I. 旋元佑文法篇
1. 大陆和台湾词汇对照表
台湾
大陆
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单字
单词
文法
语法
代名词
代词
连接词
连词
复合主词
并列主语
限定形容词
定语形容词
对等连接词
并列连词
所有格代名词
物主代词
所有格形容词
物主形容词
自身代词
反身代名词
介系词
介词
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片语
短语
动词片语
动词短语
介系词片语
介词短语
主词
主语
主词补语
表语
受词
宾语
叙述形容词
表语形容词
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子句、从属子句
从句
受格
宾格
主词子句
主语从句
受词子句
宾语从句
形容词子句
定语从句
副词子句
状语从句
对等子句
并列子句
合句
并列句
叙述用法
表述用法
单句
简单句
复句
复合句
复合动词
并列动词
混合句
并列复合句
叙述句
陈述句
直接叙述
直接陈述
间接叙述
间接陈述
补述关系子句
继续性关系从句
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动状词
非限定性动词、动词的非谓语形式
连缀动词
系动词
行动动词
行为动词
个别动词
单个动词
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简单式
一般时
进行式
进行时
完成式
完成时
简单现在式
一般现在时
简单未来式
一般将来时
过去未来式
过去将来时
现在进行式
现在进行时
过去进行式
过去进行时
现在完成式
现在完成时
过去完成式
过去完成时
***
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主词子句
主语从句
受词子句
宾语从句
形容词子句
表语从句
副词子句
状语从句
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是否疑问句
一般疑问句
讯息疑问句
特殊疑问句
不定词
不定式
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母音
元音
子音
辅音
无声子音
清辅音
有声子音
浊辅音
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直说法
陈述语气
假设法
虚拟语气
祈使法
祈使语气
省略式
缩略式
插语
插入语
倒置
倒装
旋元佑——传统文法书里的规则既不容易背，又充满例外。与其背规则，不如设法理解文法背
后的道理。
语法是英文写作必备的基础。语法探讨的对象是句子。学习语法的目的在于认识英文句子的结
构和所有的变化。写文章如果只用单句，写作风格会因为缺乏句型变化而显得不够成熟，表达能力
也欠缺。学习语法必须透过大量阅读来积累——大量阅读和接触比本身水平高一点的英文句子。
本书从简单句开始，到合句，再到复杂句，最后讨论如何简化句子成分。
单句：we are sitting here in the sun. We can see snowy hills.
复合句：we are sitting here in the sun, and we can see snowy hills.
复杂句：as we are sitting here in the sun, we can see snowy hills.
减化句子成分：sitting here in the sun, we can see snowy hills.
2. 简单句 simple sentence
千变万化的英文句子，追根到底，都是由简单句构成的。一个正确的句子必须包含主语 subject
和叙述语 predicate，并且要表达完整的意思。主语介绍这个句子“主角是谁”，叙述语以动词为核
心，带领句子剩下的部分来叙述这个主角。
依照动词不同的特性，简单句分为五种基本句型：
S：subject，V：verb 动词，O：object 宾语，complement：补语
S+V
S+V+O
S+V+O+O
S+V+C
S+V+O+C
1. S + V
John died in 2000.该动词可单独与主语构成完整意思，为不及物动词
I got up rather late this morning. Got up 是一个动词短语 phrasal verb，短语指两个以上的单
词合在一起，构成一个意义单元。get 这个词本身没有起床的意思，必须和 up 合在一起才指起床。
2. S + V + O
John killed an insect.该动词搭配宾语与主语构成完整意思，为及物动词
3. S + V + O + O
英语中有部分及物动词，可以接两个宾语，这些动词大多包含授予、给予的意思，该动词后面
第一个宾语是给予的对象，第二个宾语是给予的东西。这是 S+V+O 句型的衍生。
His wife gave him some water.该句子中，主语是 his wife，动词是 gave，him 是动词给予的对
象，some water 动词给予的东西。
双宾语动词中两个宾语的顺序必须是对象在先，东西在后。如果缺少对象的宾语，可在第二宾
语后用介词 to+对象补充，充当副词修饰动词。此时句型为 S+V+O
His wife gave some water to him.
