INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH
Algorithmic Bias
definition: Algorithmic bias is the systematic and repeatable errors in a computer system.
Example 1: COMPAS algorithm used in US court systems to predict the likelihood
that a defendant would become a recidivist. Due to errors in the data, the model and the
algorithm favored white offenders. The model predicted the likelihood of recidivism for black
offenders as twice the number of white offenders.
Example 2: In 2015, Amazon’s algorithm for hiring employees was found to be sexist,
favoring male employees due to the errors in the algorithm. Since the algorithm was based
on the resumes sent in the previous years and there were more male applicants, the
algorithm was biased against women.
Both of these challenges can be overcome by a more careful selection of data. The
data that one uses needs to represent “what should be” and not “what is”. For example, with
Amazon’s hiring algorithm, had there been an equal amount of data for men and women, the
algorithm may not have discriminated as much. Also, Model evaluation should include an
evaluation by social groups. One should strive to ensure that metrics like the true accuracy
and false positive rate are consistent when comparing different social groups, whether that
be gender, ethnicity, or age such as that in example 1. The algorithms should’ve taken into
account racism embedded in the court system and sexism in the workplace.
Bandwidth
definition:The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet connection in a given
amount of time.
• Not to be confused with internet speed, it measures the volume.
Behavioral and Profile Data
key difference between profile and behavioral data
• Behavioral data is how the user behaves in your app such as the amount of time they
spend on the app, when they visit the app and when they abandon it.
• Profile data includes characteristics about the user such as favorite sports teams or bands,
or if they use an in-store loyalty card.
Example 1:
their subscriber type, trial => profile data
time spent viewing the other subscriber options => behavioral data
Example 2:
the user’s annual income => profile data
the user’s in-app purchase last week => behavioral data
Bradley convergence model
The Bradley convergence model is based on the idea that our digital lives have four
interacting constituents – ICT, life environment, globalization, and life role – witheach being
addressed on an individual, organizational, community or global level. The two underlying
principles of this model are convergence – the blurring of roles largely as a result of the
increasingly ubiquitous nature of digital technologies – and acceleration. In the convergence
model, interaction between the various constituents and their parts is shown by the arrows. It
also shows how humans influence, and are influenced by, each constituent of the model.
Data Monetization
definition: the process of using data to increase revenue.
According to the case studies compiled for the European Commission, Michelin earned 5
million euros of average income by data monetization.
http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/004fcf02-49c7-11e8-be1d-01aa75ed71a1.0001.01/DOC_1
Digital Detox
ways of digital detox
By limiting use of digital device at certain times such as before going to bed
Avoiding distractions such as turning of notifications
Setting hourly limits to screen time such as 3 hours at maximum
• In a poll conducted by the organization Common Sense Media, 50% of teens reported that
they felt that they were addicted to their mobile devices.
• In the American Psychological Associations' annual Stress in America survey, a fifth of U.S.
adults (around 18%) cited technology use as a significant source of stress in their life.
Digital Footprint – active and passive
What is the key difference between active and passive digital footprint?
Active: This is when a person deliberately shares personal information about themselves or
any other topic online. This can be either sharing pictures on social media, liking a post,
logging into a website. These types of digital footprints are stored on databases and are very
difficult to erase.
Passive: Is when a person leaves behind data without knowing or realising it. examples of
this can be an IP address, approximate location or browsing history.
• Fully, 92% of U.S. toddlers have a digital footprint, which is the highest among the
countries studied by Internet security company AVG. The survey found that the children's
online footprint started on average at around six months of age, with a third having photos
and other information posted online within weeks of being born.
https://www.darkreading.com/risk/92-of-u-s-toddlers-have-digital-footprint
Digital Subcultures
Give ONE example to the subcultures that exist on social media.
• Online apps for shopping like Etsy have a “hipster” subculture. Etsy allows vendors to sell
handmade or vintage items. These apps have been very successful and the retailers have
generated a good amount of revenues.
Echo Chamber &
Filter Bubble
filter bubble: an online situation where the user encounters information that only backs their
personal beliefs and doesn’t propose any counter information to show different perspectives.
An echo chamber is where a person only encounters information and opinions that reflect
and reinforce their own.
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
Define fear of missing out (FOMO) and give one example.
social media users' fear that others are engaging in activities without them
Showing items left in the stock is one of the best ways to trigger FOMO. A product that’s
limited in stock is perceived to be of high quality and people want to buy it, so they don’t
miss what others are using.
Hashtags
How are hashtags used in social media?
Influencer
How are influencers selected online?
But the research commissioned by Barclays found social media is not just a drain on our
time – it’s also leaving a dent in our pockets.
More than half have purchased items endorsed by celebrities or influencers on social media,
while one fifth directly blame it for a lack of savings.
