Received: 27 November 2019
Revised: 22 February 2020
Accepted: 15 March 2020
DOI: 10.1111/jcal.12438
ARTICLE
Digital game-based learning in a Shanghai primary-school
mathematics class: A case study
Li Deng
|
Shaoyang Wu
Institute of International and Comparative
Education, Faculty of Education, East China
Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic
of China
| Yumeng Chen |
Zhengmei Peng
Abstract
This study examined the perceptions and experiences of a teacher and students in a
Shanghai public primary school when digital games were used in a second-grade
Correspondence
Zhengmei Peng, Institute of International and
Comparative Education, Faculty of Education,
East China Normal University, Shanghai,
People's Republic of China.
Email: zmpeng@kcx.ecnu.edu.cn
math class. The participants included one teacher and 45 students. Data collection
methods included classroom observation, focus-group and individual interviews, and
document analysis. Digital gameplay, when used once daily over a 6-day period, was
found to enhance student engagement and interest in learning; many students, however, were concerned about its effect on academic achievement and eyesight. The
Peer Review
The peer review history for this article is
available at https://publons.com/publon/10.
1111/jcal.12438.
teacher employed a “making thinking visible” approach using pencil and paper and
problem-solving strategies to help students understand the game's mathematical
principles and master mathematical knowledge. Obstacles included large class size,
difficulty evaluating learning outcomes, balancing fun and learning, and effective
game–classroom integration. This study found that exam-oriented education and traditional teacher-centred teaching in China influenced participants' perceptions and
experiences of digital game-based learning.
KEYWORDS
21st century skills, digital games, perceptions, primary mathematics education, teaching
strategies
1
|
I N T RO DU CT I O N
classes focused on repetitive practice and knowledge acquisition
(Wang & Feng, 2017) hinders students' participation, proactive inter-
In the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012,
est, and personal development (Zhang & Huang, 2016).
Shanghai students ranked first in the world in math, placing them
To address these problems, the Shanghai Municipal Education
approximately 3 years ahead of the OECD average (OECD, 2014a).
Commission promoted educational reforms and explored building digi-
This caused international educators to flock to Shanghai to investigate
tal-curriculum environments, which included conducting digital-text-
the reasons for such success. However, this spike in interest
book experiments in some schools. However, such efforts have been
concealed several problems in Shanghai mathematics education: (a)
limited to the partial use of digital textbooks and have not produced
Shanghai students are skilled at integrating new mathematical con-
substantial changes in education. In 2016, the Chinese Ministry of
cepts but face obstacles solving practical problems (OECD, 2014b;
Education (2018) launched a new round of nationwide K–12 reforms
Zhang & Huang, 2016), (b) students spend considerable time learning
based on key competencies. These reforms also emphasized trans-
mathematics and experience pressure and learning fatigue as a result
forming traditional teaching methods and developing students' criti-
(Zhang & Huang, 2016), (c) teachers in Shanghai carry heavy work-
cal-thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, and communication skills
loads (Wang, Ning, & Feng, 2018) and have low job satisfaction and
and information awareness. This prompted researchers to further
adverse health effects as a result (Yuan & Huang, 2018), and (d)
explore unconventional teaching methods, including digital game-
China's deep-rooted culture of exams, authority, and lecture-style
based learning.
J Comput Assist Learn. 2020;36:709–717.
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jcal
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
709
710
DENG ET AL.
Numerous studies have found that digital game-based learning is
effective and can create a more relaxed learning environment that
perceptions, interactions, and challenges with this game are not clear
and should be included in future studies.
promotes student engagement, interest, motivation, and confidence
This study aimed to examine the perceptions and experiences of
(Chen, Liao, Cheng, Yeh, & Chan, 2012; Girard, Ecalle, & Mag-
Shanghai teachers and students when the digital game Wuzzit Trouble
nan, 2013; Ku, Chen, Wu, Lao, & Chan, 2014). It can also cultivate
was introduced in their math classes to explore the possibility of intro-
21st-century skills such as creativity, critical thinking, communication,
ducing game-based learning into traditional classrooms in China. The
and collaboration (Hsiao, Chang, Lin, & Hu, 2014; Qian & Clark, 2016;
following research questions were investigated: (a) How did the
Whitton, 2014).
