularly in its place after verbs expressing the natural constitution of a subject, its duty, its fitness, its use: as o divöpwros répuke pixeiv, homo natus est ad amandum, “man is naturally qualified for loving.” To which the converse is, 6 dvdporos répuke um pixeiv. In the same way a qualifying adjective, as primary predi cate, may be followed by an explanatory infinitive; thus: ow detvös éort Aéyéiv, dAA’ dowvatos oriyâv. SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 233 587 If the verb, which thus governs the infinitive, is impersonal, the infinitive, instead of being a mere supple ment to the objective case, becomes the subject of the verb. Thus, Tpéret pixely, “it is proper to love” =“loving is proper (381,c).” Connected with this is the usage of the verbal in -Téos, and the attraction of Ötzalóv čari into &aids eipt (423, 424). 588 If the subject of the infinitive is the same as that of the verb on which the infinitive depends, it is not neces sary or usual to repeat it. Thus we say, 6oºowa Aéyev, not floºollaí ue Aéyew. If it is expressed, it remains in the nominative even by the side of an accusative, as in Thucyd. Iv, 28: oux épn autos, dAA' ékeſvov atparnyev. 589 If what would be a predicate of the first class (416) in the direct sentence, is connected with the object of a verb in the infinitive, it is expressed in the case of the object: Thus: N. d’AAéčavôpos épaakeveival Aids vićs, dicebat SE esse Jocis filium. G. §§éovro adrow elva. Tpoôjuov, “they intreated him to be of good cheer.” D. §§earſ uot yewérôal edbašuovº, licet mihi esse beato. A. Keweiſo ore elva. Tpdóvuov, jubeo te alacrem esse. 590 (B) When the objective sentence is a known fact, or an expression of opinion, it is common to substi tute 3ri or ws with a finite verb for this construction with the infinitive. After determinate tenses, the verb which follows 3rt will be in the indicative mood; after indetermi nate tenses it is frequently in the optative; but the indica tive is sometimes retained, especially in the case of the future. It seems to be a matter of choice whether we shall write the infinitive with the objective case, or the finite verb with 3rt; but the construction with ws is limited to those cases in which we have rather an assumption than a fact. Thus we might say, either tov kaxov kayadov divöpa evèatuova elvaí pnui, or duoxo'yū ūri 6 kaAokayatos évêaiuov éortſ: and either Utréaxov (3ombedu pot ºeuv, or Utréaxov 3rt Bombed uot hºol, or hēet. But in such phrases as vouſ Čovorty as "Hipatotos XaAkevet for x2Akeveiv Tów "Hºpalatov, or 343d AAe Tów Kºpov trpos Tov doexpov, as étriflovXeſo avrò, or riflowAeſsiv adrā, there is not so much a state 234 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. ment of fact as an allegation of erroneous belief or false assertion. To the same class belong the indirect interrogations, ous ołęa órrus értív, oux jeew 6atus ein. 591 (C) In those cases, in which the completed action is the object of the main verb, the participle very often takes the place of the infinitive, as well as of the finite verb with 6T1 in the objective sentence. This is particu larly observable after verbs which signify perception, know ledge, experience, recollection, demonstration, completion, and acquiescence: for all these verbs refer to the state which results from an action rather than to the action itself. The case is that of the object. N. fºetv toºs taſtas Buntous yevviſoras. G. ſo Bmoral traitoté pov avko pavrovvros ; D. orjvoted oro riotºmuévip. A. c. N. of otpatnyol optov ou katopflouvres kai Tows otpatiairas dxflouévous. 592 With some of these verbs the use of the participle and infinitive produces a contrast of meaning. Thus, pai veral elva, means “he appears with regard to being," i.e. he appears to be (ridetur); but: paivetal ºv, “he appears and he is,” i.e. he mani festly is, (apparet, constat). and : alaxivoua toteſv, “I am ashamed with regard to doing,” i. e. I am restrained by shame from doing; but ; alo-Yùvouai Toitov, “I do it and I am ashamed,” i.e. I am ashamed of doing. These verbs, however, especially olòa, may exhibit the construction with 6T1, or with ws after a negation: and some of them, especially droſo, may revert to the objective sentence expressed by the accusative and infinitive. Thus: , a. jatovto ot"EA\nves 6T1 6/3aoixeds v roſs grewoºdpols €111. b. ove’ exeſvo &uuauai deſu, as oux, travres div0pwrot roſtov Tuxeſv d'Étagougi. c. drovo kał &AAa €00m Toxxd rotaúra elva. In case (a), the optative is also found in dependent rela tive clauses, as éAeść got 67 m dºos pépoi eis Triv TóAw, SYNTAX OR 235 CONSTRUCTION. #varep opºny, mihi narrabat, viam ducere ad urbem quam viderem. 593 The objective sentence may involve the apodosis of a conditional proposition, and then äv may appear by the side of the verb or participle in any one of the three forms, whether the protasis is expressed or not. Thus we may say : pno" 3alaeu, q'naiv 8tt öðgei ëpm 8worew 9 / º éav ti exn. et tº ºxoi. 3166val div &Ti 3180in div pnor, 3.66was Čv png iv 6th 66téov čv w er 5 N / N. w sy et ºpnal booval du * el Yev. Tu 3/ ºw q'naiv 3ri 330key dº, f * * **X* 594 So also in the case of those verbs which are fol lowed by the participle. Thus: eſpírko Tairnv påvnv čv yevouévnv Tów Trapévrov kaków drax\ayniv (Isocr. Areop. 16), for 8T, airn povn &v Yévoito Graxxayſ: and so throughout the four cases we might write: 1 olòd ae 8tóóvra, et ri yes, 8,8697-’ & 2 360 ovta, śāv tº #xns, •S = r w 9/ > * sy 3 4 (!. 4 b. § VI. */ r et3/ tº exots, 8toovt. 3 w 2 av, ºf * toovt av, et*/ Ti •retxes, N a 3 ºf 36vt' àv, et ri Šayes. Illative or Consecutive Sentences. 595 An illative sentence is properly a relative clause explanatory of an emphatic pronoun. It may be expressed by the relative itself, as in Soph. Antig. 220: ovk gotiv outw pºpos 6s 8aveſv på. But most commonly the particle date is used in the relative clause, followed either by the infinitive or by the indicative. Thus, we may say either oùros dudn'tós a riv, doºre tróAepov divºr, eipſiums aipeia-flat, “he is so foolish as to prefer war to peace:” or oºrws dudnºrós éorthw (date troxenov duri eipmuns aipeirai, “he is so foolish, that he prefers war to peace.” 236 596 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. The difference of these two constructions is best shown by their negative expression: for we write, in the former case, date ºn eprivnv duti troAéuov aſpeſo 0al, show ing that the result is looked upon as a general one, common to the person mentioned with many others: but in the latter case we write, date oux aipeira, etprivnv avT, Toxéuov, showing that the result is regarded as a categorical asser tion respecting the particular person. 597 In this sense &are may be used with the impera tive, especially in such phrases as date flappel, “wherefore be of good courage” (Plat. Euthyd. 275, c. Xen. Cyr. 1, 3, § 18). 598 If a comparative or superlative adjective appears in the antecedent clause, the emphatic pronoun is necessa rily omitted; as: (1. vetºtepot eloru º Gorre elčéval oftov tratéptov êortépmvral. b. p.Aotiuotatos ºv, date travta virouelva row étraweſ orða evexa. 599 This is also the case when olds re with the finite verb is substituted for date. Thus, for rotoords Čortiv date wroteſv taura, we write oiós re eart troteſv taura, substi tuting the relative for the relative and its antecedent, and transferring the former to the antecedent clause, so as to make it a mere predication (above, 413). 600 Conversely, when oios intervenes between its an tecedent rowbros and another relative sentence, the inter mediate sentence may be omitted. Thus, we may write: ow Yap on approvía ye totoutdv čotiv (; direukačets auriv, for Totovtov oſov čkeſvá čotiv (; direikačeis autiv (above, 408). 601 When the illation or consequence is regarded as an effect, the particle date may be omitted before the in finitive, as in AFschyl. Ag. 250: 8tka toſs uév trafloºr pateſv rifférel rd pleaxov, where the main verb étrippére is neuter, and uabeiv to uéAAov expresses the effect of learning by experience or suffering. 602 If the effect is represented as an object feared, denied, or prohibited, the infinitive is preceded by un, to puri, or date puri. Here prevention is regarded as the effect or consequence of fear, denial, or prohibition; so that the SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 237 force of this construction may be regarded as partly objec tive and partly final, though it is formally illative. For ouk &v dpvotumv to pāv (Soph. Phil. 118) is merely objec tive := touro, to pāv (above, 584): but oùk dºv dipvotumu To un öpāv, or to un ou 3pāv would have conveyed an in ference, with some expression of an end. The following are examples: a. Arist. Eq. 572: root' direvijaavt’ &v, eſt' ripvoovro um retrokéval, i.e. “they would deny, and the effect of their denial would be that they had not fallen.” b. Herod. 