Native Americans and Alcoholism
The abuse of alcohol and alcoholism are included in the most critical health problems
nationwide. They are some of the most challenging illnesses to cure. Please make no mistake;
they are health problems. They do not stem from criminal behavior or moral issues. However,
alcohol-related criminal offenses presently account for most arrests made nationwide, with the
most significant percentage being severe violent offenses. These include but are not limited to
car accidents, aggravated assaults, spouse and child abuse, suicides, rapes, and homicides.
Society as a whole has to pay the cost financially, physically, emotionally, spiritually, and
culturally. Many research studies have proven that socially acceptable drinking patterns and
cultural sanctions are pertinent to alcoholism in general and individual alcohol abuse (Wolfgang,
1975).
Different cultures drink in different ways, for different reasons, and are even targeted by
alcohol advertising agencies differently. One of the cultures that have been affected to a radical
extent is the Native American culture. Alcohol abuse extensively has been connected to the
economic, medical, and social issues of the Native Americans. Alcohol abuse is the singular
most severe health problem for this culture, accounting for the three leading causes of death:
homicide, suicide, and cirrhosis of the liver (Frederick, 1974). Within the Native American
culture, 90 percent of homicides are alcohol-related, and alcohol contributes to over 75 percent
of all suicides. The conviction rates for alcohol-related violent crimes among the Native
American culture are nothing short of horrific in comparison to other cultures. They hold the
highest severe violent crime rate in the nation, three times that of Whites and twice that of
Hispanics and Blacks. Offenses that alcohol also plays a factor in, for example, public
drunkenness, is twenty times that of Whites and eight times that of Hispanics and Blacks
(French, 1991). Numbers do not lie. We as a society need to identify, analyze, and address the
problem of alcoholism in the Native American culture.
In a special report, on Alcohol and Health, from the United States Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Morris Chafetz informed Congress that society had paid preliminary
observation to an indisputable fact:
“Certain cultures use alcoholic beverages and are little troubled with alcoholic problems, while
others suffer major alcoholic disturbances due to the drinking. Since all societies and cultures
have problems, many groups have developed ways of coping with the pains of life in a
nonalcoholic manner and, presumably, in ways that have less destructive personal and social
consequences. We have tried Prohibition, and it failed. We have tried campaigns of slogans,
and they have failed. We have tried educational programs based on fear, and they have failed.
Therefore, I suggest we learn from other experiences and cultures"(Chafetz, 1974). This report
and its solution to the nationwide problem of alcohol abuse among Native Americans is repelling
and unacceptable. We, as a society, need not to learn from other cultures. We need to learn
from the culture exemplifying the issue at hand, the Native American culture itself, with
continuous research on the disease of alcoholism.
In recent studies, physiologists assert they can isolate the origins of alcoholism. This is
done by analyzing neurological, genetic, and endocrinological malfunctions that are susceptible
to alcohol abuse. In 1973, the American Medical Association (AMA) published the Manual on
Alcoholism. In this manual, they stated that alcoholism is not the consequence of an alcoholic
personality, that alcohol abuse is the outcome of drinking a particular beverage, that alcoholism
is not an allergic manifestation, and that there are many other factors besides just alcohol itself
that cause alcoholism. The AMA presently cites endocrine deficiencies, alcohol appestat,
metabolic disturbances, acetylcholine, receptor-site imbalances, and glandular dysfunctions as
physiological factors subscribing to alcoholism. The AMA also acknowledges numerous
psychological factors that contribute to alcoholism. They include parental relationships, selfdestructiveness, and learned responses. Sociological factors that they have identified include
permissiveness, abstinence, and ambivalence. The AMA has determined that alcohol abuse and
alcoholism come not just from a single entity but instead from a complicated and complex
interplay of sociological, physiological, and psychological causes (French & Hornbuckle, 1980).
Alcohol abuse and alcoholism are crucial and challenging issues for every culture.
However, present concentration on the Native American culture is a must. “The following from
the final report on alcohol and drug abuse prepared for the American Indian Policy Review
Commission is a clear statement of the alcohol problem among Native Americans: The
steamrolling effect of civilized society upon the Indian people has wreaked havoc that extends
far beyond the loss of material possessions. The American Indians and Alaska Natives are
caught in a world wherein they are trying to find out who they are and where they fit in. The
land, which was once their mother giving them food and clothing, was taken. Their spiritual
strengths were decried as pagan, and family ties were broken. Their own forms of education,
i.e., that of legends, how to live, and respect themselves and others, were torn asunder by white
society's reading, writing, and arithmetic. No culture could be expected to be thrust into a world
different from its own and adapt without problems or cultural shock. The Indian people of today
are proud of their heritage and are fighting to maximize its influence upon their lives in a
dominant white world. The destructive use of alcohol and drugs among Native Americans and
Alaska Native individuals, families, and communities is inextricably interwoven into all aspects
of their lives. Any effort to alleviate the problem must be comprehensive in scope and with the
total commitment of the Indian people” (Snake, 1976).