teacher and students perceive and feel about digital game-based
Some studies comparing experimental and control groups suggest
that digital game-based learning is effective for mathematics. Learning
learning? (b) How did the teacher and students interact with digital
math games and the game-based learning environment?
with digital games can help students acquire mathematical knowledge
This study not only provides a reference for transforming tradi-
more effectively than traditional lectures (Siew, 2018). Games more
tional Chinese teaching methods but also adds to the limited empirical
effectively promote academic achievement, self-efficacy, and motiva-
research on digital game-based learning in China. More broadly, it
tion (Hung, Huang, & Hwang, 2014); enhance students' self-confi-
enriches international research on digital game-based math learning.
dence (Ku et al., 2014); improve the speed and accuracy of
mathematical calculation (O'Rourke, Main, & Hill, 2017); and positively
affect adaptive number knowledge and related arithmetic skills
2
METHODS
|
(Brezovszky et al., 2019). Meta-analytical studies have found that
math-related video games produce higher learning gains than tradi-
To gather comprehensive, systematic, in-depth information (Pat-
tional classes (Tokac, Novak, & Thompson, 2019).
ton, 2002, p. 447) and understand teachers' and students' perceptions
Some studies on students' experiences with game-based math
and experiences of game-based learning, this study used a qualitative
learning have found that students find it fun and engaging, feel chal-
approach (Ke, 2008; Watson, Mong, & Harris, 2011; Yin, 2014) based
lenged and better able to learn, have improved self-efficacy and task
on constructivist grounded theory. Research approaches and inter-
persistence (O'Rourke, Main, & Ellis, 2013), and show improved
view content were adjusted according to the situation to achieve an
rational number knowledge (Ninaus et al., 2017). Ke (2008), how-
interpretative understanding and analysis of the data and to deter-
ever, noted that not every computer math training game involves
mine emerging themes (Charmaz, 2006).
students in learning. Studies have also found that while most stu-
The first, second, and third author collected the data. Multiple
dents are initially highly involved, engagement decreases in the lat-
forms of data collection were chosen (e.g., classroom observation,
ter part of the semester (Deater-Deckard, Mallah, Evans, &
focus-group and individual interviews, document analysis) to achieve
Norton, 2014). Studies have also suggested that teachers and par-
triangulation of the qualitative data. All four authors coded repeated
ents tend to prefer traditional teaching methods (Yong, Gates, &
ideas and analysed the data separately. They then discussed the data
Harrison, 2016).
to agree on the themes.
While many studies have focused on game-based learning's effec-
The teacher, student participants, and their parents all expressed
tiveness in math classrooms, few have investigated teachers' and stu-
willingness to participate in the study; the parents filled out informed
dents' perceptions and experiences of it or the associated challenges.
consent forms in advance.
Since teachers are “the true agents of change in schools,” whether
game-based learning can be successfully adopted largely depends on
teacher acceptance (Bourgonjon et al., 2013). Students are also impor-
2.1
|
Procedure
tant actors, and clearly understanding of their perceptions can help
teachers attempting to implement techniques to improve learning
The research was conducted in a public primary school in a suburb of
(Selim, 2003). Thus, teachers' and students' perceptions and experi-
Shanghai that participated in the Shanghai Municipal Education Com-
ences of game-based learning are important factors affecting whether
mission's Digital Textbook Experiment Project. To limit disturbances
it can be successfully implemented (Huizenga, Ten Dam, Voogt, &
to teaching routines, digital game-based learning was conducted for
Admiraal, 2017). Therefore, to transform Shanghai's lecture-based,
6 days in one second-grade math class for one 35-min period each
teacher-centred math classes and find ways to improve students'
day. The game Wuzzit Trouble was used to teach the four arithmetical
competencies and their interest in learning, we need to understand
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). The
the experiences, perceptions, and challenges related to using digital
class was taught by a math teacher with 12 years of teaching experi-
games in math classes. Further, relevant studies in this area have
ence. The 45 students (25 boys, 20 girls) in this class had not used
mostly been conducted from a Western perspective, with little empiri-
game-based learning before.
cal research in China. The present study sought to fill this gap in the
Before the game-based learning sessions, the researchers pro-
research. Moreover, Pope and Mangram (2015) found that the math
vided clear instructions for the teacher, and the teacher designed the
game Wuzzit Trouble could improve students' number sense but
lesson plans, including teaching objectives, content, and processes
noted
and gave students a 10-min introduction to the game and its rules.
that
teachers'
and
students'
math
class
experiences,
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DENG ET AL.