About 40% of users on Twitter have made a purchase as a direct result of an influencer’s
tweet. (Forbes)
Morals vs Ethics
What is the key difference between morals and ethics?
moral community
ethic individual
Net Neutrality
Describe ONE example of Net Neutrality.
Net neutrality means that no one with more money receives special treatment. Without net
neutrality, ISPs can slow down the websites or services of small businesses that can't afford
to pay for the so-called fast lanes.
Professional learning network (PLN)
examples: Udemy Khan Academy
Privacy Principles
Privacy Settings
What is the key difference between privacy settings and principles? Explain
challenges related to privacy with reference to privacy principles and settings by
giving TWO examples.
67% of internet users in the US are not aware of their country's privacy and data protection
rules.
9% of US internet users believe the concept of digital privacy is a myth.
79% of internet users around the world feel they have completely lost control over their
personal data.
81% of US internet users believe that their personal information is vulnerable to hackers.
In 2019, there was a 53% increase in the number of online users concerned with internet
privacy issues.
https://legaljobs.io/blog/privacy-statistics/
Right to be Forgotten
the right to have private information about a person be removed from Internet searches and
other directories under some circumstances.
In anonymous cases published by Volkskrant newspaper in the Netherlands, there are
examples of someone who is now financial advisor, who wants to remove an image of
himself, dressed in hippie clothing and playing guitar, from the internet because it is the first
thing which pops up when you type his name in a search engine and it is not the image
which he want to convey to his clients.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamtanner/2014/11/18/these-embarrassing-cases-test-the-internets-right-to-be-forgotten/?sh=774d0fc063ff
Single Sign-on
an authentication scheme that allows a user to log in with a single ID and password to any of
several related, yet independent, software systems.
Social Media Addiction
Outline TWO ways an individual can overcome social media addiction.
limit use of social media, turn off notifications
• According to research from the Nielsen Company, the average U.S. adult spends around
11 hours each day listening to, watching, reading, or interacting with media.
Targeted Advertising
examples
Social Media Ads: Social platforms might place ads on the sides of your pages that change
based on your friend’s actions as well as your own.
Search Engine Ads: Search engines place ads on search result pages based off of your
browsing histories.
Behavioral Ads: Some websites, like Amazon, place ads based off of your purchasing habits.
Talking about acceptance of such ads among users, about 30% of users have a positive or a
very positive response to retargeted ads, and 25% enjoy such ads as they remind them of
the products previously searched or viewed.
About 40% of the users say that they follow their favorite brands on the internet, and one out
of four users say that they follow the brand they are considering making a purchase from
Tele-Technology
Give TWO examples of use of tele-technology.
Telehealth and telemedicine for COVID: According to a global survey, %86 of people
who have benefited from telehealth services have also used telehealth to avoid in-person
direct contact during the COVID pandemic. Also according to a survey done by the
company, Applause, which is a company dealing with increasing the quality of digital devices
and platforms, the use of telehealth has increased 38 times as before the pandemic.
https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20211013005160/en/New-Survey-Reveals-Appeal-of-Telehealth-Services-63-Plan-to-Increase-Use-Post-Pandemic
Teletechnology in Education: According to the statistics about views of college
students in the US on digital learning tools as an academic tool, 81 percent of students
agree that digital learning technology helps them improve their grades.
https://www.aivo.co/blog/education-quarantine-continuity-online-classes
Ubiquitous Computing
It is the potential for connected devices and computing to become commonplace and appear
to be anytime and everywhere.
Additional Facts & Examples
every minute
​YouTube users are watching 7 million hours of video
Zoom hosts 800 minutes of webinars
TikTok users watch almost 200 million clips
recent studies have suggested that social media users are more likely to believe
misinformation of the COVID-19 pandemic than people who learn of the news through
traditional outlets
Among teenagers who reported suicidal thoughts, about 13% in the U.K. traced them back
to Instagram.
Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg at a May congressional hearing said he didn’t think “the
research is conclusive” on these platforms playing a role in children’s declining mental
health. The company has refused multiple requests from members of Congress to share its
research on children’s mental health, saying it is “kept confidential to promote frank and
open dialogue and brainstorming internally.”
• In a poll conducted by the organization Common Sense Media, 50% of teens reported that
they felt that they were addicted to their mobile devices.
• In the American Psychological Associations' annual Stress in America survey, a 1/5 of U.S.
adults (around 18%) cited technology use as a significant source of stress in their life.
• According to research from the Nielsen Company, the average U.S. adult spends around
11 hours each day listening to, watching, reading, or interacting with media.
67% of internet users in the US are not aware of their country's privacy and data protection
rules.
9% of US internet users believe the concept of digital privacy is a myth.
79% of internet users around the world feel they have completely lost control over their
personal data.
81% of US internet users believe that their personal information is vulnerable to hackers.
In 2019, there was a 53% increase in the number of online users concerned with internet
privacy issues.