For a clear understanding of the culturalistic effects on the Native American alcoholism
problem, it is critical to understand the catastrophic past, disruptive events, policies, and acts
associated with and mandated by the United States federal government. The following is a brief
summary of these events, only touching the unjust abuse and oppression this culture has endured.
Wars and violent massacres of multiple and various Native American tribes while European
settlers strived to colonialize North America. Genocide is the deliberate and unmerciful
slaughter of multitudes from a specific ethnic group/nation with the sole purpose of destroying
and totaling eliminating that group/nation. Genocide occurred from the 1400s up until 1870,
when President Grant’s Peace Policy stated that Native Americans had to be declared officially
"renegades" before aggressive pursuit could occur.
For over 120 years, from 1832 all the way until 1953, the General Indian Intercourse Act was
active, prohibiting the use or sale of alcohol of any kind to or by Native Americans. This Act
prevented Native Americans from developing a societal acceptable drinking norm. This caused
many Native Americans to rebel and necessitated challenges within the culture. The policy of
Removal began in 1835. This policy displaced Native Americans, their families, and their
community to what whites called "Indian territory” (French & Hornbuckle, 1980).
On October 6, 1879, the country's first off-reservation boarding school, The Carlisle
Indian Industrial School, was opened in Pennsylvania. The creation of these boarding schools is
credited to Richard Henry Pratt, a Civil War veteran. These schools’ purpose was to assimilate
Native American children, thus eliminating the Native American culture (French & Hornbuckle,
1980). The United States government forcibly removed tens of thousands of Native American
children from their homes and families. They were forced to attend these assimilation boarding
schools, which the churches and the federal government ran. The motto for these schools was,
"Kill the Indian in him and save the man." It is not known how many children were taken.
However, there were over 20,000 recorded by 1900, and the number tripled by 1925. These
children endured massive abuse, including being taken far away from their loved ones,
communities, and families. They were strictly punished if they were caught speaking their native
language, demonstrating any kind of act that might be perceived as Native American and
representing cultural or traditional practices of the Native American culture. They were also
stripped and forbidden of traditional Native American clothing and banned from possessing any
personal belongings that could resemble or remind them of where they came from. They
endured spiritual, cultural, emotional, sexual, and physical abuse along with neglect. They
experienced horrendous treatment that was nothing short of torture in many cases. Many
children's fates and whereabouts are still to this day unknown (Little, 2017).
The Dawes Act of 1887, also considered Allotment was when the Native American's
tribal land was divided into independently owned farms undermining aboriginal culture and
tribal authority. The mass of excess land was given to white settlers. In 1898, the Curtis Act
heightened Allotment, and the Dawes Act, by outlawing tribal churches, governments, schools,
courts, etc. The Wheeler-Howard Act of 1934, also known as the Indian Reorganization Act,
tried to repair or mend the destruction from the combination of Allotment and Removal of
federally mandated policies. Native Americans were permitted to hold land, as reservations, in
tribal collectives. However, they were forbidden land rights on these reservations. Soon after,
the same land they were permitted to hold was leased out to ranchers and farmers of European
descent by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). During McCarthy’s anticommunism era, the
Termination of 1953 was enacted. Whites considered tribalism as a form of anti-Americanism
and considered it threatening. Therefore, Termination was created to turn Native American
reservations from a communistic orientation to a capitalistic one. In 1954, Relocation occurred.
This was an attempt to get Native Americans, especially those young, off the reservation and into
urban areas. The propaganda used was implementing false hope of better employment
opportunities and better education opportunities that did not exist. Presently in the United States,
only about half of the entire Native American population still reside on reservations. Sadly, the
half that moved off the reservation with empty promises of prosperity live in dangerous Native
American communities that are nothing short of a ghetto (French & Hornbuckle, 1980).
The present federal policy is the Self-Determination Act of 1975. It endeavors to
mainstream this culture into the mass population. Be that as it may, most Native Americans fight
not to be assimilated or mainstreamed. They just consider the Self-Determination Act an
appendage to the Termination Act. In 1978, Congressman Cunningham enacted the Native
Americans Equal Opportunity Act. This Act called for all Native American treaties to be illegal.
This Act would literally exonerate the U.S. federal government's responsibility of and all present,
past, or future legal obligations regarding American treaties, preferences, or any other special
programs. The extent of how biased this "Equal Opportunity Act" was is that its existence
eliminated Native American programs' continuation. Thus, forcing many marginal Native
Americans into a deeper, more tenuous predicament that would undeniably lead to more
alcoholism and alcohol abuse. Three and a half centuries of disastrous federal policy toward
Native Americas, ranging from outright genocide to current termination policies, have wreaked
havoc with traditional Native American culture (French & Hornbuckle, 1980).