During the game classes, 44 of the students shared one iPad in
pairs, and one student had an iPad to himself. In every 35-min class,
interviews, and collected the teacher's lesson plans and the students'
exercise books for analysis.
the teacher would briefly lecture about math knowledge and game
Observation. The researchers observed and videotaped two regu-
strategies; students were also told to take turns using the iPad and
lar classes and six game classes. The researchers carefully observed
that one should participate in thinking and discussion while the other
the spoken language, behaviours, blackboard writing, and facial
used the iPad. Students took full control of gameplay while the
expressions of the participants; took notes in each class; and analysed
teacher provided verbal instruction or helped some pairs during the
the videos afterward. The observations were used to triangulate infor-
limited class time. Sometimes, there was a debriefing session after the
mation with the teacher and student interviews.
gameplay; other times, there was not enough time.
Interviews. The researchers identified the scope of the questions
for the focus-group interviews in advance, including student experiences using digital games in the classroom, the differences between
2.2
|
The game
game-based and regular learning, feelings about collaborative learning,
the relationship between games and mathematics, and the learning
Wuzzit Trouble was developed by BrainQuake. It teaches math con-
outcomes obtained from gameplay. At the end of each class, the
cepts such as prime numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication,
researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with different
division, fractions, and polynomials. The game's purpose is to help stu-
groups consisting of six to eight students.
After each focus-group interview, the researchers conducted a
dents enhance their conceptual-thinking, problem-solving, criticalthinking, and creative-thinking skills.
semi-structured interview with the teacher about her experiences
In the game, small creatures called Wuzzits accidentally fall into a
using the game and any changes in her perceptions. The interview
trap in a castle. Players must tap and turn small gears to align keys
questions for the teacher focused on classroom game use, differences
found at specific numbers on a wheel with the pointer to collect keys
between game and regular classes, teaching objectives, strategies,
to free the trapped Wuzzits. To achieve higher scores, players must
design intentions, and difficulties encountered in game-based learn-
find the shortest path to the target. A player wins by collecting all
ing. Additionally, the researchers noted and discussed other relevant
keys and earns three stars per level for the best solution.
issues in the student and teacher interviews.
The difficulty of Wuzzit Trouble increases by level, starting with
Document analysis. The researchers collected and analysed lesson
simple puzzles that help players learn the rules, gradually advancing to
plans to understand teaching objectives, content, and processes,
puzzles that require higher-order thinking. The first task is to collect a
which clarified the gap between instructional design and actual teach-
key positioned at 10 while the small gear moves the wheel by five
ing practice; thus, the difficulties and challenges the teacher faced
notches each turn. A player can turn the gear forward to 5 and then
were well understood. The lesson plans from regular classes and
move it a second time to 10; or, the player can tap and turn the gear
game-based classes were compared to understand the differences.
forward twice to reach 10 in a single move. In Puzzle 25, there is a
Moreover, to understand students' thought processes and identify
key positioned at 29 and a treat at 38, and the small gear moves the
whether they were engaged in learning and have mastered the math
wheel by nine notches each turn. Players can collect both in a single
knowledge in the game, their exercise books with their in-game calcu-
move by tapping and turning the gear backward five times before
lating processes were also collected and analysed. Document analysis
releasing it. BrainQuake suggests that the game is designed for third-
was used to triangulate information with observations and the teacher
grade students in primary schools; however, the four arithmetic oper-
and student interviews.
ations are part of the second-grade syllabus in Shanghai's primary
schools. The teacher decided to use the game in the second semester
of second grade, after students already had regular classes on the four
2.4
|
Data analysis
arithmetic operations.