1, 158: 'Aptorróðikos érye un troinorai rajra Kupatovs, i.e. “he hindered them, and the effect was that they did not do these things.” c. Soph. Antig. 264: 6eous dpkwuoreſv To purite epāoa, K. T. A. i.e. “to swear by the gods to the effect that we had nei ther done the deed,” &c. d. Eurip. Iph. T. 1348: q630s 3' jv date pin tévêa. tröða, i.e. “there was fear, and, as a consequence, caution, to the effect that the sheet was not wetted by the sea.” 603 If the main clause contains a negation, or interro gation, so as to become doubly negative, the particle oil is appended to un in the illative clause (above, 530, Obs.); thus: Plato, Men. 89, D: oux divaríðepal pun ou kaxos Aéys orðat. Soph. Trach. 90: ovëév čAAetwºrw to un ow Trāorav rv0éorðat rovë' dx10etav répi. Xen. Anab. III, 1, § 13: tí Čuroödv ºn oux, droda veſv; Sometimes 6Tws un with the indicative is substituted for pr; ot, with the infinitive; see (528). 604 The illative clause is also regularly connected with that on which it depends by the particles àpa, Toſyap, roſvvv, &c. The particle ouv is indicative rather of con 238 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. tinuation and retrospect (above, 567) than of inference: and, in general, it should be rendered rather “accordingly,” “as was said,” “to proceed,” than “therefore” which is properly expressed by dpa, and its compounds. It is to be remarked, however, that in their origin the ideas of con tinuation and inference are identical: ápa signifies “far ther” (75, 76); and in Thucyd. v1, 89, Kaº dir' éketvov stands for dpa in the conclusion of a regular syllogism. § VII. Final Sentences. 605 The end or intention of an action may be regarded sometimes as an object, or as an inferential consequence. It is not surprising, therefore, that the final sentence should so often approximate in form to the objective or illative sentence. Thus, such objective constructions as Bouxoua, Aéyew, C &v6potos répuke pixelv may be regarded as express ing the end no less than the object of action. And an illative clause with date may be tantamount to the ex pression of an end or effect. 606 There are three forms of the final sentence. (a) When the end is expressed by the infinitive. (b) When it is expressed by the future participle. (c) When it is ex pressed by a finite verb dependent on some relative or nega tive particle. Thus we may say, with very little difference of meaning: (a) *A0ev détkeſv, or as d8treſv. (b) #A0ev deukma ov, or as dótkifotov. (c) Adev (va, 6tros, als, or poet. Sºppa dāikiforo, where the first is, strictly speaking, an objective sentence, and the second a temporal sentence. * The third form is that which is specially appropriated to the expression of an end. In this form again, we have, as in the objective sentence, a reference to the indirect interrogation. For ſixtev ºva dāi kno'ot might be an answer to the question did tº ſixòev; 607. It follows from the nature of the subjunctive and optative moods (above, 292, 513, 538), that the subjunctive will be used after determinate, and the optative after inde terminate, tenses in these final clauses: thus we have: Ypdºpw, Ypſi\lºw, Yéypada, Iva udôns, #ypaq ov, Ypava, Śweypºpew, two ſidbols; SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 239 and in the subjunctive sentences: oùk Exw, oux Éw brot Tpdtronal, ouk eixon, eq Xov 6trol Tpatroiumv. Ouk 608 When the final sentence expresses an eventual conclusion, i.e. one in which an additional hypothesis is virtually contained, we may subjoin &v to as or öttws, but not to ºva. This chiefly occurs after imperative sentences: thus, Soph. Electr. 1495, 6: xoſpel S’ &v0a trep katéktaves tratepa Tov duov als &v év Taitº 0avns, “in order that you may, as by going there you will, die in the very place where you murdered him.” The optative is substituted for the subjunctive after past tenses, as in Herod. 1, 75,91, 99, 110. Similarly, we find the optative after another optative: Soph. OEnomaus, Fr. 423: Yevotuav aleros vvitéras as āv Totaffeinv, “would I were an eagle, in order that I might, as in that case I should, fly over the sea.” But as this eventual conclusion seldom needs to be expressed, the omission of the dºv is more common, especially with the optative. 609 When the end is negative, we either place un after ſva, 6tws, &c., or substitute it for these particles. And here we can always distinguish between the objective and the final sentence, both when the infinitive is used and when these particles appear: for ot, BoſNouai Aéyéiv, Aéyo 6+ oùx outws ëxel, Sokeſ uot dis owk &v ein Taita, are expres sions of an object considered as a fact : but flowAopal p ij Aéyéiv, Ypſipo (va un A0ms, are expressions of an end or purpose. The illative sentence sometimes stands on the same foot ing as the final (above, 602). Thus, when we have : 6tros od travtov roſtov Štiplexntéov, ou Aéya (Xen. Hier. 9. § 1), we have merely an objective sentence (above, 590); but when we have : 6tros or un Aéyés dp06s tdöe, oùk &v ovvaiumv Aéyev, (Soph. Antig. 685, above (528)), we must understand this as illative, i.e. in effect, partly objective and partly final. 610. When the negative end is an eventual one, we may insert &v after as or öttws, as in the former case; but in this case also we must not use ºva, nor can we insert the 240 SYNTAX &v after un only. OR CONSTRUCTION. The following is an example of the optative so used; Aeschyl. Agam. 363: tºr' 'AAešāvöpp Teſvovira traxal točov, Štros du prºte "po kapoº pint” witép àotpww BéAok ºxidiov orknvetev. 611 . The final sentences, like the prohibitive sentences with un (above, 529), are, by their nature, hypothetical clauses: as, therefore, we may say un KAévels as well as puri KAévys, we may say also, öpa 6Tws un kAéveis, and even åttws um KAévets without a previous imperative. 612 The infinitive and future indicative with ép' or ép 5 re - étrº Toſorde date or étrº tourº ép' º Te, may express the condition, or end proposed as the result of an action. The negative, when required, is always un and not ow. Thus, Thucyd. 1, 103: śvvéºnorav, q & Te Ātagu ěk tims IIeSotovviſorov kal uměétrote étiſłriorov.ral auths. Plato, Apol. 29 c : dºpteuév re ºr route pévrot eq' £re punkét év raúrn Tři Čntrfore &latp:/8ew pºnde pixo~opeſv. 613 We sometimes find that a subjunctive and op tative both depend upon a verb in a determinate tense: here the subjunctive denotes the first, and the optative the second, or ulterior consequence: thus in Thucyd. III, 22: Tapavioxov of IIAaTains ºppvºrous, 6tws do apm to anuela toſs troXeuíois fi kai ºn 3ontolev, “to make the enemies lights unintelligible,” which was the first consequence; and “to prevent the Thebans from coming to the aid of their friends,” which was an ulterior consequence, resulting from the former one. 614 If the end is not possible, or assumed to be so, as in the fourth case of conditional propositions (502, Iv), the final clause is expressed by the indicative mood; as in Soph. (Ed. T. 1386: el Tris akovojans ºr ºv wnyms ºf drov ſppayuds, oux àv éoxöunv to pun 'trokMeſoral rotuov &0\tov ćuas, iv riv rvºpäds Te Kał KAſtov pnéév. SYNTAX 241 OR CONSTRUCTION. § VIII. Causal Sentences. 615 The causal sentence contains the expression of some contemporary or antecedent fact, which explains or accounts for the main statement. Accordingly, the causal sentence may amount to a temporal sentence, expressed (a) by the participle (576, 577), or (b) by the particles signify ing postguam (581). But it may also be expressed by the emphatic particle ye (c) in combination with dipa, or (d) after a relative: or (e) by the relative with durí, óid, ºvera, &c. The following are examples of each class of causal sentences : 616 a. Participle: Aéyo &é tovë eveka, (3ov\duevos 80%al got 8trep £uot (Plat. Phaedon. p. 102, D). Obs. 1. The participles in the phrases tí Bovāduevos, tº Laflav, ri traffaiv, are all causal. Obs. 2. If the causal sentence involves a negation, we use oil and not uſi; as: oil touria as toºto, dyabós el (above, 530 c). Obs. 3. When the cause is stated as a matter of opinion, we prefix to the participle expressing the cause, whether it be in an absolute case, or in agreement with the subject, the relative particle is, ºrte, árs, āre ori, oia, otov (compare the similar objective sentences, 590). Thus: wis ourét évrov gºv rékvov, ppóvriče 37 (Eurip. Med. 1311): “since your children no longer exist, form your plans accordingly.” &re &n ovv oil travu tº ropos ºv d 'Erun 6ews &Aabev aurov karavaMaio as tas ovvduets eis ra &Aoya. (Plato, Protag. p. 321 B), i.e., “forasmuch, however, as Epimetheus was not at all (534) a wise man, he unconsci ously (578) exhausted all the endowments on the brute creation.” 