I teach my son English.
I teach English to my son.
4. S + V + C
英语句子中，一般由动词担任叙述主语的任务。如果动词不是一种动作，而是解释为“是”的
动词，这种动词没有叙述能力，只能连接主语和后面叙述的内容。这种动词叫做系动词 Linking
Verb。跟在这种 linking verb 后面的部分替代了动词所扮演的叙述角色，补足了句子的完整意思，
称之为补语 complement。
系动词: be, look, seem, appear, sound, feel, taste, turn, prove, become, make(成为)
That dress looks pretty.
The dog seems friendly.
His demands appear reasonable.
His trip sounds exciting.
I feel sick.
The drug proved false.
He became a teacher.
A nurse makes a good wife.
S+V+O 和 S+V+C 辨别方法：把动词换成 be 动词，意思基本不变，则是补语，是 S+V+C 句型。
5. S + V + O + C
如果在 S+V+O 的后面还必须交代宾语是什么意思才完整，那就是 S+V+O+C 句型。在主语宾语
补语句型中，补语叙述宾语是什么，中间暗示有一个“是”的关系存在，既宾语和补语是等同关系，
该补语称为宾语补语。
I find the dress pretty. > The dress is pretty.
the food made me sick. > I am sick.
I consider the story false. > the story is false.
把这些句子中的宾语和补语单独拿出来后，中间加上一个 be 动词，就变成了一个完整的 SVC
句子。
Be 动词不仅可以作为 linking verb，还可以作为具有实际含义的动词，意为“存在”。
I think, therefore I am.
To be or not to be, that is the question.
区分 S+V+O+O 主语双宾语句型和 S+V+O+C 主语宾语补语句型的方式：
将宾语和后面的元素单独拿出来，加上 be 动词，意思基本不变，则这是个宾语补语，是一个主
语宾语补语句型。
句子的主语和宾语都是名词，而主语补语和宾语补语可以是名词，或修饰名词的形容词和其他
起名词或形容词作用的词类。
John is my best friend.
I consider John my best friend.
My best friend 与 John 这个名词完全对等。
John seems in high spirits.
The good news makes John happy.
In high spirits 介词短语和 happy 形容词都是修饰 John 这个名词的，起形容词作用。
The final game is tonight.
The sponsors set the final game tonight.
The key is there.
I left the key under the mat.
The plane is down.
The pilot brought the plane down.
Tonight 修饰 the final game，there 和 under the mat 修饰 the key，down 修饰 the plane。这
些都是副词和介词副词类。
在句型练习过程中，先剔除可有可无的修饰语，再看主要句子成分，分辨好补语和宾语。
1. 名词短语
名词短语由三部分构成：限定词+形容词+名词。在符合条件下，每个部分都可以省去。写作最
容易犯错之一是名词短语不完整，通常是漏掉该有的限定词和名词词尾单复数。养成良好的写作习
惯，最好是把写作中所有名词都包装成名词短语的形式。
A good teacher
Some troublesome students
Their very pretty school
计量不可数名词时，通常是计算他的单位：
Three bottles of water
A liter of air
A sheet of paper
很多不可数的物质名词只要解释成种类，都可以作可数名词使用。
I have a paper to write tonight.
Drinking a couple of beers a day won’t do you any harm.
Several essential foods have risen in price lately.
名词与限定词在数上保持一致性
Many books，much time，few friends，little money
Today I interviewed for no fewer than four jobs.
There are not many pieces of the jigsaw puzzle left.
I have a few emails to write.