Data were analysed following constructivist grounded theory to
determine themes, code recurring ideas, and organize them (Char-
2.3
|
Data collection
maz, 2006; Watson et al., 2011). The four researchers transcribed the
interviews, as well as data from observations and other classroom
The data collection methods included classroom observations,
records, and reviewed the teacher's lesson plans and the students'
focus-group and individual interviews, and document analysis in two
exercise books. These data were coded with numbers, such as the
regular and six game classes. The two regular classes were con-
time of data collection and the number of students interviewed. All
ducted and observed before and after the six game classes. The
classroom data were amalgamated; each researcher separately
researchers videotaped eight classes. After each class, the
watched the class recordings while encoding and analysing the data.
researchers conducted 15- to 20-min focus-group interviews with
They identified emerging themes from the data and then met to dis-
the students and a 40- to 50-min individual interview with the
cuss and consolidate the codes before reaching consensus on the
teacher. All 45 students were interviewed. The researchers
themes. The findings were triangulated with multiple data sources and
videotaped the students' interviews, audio-recorded the teacher's
data collectors as well as multiple coders.
712
3
DENG ET AL.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
|
4 Instant-feedback mechanism: After passing a level, the game evaluated students' performance and offered a star rating that told them
From classroom observations, video analysis, focus-group and individual interviews, and document analysis, two major themes emerged: (a)
student engagement and learning and (b) teaching strategies and
immediately whether they had found the best means of getting the
key and allowed them to rethink the method they used.
5 Fault-tolerant atmosphere: Students could make multiple attempts
in the game. Even if they failed, they could start again without pen-
challenges.
alty. Making mistakes was welcomed. This atmosphere also helped
improve the teacher–student relationship, as evidenced in class-
3.1
|
Student engagement and learning
room observation and interviews.
Fun versus anxiety. Based on classroom observation and lesson plans,
However, the students' feedback on game-based learning was
the teacher typically delivered fast-paced lectures structured with an
not all positive. During the interview on the last day of the study (i.e.,
introduction, explanation, exercises, and summary. Most classroom
after the second regular class), when asked if they would like to play
activities involved the teacher giving explanations, students answering
games in future math classes, most declined. They worried that game-
the teacher's questions, and exercises. Approximately one-third of
based learning might damage their eyesight, affect their math perfor-
students responded positively to questions or raised their hands, but
mance, or cause game addiction.
few could describe the methods and strategies they used. Students
S37: If I overused the iPad, my eyes would be damaged. If all
usually did not ask questions or interact with peers. The teacher
math classes used games, I would always be thinking, “I want to play
maintained discipline in the classroom, and students who misbehaved
games; I want math class,” when I am in other classes.
or answered questions incorrectly were criticized or punished. There-
S35: If my eyes are damaged by using the iPad, I cannot per-
fore, most students observed self-discipline and tried to avoid mis-
form well in class, then I cannot attend a good university, and then
takes. Students described regular classes as “not motivating,” “boring,”
I will not be able to get a good job, so then I will become a
“uninteresting,” involving “too much homework, practice questions,
beggar.
and exam papers,” involving “lots of punishment,” “tiring,” and
“unhappy.”
However, the game classes were filled with noise and excitement,
and the students were more active, dynamic, and relaxed. Most students said they liked game-based learning:
S19: I prefer game class, because there is a goal—to rescue the
Wuzzits. I am more focused in class than before.(Interviewed after the
fourth game class.)
S27: Classes before were all about exam papers; the game class
we have now is like heaven. (Interviewed after the sixth game class.)
Once game classes were initiated, students looked forward to
their daily mathematics class, describing it as “fun,” “happy,” “joyful,”
Others expressed that although they enjoyed the game classes,
they did not learn much math and worried that they might not master
basic skills:
S18: If we always play games in math class, we cannot learn
much. Digital games should help us learn and not damage our eyesight. Otherwise we will be paying our tuition for nothing. (Interviewed after the second regular class.)
S37: Although I really liked the game class, math is very important. My mother told me that if I am not good at math, I would be
cheated out of waste money when I am shopping, so I do not think it
is a good idea to play games all the time and not to learn math in class.
(Interviewed after the second regular class.)