617. b. Particles signifying postguam : víkn 8', 4treitep a tre+, Šutréðws uévo, (AEschyl. Ag. 827). 618 c. The particle ye="verily" combined with āpa = “therefore,” or “further,” is written yap. This combina tion does not differ very much in signification from yoºv D. G. G. 16 242 SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION. ye obv. Tàp signifies: “the fact is,” “in fact,” “as the case stands;" it may often be rendered “for,” but this English particle is much less extensive in its applications. Toov signifies: “at all events,” “at any rate,” “if it is not so in other cases, it is so in this;" it may also be rendered “for,” but in still fewer instances than Yap. Immediately follow ing kaſ, the particle yap often introduces a sentence, with the meaning, “and in fact,” et projects. In the same sense it is frequently placed after dAAd and dAA’ ow. The collocation ow Yap &v is often used to introduce a contradictory alterna tive, as: oº Yap &v čeºp' indumv, “I should not otherwise have come hither.” With the interrogative, Yap expresses the effect of something observed; thus: ri yap orov čupa avvrérnke; (Eurip. Med. 689,) “ah! why is thine eye bedimmed ?" The following passage will show the slight difference between Yap and étreſ: où Yáp ev duetépg Yvalug Aſpas otraore Béatriv dol av (Poſ/30s, dyntop peXéov' & tel dvtaxng' div tuvov aporévov yévvº. (Eurip. Med. 424): i.e. “the fact is, that Phoebus did not bestow the gift of lyric poetry on our sex: since, if he had, we should have given the males song for song.” But yap might have been writ ten for étreſ, cf. A.sch. Prom. 333: travros Yap ou retres viv' ou Yap eitriflis, “the fact is, you will altogether fail to persuade him : indeed, he is not easily persuaded.” See Porson, ad Eurip. Med. 139, 140. Tap is often placed first with an explanatory clause, which is sometimes fol lowed by otv, as in Herod. VI, 11 : étri šupoº Yap drums exeral juïv to Tpriyuata—vºv ºv, K. T. A. 619 d. Te alone is sometimes nearly equivalent to yap, especially when it follows uév: before Mév, or univ, it simply conveys an asseveration. But the use of ye in causal sentences is chiefly after the relative, to which it gives the same sense as the Latin quippe qui. Thus: of ye Tov piſaravr' dué outws driuws. Tarpíčos éâwôoſuévov ouk Goxov ovo' huvvav (Soph. (Ed. C. 428); i. e. “for they did not maintain or defend me.” SYNTAX 620 e. OR 243 CONSTRUCTION. otiveka, for Tourov čveka &rt; duff ºv, for divºrº rotºrwy &rt (above, 407) are common forms for the expression of the causal sentence; as, étroikteipw *é viv 60ouvek' &rn ovykaré(evKrai kakſ, (Soph. Aj. 123). The connexion between the causal and the illative sentence is best shown by the transition from the use of Yap, yoºv, &c. in the former, to that of &pa, Toiyap, oùv, &c. in the latter. § IX. Concessive Sentences. 621. The concessive sentence differs from the hypothe tical clause in the same way as et oux éâs differs from et an égs, namely, as an assertion of fact differs from a mere assumption; but we sometimes find conditional clauses used in a concessive sense, just as etiamsi may approxi mate in meaning to quamguam : and in a lively and vivid style the assumption may be stated as a fact past and gone; thus, kal &m = “even now,” or “just now,” may be used with the perfect indicative in the hurried statement of an hypothesis; e. g.: kal &m Teóvãot ris ué &é£eral troAis (Eurip. Med. 386); i.e. “they are just now dead (= suppose them dead); what city will receive me?” The commonest mode of expressing our “although” in Greek is by the participle, either alone (530 c), or followed by rep (in the poets), or preceded by kai rep. The student must be careful not to suppose that kat rep, in itself, signifies “although.” This fancy is the cause of the common blun der of placing kaf tep before a finite verb. The participle, which alone occurs in this combination, expresses the con cession, and kai Tep means, “even very much ;” like the Latin quam-vis, quantum-cis, “as much as you please.” If a negative is required, it must be ow. The concessive sentence is sometimes strengthened by äuws, eita, reira, “nevertheless,” which, though belonging to the verb, are sometimes, apparently, attached to the participle. Thus: Tiflow Yuvači, kai tep ow a répywv, Šutos (AEsch. Sept. c. Theb. 709). kgyº a'ikvoºga, ka? Yvvm rep oùo', 'ſuws (Eurip. Orest, 679). 16–2 244 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 622 The concession is often expressed by kat rol, “of a truth,” which is generally used with the finite verb, in the sense “and yet;” but is sometimes construed with the participle, like kai rep. Thus: kai to papév Yé tov dowvatov eval, dAA' Suws, K. T. A. (Plat. Phaedon. p. 68, E). ovće uot duplexéws to II. Traketov véuera, kai Toi orogoº, trapa poros eipnuévov (Id. Protag. p. 339, c). 623 For kaf rot, in both its constructions, the Attic writers idiomatically employ Kai Tavra, which may be rendered “withal,” “all the while.” a. Like kaf tep, with the participle: "Oumpos—otre ix0 ſaw aurous érrià, kal rajra éti fla Aattºn &vras, otte épôoſs ºpéaow (Plat. Resp. p. 404, B), “although they were living by the sea.” After the participle: vºv Youv rexeſpncras, ovéév čv kai rajra (Plat. Resp. p. 341, c), “now at any rate you have made the attempt, being nobody all the while,” or, “although you are no body.” Followed by Šuws: kai Tavra tpels detaias Tpd{avres, duws paré riuás rapa volunorai (Thucyd. III, 66). b. Like kat Tot with the finite verb : Koſºpws ék uéowv apkva udrov ºpovaev (AEsch. Eumen. 112), “and yet,” (or “and withal") “he has lept lightly from the midst of the nets.” With an adjective kai Taura means: “and that too,” or kai raora “ and withal.” We must not confuse kai rajra with kdkeſvo, which is used with the participle in Plato Resp. p. 442, c. § X. Conclusion. Irregularities of Construction. 624 Syntax, as a part of Grammar, is concerned only with those constructions which are according to rule. Ir regular or ungrammatical constructions, which arise from haste, carelessness, or colloquial usage, must be pointed out by the teacher, when they occur. The following are the chief anomalies, which are found in the Greek authors. 245 SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION. 625 Anacoluthon (divako'Aov6ov), or non-sequence, is when the end of a sentence does not correspond to the beginning, and generally arises from a change in the mode of expression, as if the writer had fogotten how he began; thus: aroſłAévas Yap irpos roorov rôv aróAov, Édoğe pol TraykaAos elva (Plato, Legg. p. 686, D). 626. A syndeton (dorſvöetov), or non-conjunction, is when two really connected sentences follow without any particle of connexion, whether copulative or adversative. This omission is generally designed to produce an abrupt emphasis. It is most common in lyric poetry. 627 Ellipse (#AAervis), or suppression, is when a word or phrase, which is grammatically necessary for the com pletion of a sentence, is so easily understood from the in flexions or construction that it is omitted without creating any ambiguity. Thus, if we say śrutte‘to troXAds, we readily understand TAriyas. If we say of TáAal, td. Tpív, every one supplies évôptotrol, Tpdyuata (402). Such words as 636s, yn, &c. are constantly suppressed with feminine adjectives or pronouns; as: Tiěe étröpeweto, ſi èpnuos, &c. So also the neuter article with a genitive case, as: Ta Tův Bečv, “all that belongs to or proceeds from the gods.” There is sometimes a suppression of the apodosis of a con ditional proposition, when it is directly opposed to another alternative, as in Plat. Protag. p. 325, D: éav pew ékov ret 0ntai et éé pri, K. T. A., “if the child obeys willingly, all is well—if not, they compel him.” Sometimes there is only a quasi-ellipse in this case, as in Thucyd. III, 44, which ought to be read: #v Te Yap droprivo Távv doukouvras ad toſs, ou 3rd routo kai dirokreſval keyeſoro, #v Te kal Xov rds tº Évyyvalums (scil. dropriva aurows), elev, “let that pass, what of that ?” Aposiopesis (drooruitnois) is a kind of ellipse. Thus we omit the imperative in Soph. Antig. 577: un rpuſ?ds éti ! and in the corresponding English, “no more loitering !” 