名词短语中，如果中间形容词的位置被另一个名词替换，就构成了一个复合名词 compound
noun，复合名词有三种写法，dishwasher, pole-vaulter, flower shop。他们的复数形式通常只加在
最后名词位置上，或最重要的名词上。Three gift shops, push-ups，brothers-in-law。
形容词位置只能是单数，这是原则。
Your trouser pocket（即使 trousers 通常只用他的复数形式）
部分名词的单复数含义不同，可理解为不同的单词。比如
Two savings banks
The damages negotiations
Several clothes hangers
These admissions offices
Three sports cars
Saving 指 节 省 、 挽 救 ， savings 指 储 蓄 。 Damage 指 损 坏 ， damages 指 赔 偿 。 Cloth 指 布 ，
clothes 指衣服。Admission 指承认、准许，admissions 指招生。Sport 是一种运动，sports 是形容
词本身的拼写形式，指运动型的。
副词可用于 修饰 形容词，因此名词短语 中还 能塞入一个副词的 位置。如 their very pretty
school，that rather old jacket。
名词短语中的省略。名词短语中三个部分在适当条件下，每个部分都可能可以省略。如
Of all the kids in my class, Jack is the smartest. (=the smartest kid)
These juicy Japanese apples are really expensive. But I want these. (these 升格成代词，指代整
个名词短语 these juicy Japanese apples)
省略名词的名词短语 the + 形容词表示一类人或事物，这种省略需要在特定语境下才成立，读者
需要知道省略的前因后果。如
The rich are not always happier than the poor. (the rich = the rich people, the poor = the poor
people)
The new is not always better than the old. (the new = the new thing, the old = the old thing)
The unknown is often feared. (the unknown = the unknown thing)
The + 人名复数表示某一家人。
The Johnsons (= the Johnson family, family 表示一家人时是复数，省略时在人名后加 s)
限定词 determiner：字面意思既限制对象的范围，使其意思更明确。包括冠词 article，数词
numeral，代词 pronoun，所有格’s / of…。根据其位置不同分为前位限定词 pre-determiner，中
位限定词 mid-determiner，和后位限定词 post-determiner。例子：
All these twenty expensive houses
前位限定词表示部分的概念，包括 all, both, half, one-third, double, twice, three times, such
All the girls, both those cars, half an hour, double the sum, twice my salary, one-third the
time, such a surprise
后位限定词表示数量的概念，包括数词 one, two, 200，序数 first second, 10th, last，和表示多、
少的 many，much，a little，little，a few，few，other
My three children, the seventh day, the last month, those many difficulties, some other time
中 位 限 定 词 表 示 指 示 的 概 念 ， 包 括 冠 词 a/an/the ， 形 容 词 性 人 称 代 词
my/your/his/her/their/our,
指
示
代
词
this/that/these/those
，
不
定
代
词
some/any/either/neither/every/each/no，和所有格
A book, no problem, the money, this question, that man, each worker, any trouble, some time,
John’s son, your car
同个位置限定词具有排他性，如 these some boys 是不正确的
名词短语中的名词短语
限定词位置
A dog’s ears,第一层名词短语是 a dog，通过变换成所有格形式起到限定词作用，修饰 ears，构
成第二层名词短语。The school’s history, a person’s honor, my father’s company
名词位置
An unbelievable 2 billion dollars 中，第一层名词短语是 2 billion dollars，以整体看成一个名
词，与 an unbelievable…构成第二层名词短语。
2. 数词写法
作限定词使用时，只做单数。A thousand book，four hundred books
作名词使用时，与 of 连用，表示数百、数千。。。等等
Hundreds of dollars
Thousands of miles
Dozens of eggs
3. 冠词
不定冠词 a/an 是 one 的弱化结果，表示一个的数量。
A book, an apple
定冠词 the 是 this/these/that/those 的弱化结果，表示一个指示性。
There is a dog. The dog is cute.