“interesting,” “exciting,” “thrilling,” and “stimulating.” When game clas-
The concerns expressed above seem to beyond the students' age
ses ended and students returned to regular classes, they expressed
and thus show the influence of parents, teachers, and educational cul-
their feelings as “sorry,” “sad,” “upset,” and “lost.” These emotional
ture. China has a deep-rooted examination culture, and children there-
outcomes might have resulted from the following mechanisms (Chen
fore often feel anxiety and guilt about gameplay and leisure time
et al., 2012):
(Peng, 2017).
1 Attractive situation and clear goal orientation: The game's story
classrooms have strict rules and students are in a passive learning
gave students a sense of purpose, which also drove them to
mode. Many students cannot stay focused on learning tasks for
explore the relevant knowledge and methods.
extended periods. However, in game classes, most students sustained
“Getting my brain working” versus trying one's luck. Traditional
2 Hands-on fun: Their gameplay proficiency affects the outcome,
providing a rare hands-on experience.
attention and were rarely distracted.
Yet, the question remains whether students really learn when
3 Reasonable task difficulty: Students can quickly advance at the
playing games. The concepts of “time-on-task” and “academically
beginning, enabling them to build confidence and enhance self-effi-
engaged time” can be helpful when determining whether students are
cacy. As the game becomes more difficult and presents regular
fulfilling task goals by using mathematical thinking and problem-solv-
challenges, students with higher learning abilities are not bored.
ing skills or just playing the game without effectively learning (Chen et
Many students mentioned that they “like difficult levels very
al., 2012; Gettinger & Walter, 2012). In interviews, students often
much,” so they can “get their brains working.” After passing a diffi-
used the phrase “getting my brain working” to express that they were
cult level, students reported feeling “very proud and very happy.”
really engaged in learning and thinking:
713
DENG ET AL.
S3: Before in class, we only needed to memorize, but game class
Most students said the greatest advantages of collaborative learn-
gets our brains working with a game we like. (Interviewed after the
ing were peer help, group discussion of problems, and increased in-
second game class.)
game
S5: The game class is interesting because it allows me to get my
brain working. (Interviewed after the first game class.)
achievement
and
rewards.
This
supports
Hattie
and
Yates's (2013) view that collaborative learning is more effective for
complex problem solving because team members share the cognitive
However, classroom observations, interviews, and document
load. Additionally, some students said they communicated more and
analysis showed that not every student's brain was “working.” For
had a closer relationship with their partner after collaborative
some students, “time-on-task” might not translate into sufficient
learning.
“academically engaged time,” their exercise books indicated that
S10: Collaboration allows us to communicate our ideas better. If
they did not master the math knowledge and rules though they
we do not know how to solve the problem, we can discuss it.
had passed the game. The teacher said some students did not use
(Interviewed after the first game class.)
mathematics to solve the problems and rarely used mathematical
S33: I think collaboration is fun because I can play the math game
thinking to get through the levels. Usually, they were just trying
with my partner, and we think about it together. We used to get only
their luck.
one or two stars [working individually], and now that we are partners,
S4: Now the game is harder; we are stuck at level 13. My partner
and I just randomly try anything. (Interviewed after the third game
class.)
we can get three stars. (Interviewed after the sixth game class.)
Students also experienced conflict while collaborating. The interviews highlighted three main reasons for conflicts:
S2: I was just rolling and rolling, and I succeeded. (Interviewed
after the third game class.)
Such statements are consistent with Ke (2008). Guessing is part
of playing; students were not always cognitively engaged, and they
avoided effortful calculation and problem solving. Possible reasons
include the following:
1 One student would dominate the iPad and refuse to share. The
teacher noted that second graders' ability to empathize is not yet
fully developed.
2 Students were dissatisfied with their peers' engagement level.
Some complained that their partner was playing randomly, not
thinking, or failing to record the thought process as the teacher
1 They avoided strategies that increased cognitive load. The game is
requested.
results-oriented, and one only needs to pass a level to get to the
next. People naturally avoid cognitive load (Hattie & Yates, 2013).
S38: The collaboration between my partner and me is not pleas-
Therefore, when problems become more complicated, many stu-
ant at all. When asked to write something down, he would just ask me
dents tend to try their luck, because solving a complicated problem
what to do. (Interviewed after the sixth game class.)
requires deeper thinking and increased cognitive load.