628 Brachylogy (8paxvAoyia), or brevity of expres sion, is when something is formally omitted, but really in cluded in some other part of the sentence from which it may be supplied. This is of very frequent occurrence in Greek, as in other languages. Thus in AEsch. Ag. 364: kai row uév firew, Tov 3 étrétopépeu, kakov kaktov &M\o w y f - f 246 SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION. Trnua we have to supply, after fixeiv, the words ºrnua kakov pépovra, which are suggested by what follows. One of the most important kinds of brachylogy is the zeugma (Čevyua), when a particular verb, which is pro perly applicable only to one part of the sentence, is made generally applicable to the whole context. Thus in Pind. O. 1, 88: Aew & Otvoudov (3tav trapdevou Te orivevvov, the meaning is, “he conquered the mighty OEnomaus, and ob tained the virgin as his bride,” so that éryev must be sup plied for the second clause. By another species of brachy logy we have contractions of the sentence; as in Thucyd. II, 59: oikte oraºppov, Aagóvras, where the noun and its epithet must be repeated in the accusative after Aaffèvras. 629 Pleonasm (TAeovaruds), or redundance of phrase ology, which is the converse of brachylogy, can hardly be considered as a grammatical irregularity. Omissions may produce an ungrammatical structure, but superfluities leave the syntax as it was. The figura etymologica (464) very often amounts to a pleonasm. Repetitions of synonyms, such as taxw addis, taxa tows, secondary predications of the main predicate, such as éqn Aéytov, and repetitions in a negative form, such as ovy firiota GAAd pºdºigta, all belong to this class. 630 Hyperbaton (ºrépſ3arov), or inversion, is when words are placed out of their natural order. Plato uses this term in speaking of the transposition of the word uév in a passage of Simonides (Protag. p. 343, E), and exempli fies the thing in Resp. p. 358, E: trepi Yap rivos &v uáA Aov toxNaxis tis vow ºxov xaſpot Aéywv kal dkovov; where troxAdkis belongs to the participles at the end of the sen tence. The hyperbaton invariably takes place when there is a brachylogy of opposition, as in AEsch. Prom. 276: Tpos &AAot' &AAov trnuovº Tportúvel, “calamity sits down now by one man, now by another” (äAAote uév ºpds &AAov, &AAote éé Trpos &A\ov). PART VI. METRE. § I. Definitions. 631 RHYTHM (jv0.16s, numerus), is a certain symmetry produced by a methodical arrangement of words according to their long and short syllables, and by a recurrence of an emphasis at intervals. If the rhythm is not regulated by fixed laws, it is said to be prosaic (soluta, orationis mu merus). If the emphasis recurs according to a definite measure, the rhythm becomes metre (uérpov). Every recurrence of the emphasis is called a metre, and those col lections of metres, which recur as distinct wholes, are called verses (a rixot, versus). 632 The emphasis on which the metre depends, is called the ictus, because the time was marked by a stamp of the foot, and when the emphatic and unemphatic parts of the metre are contradistinguished, they are called the arsis (dports) and thesis (0éois) respectively, i.e. the raising and lowering of the voice. 633 . It has been already mentioned (34) that a short syllable is considered as one mora, or time, and that a long syllable has two of such mora. 634. It is customary to call every division of time, from two short syllables up to eight mora, in certain com binations, by the name of a foot; thus we have : Of two syllables: Pyrrhichius, Iambus, Trochaeus, or Choreus, v V, of two mora. r Aoyous, – V, Towarde, three mora. º Spondaeus, — —, Of three syllables: Tribrachys, \ \, \, , Dactylus, as Adyos, v –, - Q \, , Anapaestus, V. V - , Amphibrachys, J – v, - Totºrovs, four morae. Aéyere, Turrete, Tapuſov, four mora. Šuotye, three morae. - 248 METRE. Creticus, or Amphimacer, - V - , as traovortov, of five morae. 2. Bacchius;. v — —, Shavris, Antibacchius, – — v, Tvrtovori, Molossus, Tvrtóvrov, six morae. — — —, Of four syllables: Proceleusmaticus, vvvv, drórouos, four morae. Paton primus, --, -, -, Tavrátopos, five mora. Paton secundus, v – ov, Štúrrero, Papon tertius, \ \ – v, érétvºrro, Pazon quartus, \ \ºv-, Boped&ov, Ionicus a minore, ºv--, 3aoixetov, six mora. Ionicus a majore, --~~, reporétroAts, – Diiambus, \ – v-, divočºvois, Ditrochaeus, – v –v, Šköoffévra, - - - - Choriambus, ‘...." ----, dºxº~. - iambus), Antispastus, v––v, dućptn.ua, Epitritus primus, v---, dvaxynitov, seven mora. Epitritus secundus, -9––, 8va rvXojvrov Epitritus tertius, ––v-, tropporépw Epitritus quartus, –––v, avutpdroovori, Dispondeus, ----, knpux6évrov, eight mora. Although the student will meet with this nomenclature everywhere, and must therefore be acquainted with it, there can be no doubt that it points to a classification, which is not only unnecessary, but erroneous. Indeed, it - - would not be too much to say, that all the difficulties which beset the study of metre arise from the original blunder of giving the name foot, indiscriminately, to a mere arsis or thesis, and to a complete metre. While, therefore, in the following remarks, it is thought necessary to retain this nomenclature for certain combinations of syllables, care will be taken to make as little use as possible of the term foot in speaking of them. 635 If in any verse the regular course of the rhythm is preceded by an unemphatic syllable, whether long or short, or by a Pyrrhichius, this is called an anacrusis, or 249 METRE. “back-stroke.” If the anacrusis extends to three or four mora, it is called a basis. It is customary to mark the onward course of the ictus by the acute accent, that of the back-stroke by the grave, and the basis by the two cross ing one another; thus the Asclepiadean verse is marked: Mâcenás atavis || 6dite | régibus ||. The Alcaic: Vidés ut | altà ||stét nice candidum ||. If the rhythm is supposed to be imperfect, or redundant, to the same extent at the end of the verse, the metre is said to be catalectic, or hyper-catalectic. Thus the Saturnian measure, or tripudiatio, which is common to old Latin with nearly all languages, properly begins with an anacrusis; e.g.: Ma | lúm da|bünt Meltélli || Nació poſáta ||. The king was in his párlour || cointing |oiſt his móney ||. And the common pentameter consists of two catalectic tripodia, as compared with the accompanying hexame ter, which is acatalectic ; e.g.: Grátulor| CEchalilám titullis accédere | réstris || Victorém cicta || sticeubuisse querór ||. 636 Rhythms are divided into three classes, according to the ratio between the arsis and the thesis. lf the ratio is +, they are called equal; if #, they are termed double; if #, they are designated hemiolian (intéAlos, sesquialter) rhythms. To these some add the epitrite rhythms, in which the ratio is #. 637 The dactyl and anapast furnish equal rhythms for — = v v. The iambus and trochee furnish double rhythms; for v : — :: 1 : 2, and — : v :: 2 : 1. The cretic and paeonic rhythms are hemiolian; for — v : — :: 3 : 2. - But practically, all metre may be considered as made up of equal or double rhythms; i.e. the ratio of the arsis to the 250 METRE, thesis is always, in reality, either 1 : 1 or 2 : l ; and even the double rhythms are so arranged metrically that the result is the equal ratio. 638 We shall begin, therefore, with the primitive equal rhythms, i.e. the dactylic, and show how the others are successively derived from and assimilated to these. § II. Equal Rhythms. A. Dactylic Verse. 639 The only dactylic rhythm, which appears in long systems of single lines, is called the Hearameter, because it contains six metres, or repetitions of the ictus. In these metres, the arsis is always a long syllable; the thesis may be either one long or two short syllables (i.e. the foot, as it is called in the ordinary nomenclature, may be either a dactyl or a spondee), except in the fifth metre, which, as a general rule, will take the latter, and in the sixth, which must take the former alternative, i. e. the fifth will, in nearly every case, be a dactyl, and the sixth will, in every case, be a spondee. The following are examples: Töv 3’ diraueiſłóuevos ºrporépn tróðas dri's 'Axi\Aeſs + v v |+ v v |+ v v |+ v v |+ v J |+– ToMAds 3 ip6tuovs Navyds "Aièi Tpoſavlev +–|--|--|- v J |+ v v |+– oùveka Tov Xpwonv itſuno' dpnthpa + J J |+— |+ – |+–|+— |+— As the sixth metre always terminates the system, the quantity of the last syllable is not taken into account, or is common, as it is called. In Homer, dactyls are more usual than spondees in any one of the first five feet. In the fifth foot the spondee is of very rare occurrence. 640 It is considered almost essential to the harmony of a line that some one or more of its metres should be divided between different words. This division is called a Capsura, or “cutting.” The half of a metre is technically called a Hemimer (muluepés), and the most usual and pleas ing capsuras, which divide the third and fourth metres 251 METRE. respectively, are called the penthemimeral and hepthemime ral caesuras. 641 In the dactylic hexameter there is generally a penthemimeral capsura, as in all the lines quoted above; sometimes also a hepthemimeral capsura, as in the first two of those lines. 