In order to comprehensively address the crucial, critical, and related issues of Native
Americans' alcohol dependency, one must first recognize the circumstances concerning their
culture and marginality. Within the present Native American population, sixty percent are
considered marginal Native Americans, twenty-five percent are considered traditional Native
Americans, and fifteen percent are considered middle-class Native Americans (French &
Hornbuckle, 1980).
Traditional Native Americans, also called "full-bloods," live on the reservations and
strive to carry their ancestors' traditions and rituals. Since the dominant white race had rebuked
any cultural avenue to elevate tension and stress, alcohol has become an opportune method of
escape and ritualism for traditional Native Americans (Elk & Neihardt, 1961). Traditionalists
drink vast amounts of alcohol rapidly for intensive periods of time, followed by periods of
abstinence. It is very unusual for traditionalists to be observed by outsiders intoxicated.
Visibility of traditionalist are protected, private, and restricted by their specific tribe, thus
minimizing any stigma attached to this behavior (Reid, 1970).
The Middle-Class Native Americans, also called "Uncle Tomahawks," are phenotypically
Native Americans but act as if they are white, subscribe to the Protestant Ethic, and those who
have drinking problems manifest to their white counterparts (French & Hornbuckle, 1977). The
remaining sixty percent of the population is considered marginal. They are torn between the
decree of the dominant white society, their expectations, policies, laws, and cultural heritage.
This includes the rural, non-reservation populations such as The Lumbee Indians of North
Carolina, who are prime examples of non-reservation rural populations whose culture has been
torn away from them. "They represent remnants of eastern tribes decimated by the colonial slave
trade, wars, and Removal. Many marginals suffer from the dilemma of looking "Native
American" and wanting to be "Native American" but not knowing the exact nature of their
traditional cultural heritage. Their psycho-cultural perspective is frustration and ambiguity,
creating a situation in which alcohol provides a convenient yet unacceptable method of escape”
(French & Hornbuckle, 1980).
Marginal Native Americans consume large quantities of alcohol, drink excessively in
public, and drink more frequently than the two other Native American classifications. The result
of this is many severe health, economic, legal, and social problems. Violence is initiated
frequently to others and towards oneself. These situations are often accompanied by jail, prison,
or institutionalization of some kind. Some of the more severe health problems consist of mental
health issues, diabetes, and cirrhosis of the liver, all stemming from alcohol abuse.
It is vital that clinicians working within the Native American population who struggle
with alcoholism, whether they are Native American or not, be knowledgeable and culturally
sensitive to their significant political, social, and cultural issues. It has been proven through
multiple research studies that alcohol abuse is strongly connected to cultural environments. In a
society or group where there are well-established sanctions, values, and drinking customs agreed
upon by all that accompany alcohol consumption, along with appropriations against
drunkenness, then it is hypothesized that the rate of alcoholism will be low. "Given that culture
is now considered the single most significant factor concerning general patterns of alcohol use
and abuse, Native Americans have been severely handicapped in their adjustment to alcohol use.
They have not been allowed to develop acceptable drinking norms” (French & Hornbuckle,
1980).
Repeatedly, Native Americans have involuntarily reformed their tribal traditions and
ways. Each time they are forced to modify their traditional culture, they are pushed into a
downward spiral that leads to more alcohol consumption. "Cultural marginality and escapism
through alcohol have become major Native American problems. Policies and programs fail
because Native Americans are stripped of their cultural identity and denied access to their
people's ways and hence their psychological security. To make Native Americans learn white
ways at the expense of their traditions leads to conflict that is often internalized and is concealed
through alcohol abuse” (French & Hornbuckle, 1980). The result for the Native American
culture is physical and mental health problems, colossal aggression within themselves that lead
to suicidal ideations, aggression towards others that led to assaults, and abuse of various kinds.
Much too commonly, these results lead to homicide and suicide. Research has shown that the
most mentally, physically, and spiritually healthy Native Americans are not only knowledgeable
of their culture but also proud of it and practice it. It is past time for us as a society to advocate
for the Native American culture. As one, we are just individual raindrops. Together we make an
ocean. Together, we can make a difference.
References
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Frederick, C. (1974). Suicide, homicede, and alcoholism among, American Indians: Guidelines
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French, L. (1991). Emerging Social Problems among the Qualla Cherokees. University of
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French, L, & Hornbuckle, J. (1980). Alcoholism among Native Americans: an analysis. Social
Work, 25(4), 275–280. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23712094
French, L., & Hornbuckle, J. (1977). An analysis of indian violence: The Cherokee example.
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Little, B. (2017, August 16). How Boarding Schools Tried to ‘Kill the Indian’ Through
Assimilation. History.com. Retrieved March 6, 2022, from
https://www.history.com/news/how-boarding-schools-tried-to-kill-the-indian-throughassimilation
Reid, J. (1970). A Law of Blood. New York University Press.
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