S37: I was the one who was thinking and operating all the time. If
2 The degree of task difficulty did not match some students' cogni-
I could pass the level with three stars by myself, my partner was
tive levels. When a task is moderately difficult and within students'
happy too, but if I could not, she would just turn around and play with
proximal development zone, students are more likely to exert
other classmates. (Interviewed after the sixth game class.)
effort. However, when the task is too difficult, and students lack
the necessary knowledge and skills, they might choose a simpler
strategy (e.g., just trying their luck) or give up.
3 Learning progression was inconsistent within a group. When one
student is dominant or when there are big differences in students'
abilities, the less dominant child may become distracted or too
To prevent this situation, the teacher would provide a step-by-
dependent on his or her partner.
step discussion of the strategy, leading to a breakthrough in the
thought process. If the students could use the teacher's scaffolding to
S28: I was always crying when working with my partner because I
solve the game, they were really “getting their brains working” and
wanted to play the easy levels, and he always chose the difficult ones.
not just “playing games.”
(Interviewed after the sixth game class.)
Peer interactions. Traditionally, students spend most of their time
S36: The unpleasant side is that I did not think much. It is my
individually learning. In game classes, developing students' collabora-
partner who was always thinking, because she always found the solu-
tive skills is one of the main goals of game-based learning according
tion very quickly. When I figured it out, she had already finished. I
to the teacher's lesson plans. The teacher arranged classroom activi-
could only try it out or help her adjust it a little. (Interviewed after the
ties to promote collaboration and communication by asking partners
sixth game class.)
to explain strategies, exchanging what they had learned or found con-
Generally, students showed considerable individual differences in
fusing, acting as “little teachers.” Peer interactions and teacher–stu-
peer collaboration. Some were more willing to work together to solve
dent communication became the main classroom interaction.
problems, while others preferred their own iPad. This study found that
The focus-group interviews covered collaboration and communi-
students' collaboration and communication skills had no obvious rela-
cation between peers. Most conversations included “helping each
tionship with their math performance and were more closely related
other,” “conflict,” and “negotiation.”
to students' personality and learning style. According to Kreijns,
714
DENG ET AL.
Kirschner, and Jochems (2003), social interaction is key to collabora-
Some students responded, “The teacher was ‘cramming’ us in regular
tive learning, and cultivating and developing a collaborative learning
classes, but now we are ‘calculating strategically’.”
group takes time.
Writing down the process: Making thinking visible. To help students
acquire math knowledge, calculation ability, and math rules, the
teacher asked them to write down or verbalize their thought process.
3.2
|
Teaching strategies and challenges
The teacher mentioned and used this strategy the most.
Successful game-based learning allows students to transcend the
As Bell and Gresalfi (2017) observed, integrating games into teaching
game world and grasp the subject knowledge presented in the game
is challenging and requires teachers to adjust their strategies. The
(Chen et al., 2012). The first game class interviews indicated that
teacher in our study usually used a direct instruction method and
many students were immersed in the story scenarios but did not
spent most class time explaining arithmetic problems or assigning
understand the math connection. They simply used trial-and-error to
exercises. In game classes, the teacher's strategies changed, and after
find a solution. Although some realized they needed to use their arith-
a 7- to 10-min lecture, students were given time to explore, think
metic knowledge, their exercise books showed that they could not
about, discuss, and record their problem-solving strategies. As stu-
express their thought processes clearly. Communication between stu-
dents engaged in these activities, the teacher provided feedback.
dents was observed to be limited to successfully achieving the next
Problem-solving teaching: From “cramming” to “calculating strategi-
level and not the math principles; therefore, the teacher believed that
cally.” Compared with direct instruction in regular classes, in game
students had not developed mathematical thinking through gameplay.
classes, the teacher used flexible problem-solving strategies to guide
The teacher believed the highest purpose of the game was devel-
students towards “strategic calculation.” The teacher devoted more
oping mathematical thinking. If students merely played, that could not
attention to developing students' thinking skills. Butterworth and
be achieved. Therefore, the teacher decided to “guide students to use
Thwaites (2013) specified three strategies for problem solving: (a)
mathematical methods to solve game problems” and then adjusted
heuristic strategies, which rely on intuition and trial-and-error; (b)
the teaching goals and strategies from the second game class: the
exhaustive strategies, which try every possible solution until resolu-
teacher asked students to articulate and record their thought pro-
tion; and (c) systematic strategies, which include collecting informa-
cesses and methods, which compelled them to switch from trying
tion, clarifying the problem, finding solutions, and selecting the
their luck to using mathematical knowledge.
optimal solution.