642 Sometimes a sort of penthemimeral capsura is effected by dividing a dactyl in the third metre between a trochee-whether constituting a whole word, or forming its last two syllables, and a short syllable at the begin ning of a word. There are three instances of this in the first six lines of the Iliad, and the practice is very common throughout the poem. The two species are given in the consecutive lines: Juſv uév fleo doſev 'ONiſutta èquat' exovires ékºréporal IIpiduoud tróAlv et 3 oikač iréadai 643 As the first syllable of every metre necessarily has the ictus, we often find in Homer that a syllable naturally short is made long, in consequence of its belonging to the arsis. This is particularly the case when there is a caesura also. As an example of both we may take : a r z f * -- q)ſ×e kwortyvnre kougai re ue 36s re uot frtrovs. 644 Many peculiarities of Homeric versification are due to the loss of an original digamma (above, 18, j): thus it is certain that Il. 1, 193: •r t • Q2 er w r w w w dws & raû0' ºppoive kard ºppéva kai kata 6vudv, was written and pronounced originally &Fos C raû0' ºpuaive, K. T. A. (above, 170.) 645 Not only does custom require, that, at the close of a dactylic system, the dactyl should be represented by a spondee, or indeed by a trochee, in which the thesis is re presented bya single syllable, or even a single time; but the ictus alone may occasionally suffice for the close of a set of dactylic metres. This is particularly, the case with the dactylic penthemimer; and a particular class of poems, 252 METRE. the Elegiac, is written in complete Hexameter lines followed alternately by Hexameters consisting of two penthemimers. It is the fashion to call these clipt Hexameters by the name of Pentameters ; but this is decidedly erroneous; for the arsis occurs six times in the second, no less than in the first line of the elegiac couplet, and there is no reason for supposing that the omission of the thesis, after the penthe mimeral casura, can alter the measurement of the line, which depends on the repetitions of the arsis. Example: axiuata 3' &pxnais Tóra unt Trépev, 3a'a' évi travrºp küuata roleira, Xetuati vić daori + v v |+ –| + : v \ |+ v v |+ v v | + - || + J J |+ – + ||+ v v |+ v v |+||. 646 From the custom of finishing off the hexameter line with a spondee, which in the elegiac line was represented by a long syllable only, arose the practice of counting dac tylic rhythms by dipodia, in which there was only a single arsis to each pair of feet. The simplest form of this dacty lic dipodia is the Adonius, which finishes off the Sapphic stanza. But it very often appears as a catalectic dipodia, i.e. as a triemimer, in which case it is called a choriambus, and sometimes whole systems of dactylic verse are repre sented by choriambi. The following examples will show the successive steps in the process: a. Simple Adonius, or dactylic dipodia, trötvia 6vudv + v v |——||. b. Two dipodiae: douplexes Xapteorora xexièof + v v |— v v |+ v v |——||. c. Penthemimer: év če Barovoidèns +v v |— v v || 1 ||. d. Hephthemimer: Tavra pév as āv d &nuos étas + v v | – Q - |+ v v |—||. 6. Hexameter divided into three dipodiae, with a basis 253 METRE. prefixed to each : the first two are called Glyconei, and the third Pherecrateus : yovvowpat o' éAaqºnſłóAe +—||+v v |— v J. £av0) waſ Atos dyptºv ---|-- ~ v |— v. C. 8éortow "Aprepa 6mptov -*—|| 1 J v | –– Hexameter of dipodiae, without a change in the last f. foot : Môo' dye KaNAióta, 697atep Atos + v v |– v v |+ v v | – 9 º' w * * 3. - apx epatov r * * 3 */ 3 tuepov etrew w, eart + v v |— v J |+ v v |– v v juvov, kal Xaptévta Tíðet Xopov +–|— v J |+ v v |– 9 v |. g. Two dipodiae with basis prefixed, the former dipodia appearing as triemimer or choriambus: this is called the Asclepiadean verse: ev w * r • #A0es ék a r - Treparov yas r º éAeqavºrſvav +v ||+ v v |—||+v V | – v v Aaffav Tó {{q}eos Xpwoodétav čxov &—|| 1 J J |—||+ v v |– º – ||. h. Two triemimeral or imperfect dipodiae precede the complete dipodia in the trimeter of dipodiae : r f *".... • w v */ / Téyye rveiſuova Foºve' to Yap datpov reputéAAéral -*—||+ v v |—||+ v v |—|| + v v |- v \, &AAo ‘pureiſans Tpdtepov &évêpeov dutréAw -*— Q |+ C v |—|| 1 J J |—||+ v v |– 9 v pinflèv - B. Anapaestic Verse. 647 The anacrusis gave rise to another form of dac tylic verse, which derived its name Anapaest (dvantato), from the same circumstance as the anacrusis itself, namely, from the back-stroke in the rhythm. The dactylic ictus, pre 254 METRE. ceded by an anacrusis of two short syllables, was employed as a suitable expression of the marching step. And, alter nating with dactyls and spondees, anapaestic dipodiae were found to be a convenient vehicle for martial music. There are two peculiarities about this verse which establish its origin, (1) that the system, whether long or short, is always terminated by a catalectic dipodia, i.e. by a long syllable after a pure anapaest, so that the cadence was always that of the dactylic hexameter; (2) that before this termination there was no division of lines marked by a common quan tity in the concluding syllables, but one continuous sequence of metres: this was called the Synaphea, and indicates the secondary and incomplete nature of the anapaest itself. 648 The most usual anapaestic system is the Dimeter, which consists of longer or shorter collections of perfect dipodiae, either in pairs or single metres, followed by a pair of dipodiae, the last of which is catalectic. This catalectic dimeter is called a Paraemiac. There is only one ictus in each dipodia, and this falls on the long syllable of the first foot in the metre. As a result of this rhythmical arran ment, it was desirable that every dipodia should be de tached, i.e. there should be no casura between two dipodiae. This, however, is not necessary in the Paraemiac, in which an attempt is made to imitate the cadence of the dactylic hexameter. But in the Paramiac it is necessary that the last foot of the last complete dipodia should be an anapaest, unless the anapaest appears in the catalectic dipodia. An other consequence of the dactylic origin of Anapaestic verse is observable in the rules of quantity to which it is subject. For here, as in the Homeric Hexameter, even the Attic poets introduce open vowels and diphthongs, i.e. long vowels and diphthongs in the ultima are short before vowels in the next word. . The following example may suffice to show the principles of this metre: 3ékarov pew ros té?’ ‘Tel IIpiduov v J +|v < –||v < 4- 9 O – || pure dimeter. péyas duričikos v J + v v – || pure basis. 30póvov Atóðev, kal ºtakrit Tpov v v - v v – ||--|-dipodia. ſ two spondees in second METRE. 255 Tuns, dxupov (ºyos 'Arpetētov – +|- C – |+ v v |--|| only one anapaest. atóAov 'Apyetwv xixiovaſtav v v--|--|- v J ||——|| Do. Tmorè dro Xºpas + v v |--| dactylic basis. ripav orpartóriv apwydiv — + v v – ||— v +|—|| paroemiac. 649 The anapaestic Tetrameter catalectic, which is of constant occurrence in the Greek Comedies, consists of a Dimeter followed by a Paroemiac. It does not differ in principle from the regular succession of Dimeters, but the rules for its structure admit of fewer exceptions. For example, the sequence – v J C v — , which is of rare occurrence in the regular set of Dimeters, never appears in the Tetrameter. The spondaic Paroemaic, which is occa sionally found in the regular system, is never allowed in the Tetrameter. In general, dactyls seldom appear in the second foot of the dipodia; but sequences of dactyls may appear in the Tetrameter, no less than in the series of Dime ters. The following may serve as examples: ei uév tis dump Töv dpxatov koppeočičdakaAos juás + – |\ v – || + –|--|--|v v – ||v v +|—|| aMA 6AoAwfare pawouévaloriv rais dpxatawaw Abijvais - J - ||— v v ||+ v v |——||+–|--||v v +|—|| 3rt orwppovikos koux divorros éatmöna as épMudpet v v- J J – || + v v |--|--|--||v v-| – ||. 650 In the case of the anapaest, no less than in that of the dactyl, the thesis is occasionally represented by a single long syllable. It is usual to term this mutilated anapaestic dipodia a foot, i.e. the Ionicus a minore, so called in contradistinction to a certain form of the choriambic rhythm cum anacrusi, which was termed the Ionicus a ma jore. The origination of this metre is shewn in the following lines, where the anapaests appear by the side of the Ionics: "Aatas dro yás r JJ- J J -| 256 METRE. tepov TuđAov duevara, Bodø J J - | – || J J + | – || J J +| – || Bpouſe tróvov ſºv «duatów T' ev J J +| J J +|—|| J J +|—|| kduatov Baxxtov evačouéva+1fledv — J. J. --|-||J J +|—|| J J +|- ||. In the following the anapaests appear after the Ionici: which however are preceded by a long anapaestic Parodos; retrépakev uév 6 treprétto\ts #&n J. J.