However, the teacher did not want to make the writing task too
In the initial levels of the game, students solved problems quickly
onerous and sacrifice the fun of the game. Thus, students were asked
and easily with heuristic or exhaustive methods. As the game prog-
to write a “game guidebook” or “tips for winning the game,” in which
ressed, problems became more complicated, involving deeper analysis,
they would summarize their methods, calculations, and problem-solv-
and those strategies were no longer adequate. After the second game
ing strategies. The “little teachers” also shared their methods and
class, some students said they were stuck at a certain level throughout
problem-solving strategies with other students, helping them to find
the whole class and had been blindly trying to solve the problem. This
the best problem-solving strategies.
was a good time for the teacher to intervene and teach systematic
In the teacher's practice, making thinking visible by writing it
methods. The teacher allowed students to collaborate to explore
down meant combining direct instruction with game-based learning.
problem-solving strategies. She then concretized the systematic prob-
In the last two game classes, interviews and document analysis indi-
lem-solving strategy by specifying five steps: “collect information, cal-
cated that some students had learned to use mathematical language
culate distance, determine the direction, calculate laps, and optimize
to express their own game skills and that this was practiced and
the solution.” The first step in systematic problem solving is collecting
consolidated.
information, including overall rules and information presented at that
Large class size and individual feedback. Large class size, time con-
level in the game. After some attempts at previous levels, students
straints, and energy required made it impossible for the teacher to
had roughly determined the overall rules of the game. Students also
support all groups and offer immediate feedback. In the third game
needed to find the variables in every level—the gear's value and key's
class, as the difficulty of the game increased, some groups could no
location—and accurately distinguish among multiple values for levels
longer advance, and they felt overwhelmed. However, they could not
with multiple gears and keys.
receive timely guidance and feedback.
Classroom observations and document analysis indicated that
It was also difficult for the teacher to adapt to “a classroom out of
most students could complete information-collecting tasks, but using
control”—one that was “chaotic” and had “too many students.” The
mathematical thinking to use the information perhaps posed the
teacher felt “a little powerless.” Sometimes the teacher had to raise
greatest challenge. The second through fourth steps are closely
her voice or find ways to attract students' attention through rewards
related; the problem presented in the game can be simplified as the
or threats. Students often still did not pay attention as they were
ratio of the distance between the pointer and key to the gear's value.
immersed in the game. Although the teacher had summarized the
The teacher adopted various strategies to help students overcome
methods and rules, many students did not understand or master the
game difficulties, including scaffolding, providing examples, encourag-
game strategy, which made the teacher feel the classroom was not
ing thinking aloud, recording the thought process, and collaborating.
under control.
715
DENG ET AL.
Difficulties in evaluating learning outcomes. The teacher had difficulty assessing whether students had achieved the game's desired
into teaching, and promote student-centred reform in Chinese mathematics education.
learning outcomes. The only methods available were observation and
Consistent with Watson et al. (2011), this study revealed that
feedback. The teacher did not know whether students mastered the
digital games can increase engagement and promote a student-
relevant mathematical knowledge. Although students had been asked
centred environment. Game-based learning allowed the teacher to
to write down their thought processes, the teacher said she did not
break free of the lecture-based class structure, creating more time
have enough time or energy to evaluate them all.
for independent exploration and thinking. Students also interacted,
Tension between fun and learning. The teacher tried to enhance
communicated, and collaborated more with their peers and teacher.
the cognitive engagement of students in game-based learning, but
In this more relaxed environment, students enjoyed decreased
students' enthusiasm and interest decreased when they were asked
workloads and evolved from being passive receivers to active
to write down their thought process.
thinkers.
“Students like to play on the iPad, but they don't like to write. If
However, students' psychological burden also increased since
students are required to explain the thinking process, many of them
Chinese
may not like the game anymore.” (Interviewed after the fifth game
(Peng, 2017). Students in this study liked game-based learning but
class.)
worried that it would not teach them enough math knowledge and
In Dickey's (2015) study, teachers also expressed scepticism that
if a game's educational content increased, it would lose part of its
appeal. The challenge lies in finding the right balance of fun and learning (Ferguson et al., 2019).
culture
strongly
emphasizes
academic
achievement
thereby affect their academic goals and achievements. They also
believed the game could harm their physical and mental health.
For the teacher, game-based learning was new, but she said it
“provides an interesting experience for students” and could potentially
Difficulties integrating digital games into the curriculum. Integrating
help them develop higher-order thinking, collaboration, communica-
games into the curriculum can be challenging, and it is one of the main
tion, and mathematical-modelling skills. After finding that many stu-
obstacles to teachers using digital games in the classroom.
dents used trial-and-error to find solutions, she adopted “problem-
The teacher in this study believed that the traditional textbooks
solving teaching” and “make-thinking-visible” strategies to maximize
focused more on knowledge and method mastery while games
students' time spent in academic engagement. “Problem-solving
emphasized exploration and interest. The teacher felt the game and
teaching” draws on Dewey's (2001) “five-step teaching method,”
textbook combination was “very blunt” and made her feel “very forced
while “making thinking visible with pencil and paper” draws from tra-
and tired, with distracted thoughts.” Therefore, for the last 4 days of
ditional teaching. Such strategies helped bridge the gap between the
game classes, textbooks were abandoned and students only played
game world and math learning.
the game.
However, there were some challenges the teacher could not
However, the mathematical principles learned from the game
solve. Game-based learning enhances students' ability to use knowl-
might not meet national curriculum standards and teaching require-
edge flexibly, but it may also limit them when taking standardized
ments. According to the teacher, games should be selected consider-
tests, which is the greatest obstacle to widespread implementation.
ing curriculum standards.
Therefore, to promote game-based learning in China, the following
Widening the performance gap. Game-based learning benefits stu-
conditions need to be satisfied: (a) support from schools and parents,
dents' individual development but may widen the performance gap
(b) co-integration with direct instruction, (c) evaluation-system reform,
between students. In regular classes, the teacher controls the pace,
(d) conformance with national curriculum standards, (e) teacher train-
but in game-based learning, all tasks are in the game, and each group
ing, (f) smaller class sizes, and (g) teachers' and students' improved
can autonomously progress. Students who were better at math often
understanding of game-based learning's value. These cannot be easily
chose to keep going on their own or would individually maximize
or quickly met in the Chinese context. However, the teacher's learning
problem steps to get more stars; others, meanwhile, often stopped
ability and resilience suggests that teachers can indeed accommodate
playing when they faced difficult levels since they were not getting
game-based learning and become an important force for game-based
teacher instruction. This resulted in an increased achievement gap.
teaching reform.
A limitation of this study is that the duration of game-based learning was relatively short. Given more time, there could be further
4
|
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
changes in the teacher's and students' perceptions. Future research
should adopt a longer time frame. Further, the learning outcomes of
This study aimed to understand how a teacher and her students per-
students in a game-based class need to be addressed in future
ceived and experienced learning through digital games. It found that
research in response to teachers' and students' concerns and contra-
Chinese exam-oriented culture deeply influences their perceptions
dictory attitudes.
and experiences, exhibiting a contradictory attitude that is both
approving and concerned. This attitude is rarely observed in related
AC KNOW LEDG EME NT S
Western research. The findings provide empirical evidence that could
We appreciate the support and participation from the school's princi-
help transform teaching and learning methods, integrate technology
pal, teachers, and students.
716
DENG ET AL.
CONF LICT OF IN TE RE ST
We have no conflict of interest to declare.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
L.D. and Z.P. conceived of the presented idea. L.D., S.W. and Y.C. collected the data and all four authors participated in analysing and verification, and discussed the results together. L.D. drafted the
manuscript and Z.P. revised it. All is under Z.P.'s supervision.
DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT
The data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at
this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing study.
ORCID
Zhengmei Peng
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6085-9461
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How to cite this article: Deng L, Wu S, Chen Y, Peng Z. Digital
game-based learning in a Shanghai primary-school
mathematics class: A case study. J Comput Assist Learn. 2020;
36:709–717. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12438