--|| J J +| – || J J +|—|| Bao (Aetos atpatos eis duritropov yeſtova xapaw f r f f f J J +| – || J J +| – || J J + | – || J J + |—|| Avočéaup axe6tº Topóuov duetvas J J - || – || J J +| – || J J +|—|| 'A6apuavtſeos "EAAas J J - J J +|—|| woxwºongov 68torua Čºyov dupl/3axºv auxevi révrov J J - J J +|-|| J J +|J J – ||+ v v | – – ||. § III. A. Double Rhythms. Trochaic Verse. 651 By the omission of the second mora of the thesis, the dactyl becomes a trochee; by the omission of the first mora of the thesis, the anapaest becomes an iambus. There is every reason to believe, that, as the dactyl is antecedent to the anapaest, so is the trochee to the Iambus. 652 The simplest and oldest form of trochaic verse is the Ithyphallicus or tripudiatio, in which the ictus recurred three times, as in: Tavrpoqos trexelds + v | + v |+ C || kappetal Yap jön + J |+ v |+ —||. 653 With an anacrusis, two or more couplets of this constitute the Saturnian verse of the ancient Italians (635), 257 METRE. 654. But at a very early period, trochees were arranged in dipodiae with a single ictus to each, which necessarily fell on the first syllable. The commonest arrangement was that called the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic, in which two complete dipodiae are followed by two dipodiae incomplete, i.e. by a Ankºbios, as it was termed. The scheme of this metre is as follows: l 2 3 ºf: - 5 4 7 6." 8 z +J — v || + J — v ||| + v | – v || + v |—|| ar & J C v v v || 0 v \ |\ v v || 0 vol v vollovo r J–| V V - Vv - a. In the case of proper names a dactyl may appear in the first, second, third, fifth, or sixth place. b. If the last word is a cretic, or the 7th foot a tri brach, the 6th cannot be either a spondee or an anapaest. c. And if the first dipodia terminates with a word, accompanied by a pause in the sense, the second place will only admit the trochee or tribrach. d. The first pair of dipodiae must terminate without Caesura. The following may suffice as examples: et Tá8 to0, yńs āvaro'a ºrnade uſi ore &s ppgoal + J | – J ||+ v |– J ||+ v | – J ||+ v |—|| kouros et a trovčaſs retroi60s aſ ore ordſ ovoiv 6aveſv f f f f + J — — ||+ J|— —|| + J |— – || + v |—|| kä6' 6 Bpónios, ºs ºuotye paiveral, Šćav Aéyo + J J J J ||+ v |– J ||+ v |— – || + v ||—|| £ºyyováv tº unv, IIvadènv re róv ráðe Évvěpávrd uo + J | – J||+ v v | – J ||+ v |— – ||+ v |—|| 655 The trochaic dipodia, played a very important part in the structure of Greek choral poetry, and at a very early period was regarded as a metrical unit, equivalent rhythmically to a dactyl. The process was the same as that by which the choriambus was formed from the dactylic dipodia; namely, the latter half of the thesis was either not expressed or disregarded. Even the original arrange D. G. G. 258 METRE. ment of trochees, as single feet each containing a double rhythm, presumed that an ictus might represent a trochee, and the cretic therefore might stand for two successive trochees in the Saturnius. In fact, any thesis in the Satur nius, except the last, might be omitted at pleasure: it was only necessary that there should be a tripudiatio, or triple recurrence of the arsis. A fortiori, therefore, in the tro chaic dipodia, which constituted only a single metre and admitted only a single ictus, the thesis of the second foot might be disregarded. And we find from the first that it was considered a matter of indifference, whether this second foot was a spondee or a trochee. So frequently, at last, was the spondee substituted for the trochee, that the Romans, who imitated the later Greek rhythms, invariably placed a spondee in the second foot of the trochaic dipodia. To this mode of considering the trochaic dipodia, which was the foundation of hemiolian rhythms, we must return, after first discussing the other class of double rhythms. B. Iambic Verse. 656 Although the trochee, like its parent the dactyl, was used as a distinct metre, each foot containing an arsis and thesis, the iambus, like its parent the anapaest, always appears in dipodia, the second member of which received the ictus. So that, from the first, it represented an equal rather than a double rhythm. As the second foot in the trochaic dipodia, so the first foot in the iambic dipodia, might almost always be a spondee: and in the longer sys tems of iambic verse, a dactyl might generally appear for this spondee where the trochaic verse admitted an anapaest, and rice versä. 657 The most important, and perhaps the oldest species of iambic verse, was the Trimeter Acatalectic or Senarius, which contained three dipodia. The scheme of this metre, as it appeared in the dialogues of the Greek tragedians, is as follows: l 2 3 4 5 6 v– v 4. J- | U+ v— 1v• v \ |\ \0 v || v v - |v < \ |\ \, \! - V_w v v \v - - V.v v 259 METRE. a. In the case of proper names an anapaest may appear in any place except the last. b. These licenses in the structure of the iambic dipodia are qualified by the casura. a. Every senarius ought properly to have either the penthemimeral or the hephthemimeral casura, i.e. the third or the fourth foot ought to be divided between two words. The third foot is very rarely included within a word, and there is hardly an instance in which both the third and - - fourth feet are contained within a word. An elision some times produces a quasi-capsura. £8. When the caesura takes place in the tribrach, it should be between the first and second syllables, i.e. before the ictus on the second syllable. 'y. The dactyl in the third place is limited to the case, when its first syllable is in the penthemimeral caesura, or is a monosyllabic word. 8. There should not be any casura in the fifth foot, if this is a spondee. In other words, if the last word of the verse is a cretic, it must be preceded by a monosylla ble or a short syllable. This is called the rule respecting the pause. e. The anapaest, allowed in the first foot, must be in cluded in a word, except in the case of an article or prepo sition immediately followed by its case. And the anapaest allowed in proper names must not be divided between two words. The following examples may suffice. 1 Pure verse, hephthemimeral casura: Traxai kvvnyerouvra kai perpoiſºevov v — v - J - J. : +| J – v- || 2, Tribrach in first place, spondees in third and fifth, penthemimeral casura: âyere row dºpov čh trot' év Tpoig tróda v v V v --|- : — J. --|-- J --|| 3 Tribrach in second place, spondees in first and third, hephthemimeral casura: TpvXnpa Tepi Tpuxmpov eiuévnv Xpda — — v. & J —— v : +| J – v +|| 7—2 260 METRE. 4 Tribrach in third place with both caesuras, other feet pure : Trématov Aakiruat' déókin' GA/3tois Éxely • – v 4-|v : J C v-|- – - + || 5, Tribrach in fourth place with both casuras, and spon dee in third: TrøAuv re bet{w rivěe pakapuotépaw v – J --|- : — v : & v |v — v-l 6 Tribrach in fifth place, both casuras, spondee in first and third : dAAovs Tupdvvous autov Švra Bao'aéa — — v. 4- — ; – J. : +|J v J C +|| 7 Dactyl in the first place, penthemimeral casura: oºk dpiðuov ćAAws dAA’ wreprarovs q'puytov — v v v- — ; – v-|v — 0 +|| 8 Dactyl in third place, with penthemimeral casura: Évagoſori vairois Baorºtköv Šk Čwndrov — — v.-- : v v \,-]—— C, 4-, 9 The same preceded by a monosyllable: Tof Yap uoxeiv uot &vvarov, eſs Totovs (3porows — — v.--|- v v v.--— J 1 || 10 Anapaest in first place, and only quasi-capsura: qixotipſas traſ' pin ord y” doukos i fleds v v – Q --|-- ~ & Q |v — 0 + || 11 Anapaest of proper name in the fifth, with both C&SuraS : époi pew ow8és u000s "Avriyovn pºwv v-v 1 |– : — v : 1 |v v – Q 1 || 658 In comedy the anapaest was admitted into every place except the last, and the dactyl might appear in all the odd feet. 1 Thus we have: Kardſła, karáða, kardſła, kata/3a, kara/3rigoua, v v- w v- |v v — v v-|v v-v +|| 2 avrás dépa ris untpos autów Yevouévn — — v.--— v +|— J J J +|| 261. METRE. 659 The comic writers also use an Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic, which, like the Trochaic Tetrameter, is made up of two complete dipodiae, followed by a catalectic or incom plete dipodia. The following scheme exhibits the allowable substitutions for the Iambus: I 2 3 4 5 9 – 9 + 9 – 9 + | 9 – 6 9 + 7 8. 9 — 4 vuv J&J v J C v&J U U 9 U&O — \'V 9J– - V-J V Q Q + JC – — \-) \) 9 O + v v – Q Q 4. And even the seventh place may be occupied by an ana paest in the case of a proper name. The following examples may suffice: as elkás otiv dateve's yépoviras āvöpas #3n ––v- w — v-|v — v-v —-|| éyévero Mevaximuras rotºv baſópas re IInvexórny &é v v v J & V | – — v. 4-l— — v. 4-|v v — +|| 660 In some of the shorter systems of iambic verse, the first place is regularly filled by the anapaest. This is the case in the well-known Anacreontics: such as the perovvktious troff ºpais, and pakapíčopew ore rétrič. 661 § IV. Hemiolian Rhythms. Of the hemiolian rhythms, the oldest and most common was that which emanated from the cretic, taken as the representative of a trochaic dipodia. Here the trochee was considered as the arsis, and the thesis was represented by a single long syllable, so that the ratio between them was that of 3 : 2. To this class belong the Paeonic measures, which are of very frequent occurrence, especially those in which the first or fourth Papon appears by the side of pure cretics; this resolution of one of the long syllables is gene rally confined to the earlier places in the verse, and the true cretic rhythm is made to appear at the end, where we sometimes find the trochaic dipodia itself. The following are examples: 262 METRE. 1 Nearly pure dimeters, terminating in a trochaic dipodia: oux éðpas pyov ove' +v—1+v— du/30Åās, dAAd Xpw f f +v— +v – - **N - oral yicos Irwuta; + vvJ +v — | xpm trap' evºaſta\ov 4 - – I'— 9 - | vaov čA +v— 66vras d6póv r &eſłal. r f + v — | + v — — || 2 First paeons terminating in cretic: pakapíčouev. piakapi Avropieves - * - > - ºr - ore toº to 1 v V vſ 1 v v v | + v v 9 |+ 9 - || 3 First paeons including two resolved metres: troo p' dp 6s ékdaeore; ríva römov dpa aroré véuetal; 1 v J J & J U vol & J J J J & J J – || 4 Fourth paeons: w w - en r pera 8é 'yav Jöard - ºr - w tokeorvov * , r a mqaviore vº. & J J – |& 99 – lº. 9 - – |& J U – || 662 The iambic form of hemiolian rhythm, in which the ictus falls after a short syllable in the arsis, is generally called the Bacchius. It is of less frequent occurrence, because less pleasant to the ear, than the Cretic measure. 1 Tetrameters: e - * ºn z - º - d Taupos 3' towev Kupišew twº dpxdv. • 4 – 19 4 – 19 4 – 19 + – q6dgavros 3' en' p'yous ſpottnerioreraſ viv. - + -l o 4 – 19 4 – v 4 – J 4 - || METRE. 2 263 Pentameter: Tpos &AAav 3’ exative * + –|*4 – ovuqopdu Tāorèe Kpetorow. 4 – 19 + - io 4 - || 6eos This line (Eurip. Hel. 643) is followed by an anapaestic line, and that again by a cretic. § V. Asynartete and Antispastic Verses. 663 Besides these systems of verses, in which the metre was regulated by an uniformity of rhythm, the Greeks used to combine in their poetical compositions rhythms of different kinds and different origins. 664 If rhythms of a different kind, but of the same origin, were put together—i.e. if the course of the rhythm was uninterrupted, though the relation of arsis and thesis in different parts of the verse was not uniform—the verse was asymartete (davvaptntos), or “unconnected.” Thus, combinations of dactyls or choriambi with trochees and cretics, and of anapaests or ionici with iambi and bacchii, would form asymartete verses. 665 But if rhythms of a different origin, though of the same kind, were put together—i.e. if the rhythm went up and down, although the relation of arsis or thesis was uniform—the verse was called antispastic (duria wraatikós), or “inconsistent.” a. Asymartetes. 666. Of the asynartete measures by far the most important are those which exhibit dactyls, or systems of dactyls, by the side of trochees, or systems of trochees. These are generally called logaaedic verses. Thus we have 1 Dactylic tetrameter followed by an Ithyphallicus: oºk 36' Šuws 64AAets draxov Xpda' kāppetal Yap #on. + v v || 4 - | + v vſ 1 v v || 1 v | 1 v | 1 – || 2 Dactylic trimeter followed by a Lecythius: dAAd u' 6 AugueAris, é, 'raſpe, 3duvata tró00s. +uv || 4 - 9 || 4 - ||+ 9 – 9|+ v |—|| 3 In Soph. Antig. 339–341, we have nine dactyls followed by an Ithyphallicus. 264 METRE. 4 Trimeter cum anacrusi followed by Ithyphallicus: 'Epagnovićn XaptAae, xpmud to yeaolov. vl 1 Jul 1 Jul 19 || 1 O | 1 v | 1 J 667 The most systematic combinations of dactyls and trochees are those found in the Sapphic and Alcaic stanzas, in the Doric rhythms of Pindar, and in the Glyconic cho ruses of Sophocles. The student will best learn the latter by a study of Sophocles and Pindar; it will be sufficient here to give the laws of the Sapphic and Alcaic verse. 668. The Sapphic stanza presumes that the dactyl is rhythmically equivalent to the trochaic dipodia; the Alcaic stanza places the double by the side of the single rhythm, dipodia for dipodia, and inserts two trochaic dipodiae to counterbalance the greater weight of the dactyls. That this must have been the intention of the arranger is clear; for if the trochaic dipodia in the Sapphic stanza had not been considered as a rhythmical unit, corresponding to the dactyl, there would have been a mass of twelve dis tinct trochees overbalancing five dactyls. But on the other supposition, there are six dipodiae to five dactyls, just as in the Alcaic stanza ten trochees, supported in three cases by anacrusis, are considered rhythmically equivalent to six dactyls. 669 The schemes of these stanzas are as follows: Sapphic Stanza. 4 * –v + v v || 4 J – 9 (ter) + vv | + – Alcaic Stanza. <| + 0 + 9 || 4 - 0 | + v v (bis) * | 1 v 4, 9 + v 1 sº || + 9 U + v v || 1 v 4 sº || which are exemplified in the following stanzas : Sapphic. paivetaí plot knvos toros 6eoſow 4 - – - || 4 ~ 9 || – 9 - J 265 METRE. gupew' ºvnp 3rris evdvrids rol +v — —| 4 - 9| 4 - – -| toºdvet kal TAdotov dºv paved + v — —|+ v v | + 9 — — - t -orac v7rotkovet. + v v || 4 trousixd5pov d6avar’ 'Appoètra + 9 – 9 || 1 v v | + v — — waſ Atós, òoAgrãoke, Atoorouat ore + 9 – 9 || 1 Jul 1 v — sº w º * y sy 3 / w pin u' àorator, pin8' oviator. 3duva, +v— 0 | + vv | + 9 — — | 69 r Trorvia, upov. + vv | 4 C Alcaic. kd;33a*Ae row xetuww', it uév tíðels – || 4 - || 1 – || 4 U 9 || 4 - 9 || trip, iv 8é kipwals oivov dºeiðéws – | 1 v | 1 – || 1 v v | 4 - 9 || péAxpov, autap dup; kápag v || 4 - || 4 - | 4 - | 4 – || p.da0akov duºpitién yváqaMAov. 1 v v | 1 v v || 4 - | + v || où Xpm kákoto's 60,0w étutpérnv – | + v | 1 Q || 4 J J + 9 sº | Tpokóvogev Yap ou?év do duevo, v + v 1 v || 1 v v | + 9 sº || dparov – || 4 - || 4 - || 4 - | 1 v || oivov čvelkapévois ué0ſorónv. & Bükx, ‘pappakov §' 1 v v | 1 v v || 1 v | + V | 266 METRE. 670 The converse asynartetes, or those made up of the iambus and anapaest, are of rarer occurrence. They are found chiefly in the comic writers, to whose use this flip pant rhythm peculiarly recommends itself. The following are examples: xaſp' & péy' dyſpeláyeAws, duºe rais étriflèats – 4 low — low 4 || -4 || - – 4. | rms inerépas coq tas kpitris àpiate travrov – 4 |v 9 - |v - 4 || – | * + | 9 - | 4 | r r r w r º otpd{3e trapd{3aive kiſkAp, kai ydarptorov aeautów • 4 || 99 - | * ~ 4 || – – u + | 9 - || 4 || * to 8 drapov draw ré 3' UTépſ3axAów re un trpooreſuav. ~ * + | * * – v J 4 || – – u + | 9 - | 4 || 671 The student must carefully separate from this class a metre used by the tragedians, which, although it is called the Iambelegus, is a compound of the trochaic dipodia cum amacrusi, and the last penthemimer of the elegiac verse; thus: KAétrovoº pºſtovs of peydao Bagºns. - || 4 - – - || + v v || 4 - 9 || 4 || The dactylic trimeter is sometimes acatalectic; thus: tºppage travčduous ér £300s dyexaſas. – || 4 - – - || 4 ~~ || 4 - 0 || 4 - || b. Antispasts. 672. A true antispastic contrast can only be produced by placing the descending rhythm of the trochee after the ascending rhythm of the iambus. The converse combina tion would give the uniform rhythm of the choriambus. 673 The antispastic measure seems to have been sug gested by an attempt to reduce the glyconic metre to an epitrite rhythm, i.e. one in which the thesis was to the arsis as 3 : 4. The glyconic metre, as we have seen (above, 646), consisted of a dactylic dipodia preceded by a basis, which is properly spondaic. If for this spondee is 267 METRE. substituted an iambus, and for the dipodia a single dactyl, we get the epitrite rhythm : 9 – || 4 - 9 and this, or a still shorter form with double ictus, v 4 || 4 was found so admirably adapted for the expression of grief and wailing, that it was regularly employed by the Greek tragedians in the Köppo, or “dirges,” which so frequently occur in the course of a drama. 674 - The longer form, which was the more common, was called the Dochmius ; and the shorter, which was called the Antispastus, was supposed to enter into this; thus: Antispastus v +|+ v || Dochmius 675 v --|- J C || The usual substitutions for iambics and trochees were allowed, but not to such an extent as to destroy the contrasts of the rhythms. In systems, however, this wail ing clash of rhythms was varied by an equable flow of glyconic and other dactylic measures, and not less fre quently by the trochaic dipodia and cretic. 676 The following stanza will furnish an agreeable specimen of this rhythm, and its more usual variations: ‘ppeviºv čva ppóvov duaptriuata • 4 || 4 - – || 0 + | + v V || o'reped, bavatoévr'. v Ú J & J U – || * to r kºra wovºru S w ºre koti + 9 - || 4 C – || 6avóvras (3Aérov’res épiquxtove U + | + v - || - 4 | + 9 - || tº uot uðv čvoA/3a 6ovXevpdrºov – 9 - | + v – |v 4 || 4 ~ – || to traf véos vép £ºv påpg • 4 || 4 J – || 0 + 1 + 9 - || 268 METRE. 30aves direAuðns 9 & 0 |& v J – || épaſs ovee orator ºva'ſłovatais U + i + 9 - || 0 + | + 9 - || 677 For the purposes of comic poetry, Eupolis made a very ingenious combination, of the antispast, and its varie ties, with the converse, rhythm of the choriambus, pro ducing an effect not unlike that of the long trochaic line, by making the cretic at the end answer to the choriambus in the middle of the line. The scheme of this metre, which is called the Eupolideus Polyschematistus, is as follows: Antispastus Cretic. Antispastus Choriambus. - – || U 1 |- - 1v | 1vJ u+ Pure - - - 1 0 || 1 v U - - |vov V. V V | –V - V The following lines will exemplify this metre, which is rarely found pure in the antispastic parts: d ooſppov re xa, Katarvywv ćpiat' rikovadºrnw - | + v v – || 4 - – - || 4 - – || 4 • + 4 3s uéytorov čvra KAéov graia' eis riv Yaorépa + 9 — v | 1 u v – || 0 + 4 - | + 9 – mirrnòels oux àftos &v raûr’ obv July uéupoua, - + 4 - | + v v – || – 4 + - || 4 - – || w 3 - - r w kat oeuvrvew strio rapevol 3a f - - / w r r 6. réAovs rnv vux -- ÖAmv r 4 - |+ v J – || J J O + – + 9 – épubpov ć, drpov trax, roſs traičios twº n yéAws V & U + v || 1 v J – || 1 v – 9 |+ v — || 678 The arrangement of varied systems of verses in strophes and epodes, and other applications of metrical doctrine, will be best learned by a study of the Greek poets: but those who have mastered the principles set forth above, will find no difficulty in any ulterior develope ments of the theory. APPENDIX A. Alphabetical List of Words which change their signification according to the position of the Accent or Breathing. (a) Differences of Accent only. dyww (äyovros), part of dy”; dyūv (diyújvos), “a contest.” &6poos, “noiseless;” dºpéos, “ in crowds.” alvos, “praise;” alvös, “dread ful.” dº." true;” #x00a, “enmity;” éx0pd, fem. of éx0pós. j, “verily;” j, “or.” 6ég, “spectacle;” bed, “god dess.” 6óAos, “a dome;”,00Xós, “mud.’ &Am6es, “in tºuás, “mind;” 0ügos, “thyme.” "Ivöos, the river; 'Ivöös, “an In dAAa, “other things;” d\\d, “but.” diva, voc. of dva: ; diva, prep. dipa, ergo; apa, num; dipa, impre catio. "Apyos, the city; dpyós, “white.” aúrm, fem. of ouros; atrij, for i avºri. dian.” kóws, “a cable;” kaxºs, adv. Kelvos, “that;”. keivás (Ion.), “empty.” kiip, neut., “the heart;” kiip, fem., “death.” Káutros, “pride; ” koutrós, “proud.” Báros, “a thorn;” Barós, “pass AdBm, “a pretext;” Aaſh;, “a able.” Mºle. %.in." Ligurian;” Awyðs, § sola. ...; mansiº 6s, “wicked:” uá - r Bagſ}\eta, “a queen;” Baori)\eta, “a kingdom.” Bíos, “life;” Biós, “a bow.” Boorós, “mortal;” Bpáros, “clot - .* > * r s o jºiolº Hox ;” ſuáxömpos, ted blood.” 'yaoxos, “a merchant-vessel; ” yavXós, “a milk-pail.” ºpos, “people;” &muás, “fat.” Ata, acc. of Zeis; 6td, prep. pºpuot, “ten thousand;” uuptow, “very many.” váuos, “ law; ” vouds, “a pro Atós, g. of Zeßs; Öios, “divine.” oikot, “houses;” olkot, “at home.” àpios, tamen; buds, simul. trauðud, “play;” trauðla, “boys.” trapetas, “a serpent;” trapeuds, acc. pl. of trapeud. areíðw, “I persuade ;” are:04, “persuasion.” arovmpás, “bad;” tróvmpos, “la eltre, indic.; eitré, imper.; eitrov, indic.; eitróv, imper. and part. *KTAéw, “I sail out;” &KrAew, neut. pl. of ékirAews. &\dogwu, compar.; Maoraiov, part. of éAaororów. - &\eós, “kitchen-table;” &\eos, “compassion.” vince.” borious.” éčaipei, “he lifts up;” {{aipei, #: takes away.” ëpueós, “wild fig-tree;” epiveos, “woolly.” « aróros, potus ; trotés, potulen tus. - - - ortya, sile; oriya, silenter. axaqiſ, “a pit;” ordiq'm, “a boat.” APPENDIX A. 270 orkóAtov, “a drinking-song;" orko Auðv, “crooked.” aröv, prep. ; orov, acc. of ords. “tribute;” *†, ful.” ſpopós, “fruit qºs, neut, “light;" qugs, m. “a Tpoxás, “a wheel;” rpóxos, “a man.” lºvy”, “soul;” Wrixºn, pl. of lºw circular course.” qíAmrºſs, “a lover;” pi\itns, “a Xos. duos, “shoulder;” duás, “cruel.” thief.” (b) Differences of Breathing, or of Breathing and Accent. dyvás, “chaste;” ſyvos, viter; . aiutov, “bloody;" aluav, “skil - ** Waav, “they sent;” morav, “they were.” iāori, “they send;” tagi, “they d\éu, “to collect;” d\éu, “to will go.” 666s, f. “a way;” 3öös, m. “a ind.” elpya', “to shut in;"'elp yºu, “to shut out.” eſs, “one;” slº, “into.” ££, “six ;” &#, “out.” jka, l aor. of lnut ; ºrca, “gently.” j\os, “a nail;” j\ós, “stupid.” threshold.” olos, qualis; olos, solus. &pos, m. “a boundary;” apos, n., “a mountain.” - où, “where;” ov, “not.” APPENDIX B. Tables of Words for Practice in Declension, and for the commencement of a Vocabulary. I. -a Declension. (a) Like rautas. Bopéas, “the north-wind.” olké-rms, “a servant. Mi'6as, Midas. weavtas, “a youth.” Tountris, “a poet.” Troxtºrms, “a citizen.” 6putflothipas, G.-a, “a bird-catch *> (b) Like kpit is. dxpodrus, “a listener.” doºrms, “a ploughman.” IIéparis, “a Persian.” trpoqºrns, “a prophet.” oroqiatifs, “a sophist.” Texvirus, “an artisan.” ūtokpitifs, “an actor.” (c) Like uoda'a. deX\a, “a storm” (18 g). dikavba, “a thorn” (18 f). k\érrms, “a thief.” Mathiris, “a scholar.” vaſtns, “a sailor.” &uuMAa, “a contest.” vouctºrms, “a law-giver." yAajora'a, “a tongue.” APPENDIX 36%a, “an opinion.” §xiðva, “a viper” (165). 271 B. (f) Like pixta. airta, “a cause.” 6axa.orora, “the sea.” Aué\torola, “a bee.” Mepipava, “a care” (165). Bía, “strength.” ékkAmoria, “an assembly.” oikia, “a house.” 6íča, “a root” (18, b, f). XAaïva, “a cloak” (165). (g) Like d'Affleið. ord Joã. irº. d) *. Like ...} dyvid, “a street.” dipovpa, “a field.” yala, “the earth.” eva èpeta, “piety.” ūyiela, “health.” p yéqūpa, “a bridge.” uolpa, “a portion.” orqoalpa, “a ball.” (e) Like alo'Xpá'. dyopat, “a market.” riuépa, “a day.” tºpa, “a door.” Aaºpa, “a narrow lane.” TrAevpd, “a side.” Xºpa, “a country.” dipa, “time,” or “season.” II. (h) Like ovkii and tipiſ. ya)\ft, “a weasel.” yń, “the earth.” kepa)\ri. “a head.” köpm, “a maiden.” Aörn, “grief.” TrúXm, “a gate.” iſMn, “a wood.” w).évn, “an elbow.” -o Declension. Feminines in -os. (l) Trees and Plants. r; Big\os or Bü8Aos, “the papy rus.” * @nyós, “the beech.” jkókkos, “the scarlet oak.” Also: 1j BigAos, ri ééXºros, “the book.” ni Bjorgos, “fine linen.” 1jöokós, “the beam.” mi jā860s, “the rod.” (2) Stones and Earths. (3) Receptacles. 1j kugorós, “the ark.” 1j Kapòotros, “the kneading trough.” ti trčexos, “the bathing-tub.” mi Amvás, “the wine-press.” jri &ratos, Tpéxovs,“the “thepinnace.” pitcher. y - mi Aibos, “the precious stone” (but ii arápivos, “the jug.” mi kapivos, “the stove.” (4) . Roads or Ways. ni 636s and kéAsubos, “road.” & Aitos, “the stone,” in gene ô, joinos, “path.” ral). widtpatros and rotgos, “footpath.” ri taqpos and karstos, “trench.” (5) Adjectives in ellipse. Xéporos, “dry-land,” #Telpos, “continuous-land,” wijoyos, “floating-land,” midpyiXos, “clay.” ri i\ekTpos (also rô j\ektpov, ) “amber.” 1j kpúaraX\os, “crystal” (but 6 kpúataNAos, “ice”). 1j Jrduplos, “sand.” jūrāqos, “the pebble.” mi ja}\os, “glass.” ri arto66s, “ashes.” jtxiv6os, “the tile.” t ëpmuos, “desert-land.” képkos, sc. oupſ (whence kep ow pos), “a tail.” yvä0os (referring to yévus), “the - y jaw-bone.’ Masculines and Neuters in -os, -ov. &0\os, “a combat.” &0\ov, “the prize of a combat.” dpyvpos, “silver.” dip'yūptov, “a piece of silver.” tortos, “a mast.” to rvov, “a sail.” 272 APPENDIX B. kaorort repos, “tin.” uáAvBôos, “lead.” XaXxós, “copper,” or “bronze.” XaXxtov, “a copper coin or uten Trétpos, “a piece of rock,” (but Trérpa, “a rock”). 6óðov, “a rose.” oričmpos, “iron.” sil.” Xpworós, “gold.” xopos, sc. dypos, “a field,” (but xuipa, sc, yn, “a district”). III. Consonant Declension'. dAyos, “grief.” d'Aoros, “a grove.” Neuters in -os, like teixos. képôos, “gain.” kptiros, “strength.” div6os, “a flower.” Nodos, “renown.” dxtos, “a weight.” Méyetos, “greatness.” ué\os, “a member,” or “a song.” uévos, “force.” uñxos, “length.” vépos, “a cloud.” Babos, “ depth. > * €vos, “a family.” *Yxos, “a spear.” &buos, “a nation.” &bos, “custom.” j60s, “habit.” {{qos, “a sword.” Öpos, “a mountain.” 6épos, “summer.” ô£os, “vinegar.” "puxos, “cold.” 6pdoros, “boldness.” ixvos, “footstep.” Masculines and - * 30 wants, “power.” * uáðmous, “learning." | Feminines in -ts, like tróAus. ri čurts, “vision.” - º 6 mooris, “the husband.” t - ô, judvris, “the seer.” i tróais, “the drinking.” ri pāorts, “nature.” In -vs, G. -vos (186). 6 uds, “the mouse.” & Bórpus, “bunch of grapes.” ºf Öq'oùs, “the eye-brow.” i opus, “the oak.” ſixéAvs, “the tortoise.” 6 ixbûs, “the fish.” 6 Öqus, “the snake.” 1 There are sufficient examples of the other Nouns of this Declension in the Grammar itself. 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