当句子中所修饰的名词缺乏指示性，或者不需要指示性时，可不用加 the。比如在最高级前不一
定要加 the
Most books in my collection are science fiction. （无特指某一本书）
The most expensive books in my collection are science fiction. (特指科幻小说这一类书)
Mangoes are most expensive in early summer, when they first come out. (the 作为名词短语中
的限定词，除非省略名词的情形如 the rich，the poor，否则必定会与名词同时存在。这个句子中
most expensive 是一个形容词补语修饰主语 mangoes，因为这个形容词并没处于名词短语之中，也
就不必考虑加限定词 the 的问题了。)
John runs fastest among all the boys in my class. (fastest 是一个副词修饰 runs)
专有名词是一种特称的感念：一个专有名词必定是首字母大写，且只适用于单一的对象，因此
在名词短语中不必添加冠词。如人名、地名等。如 Bill Gates。
真正的专有名词是特称，不能加冠词。但为什么很多海洋、河流、山、岛、船、杂志、旅馆等
都加了定冠词呢。比如：
the Danube 多瑙河
the Himalayas 喜马拉雅山
the Titanic 泰坦尼克号
the Times 泰晤士报
the Ritz 丽池饭店
the Pacific 太平洋
从名词短语结构解释，这些短语其实都属于名词短语中名词位置省略的结果。
the Danube = the Danube River
the Himalaya = the Himalaya Mountains
the Titanic = the Titanic Liner
the Times = the Times Newspaper
the Ritz = the Ritz Hotel
the Pacific = the Pacific Ocean
对比两边可以发现，这些名称单词都被放在了形容词位置（Danube，Himalaya），真正的名
词位置都是普通名词，并非专有名词，只是因为语言习惯（人们熟知）被省略了，看起来才好像是
专有名词加了定冠词。所以，既然名词位置是普通名词，当然就可以加定冠词了。
The Danube means the river that is called Danube.
这也解释了为什么 the Indian Ocean 不能省略 Ocean 叫 the Indian, 原因是引起混淆。 The
Dead Sea 不能省略成 the Dead。
如果省略掉的名词是复数，那么其复数意义就前移至形容词位置上（因为省略后形容词升格成
代词，复数要由它来表示）
The Maldives = the Maldive Islands
The Johnson Family = the Johnsons
专有名词普通化
当专有名词加定冠词时，表示这个专有名词被当作普通名词使用，成为通称，不再是特称。
This is not the Chicago I remember.
普通名词专有化
对于只设置一个席位的职位，通常可当作专有名词使用。
Bill Gates was Chairman of Microsoft until 2014. (只有一个 chairman 席位)
Bill Gates was a better Chairman than Craig Barrett. (对比过程暗示两个 chairman，不再具有
专有名词单一特称的概念)
普通名词抽象化
在介词短语中，很多单数的普通名词没有加限定词，是因为该普通名词被当作抽象名词使用，
使用零冠词的结构。比如
You can contact him by phone.
Are you actually going around the lake on foot?
I always go to church on Sundays.
Mangoes are not in season now.
You can go to the island by plane or by boat.
在这些例子中，名词是一种抽象意义上的手段、方式。但注意要分清该名词是否是抽象化的。
I think I will go by bus. (抽象化成出行方式)
I think I will go by the 5:00 bus. (具体的，是 5 点那一班公交车)
He usually goes to bed early.（抽象化成睡觉）
He is going toward his bed. (具体的他的那张床)
I love to travel by sea.
I have a small house by the sea. （具体的某个海边）
零冠词 zero article 既不使用冠词。在限定词采用零冠词，是不加限制、无限的意思。采用这个
概念是因为名词短语中必须有限定词，当名词为复数，又不特别指代时，通常用零冠词表示这个名
词短语仍然具有限定词，只是“省略、看不到”而已。如 black-faced spoonbills are an endangered
species. black-faced spoonbills 是一个名词短语。
零冠词适用于多数复数名词、不可数名词。
Bravery is a necessary quality in a soldier.
Air is invisible, but people can’t live without it.
4. 代词
代词是用来代替名词的单词，被替代的名词叫先行词 antecedent。
如果句子中的宾语是代词，而且先行词是句子的主语（既主语和宾语指的是同一对象），这时
就要采用反身代词 reflexive pronouns。
I watched the cat giving itself a bath.
The manager gave himself a raise.
反身代词当副词使用时，不一定指主语。
I have to do homework myself (= by myself).
I don’t like the wine itself (= in itself).
代词与先行词人称、数保持一致性。
People often think that their difficulties are unique.
We often think that our difficulties are unique.
If the campaign succeeds in raising huge sums, the sponsors will devote them all to disaster
relief.
If the campaign succeeds in raising a huge sum, the sponsors will devote it all to disaster
relief.
When a teacher takes his students on a field trip, he is fully responsible and must bring every
one of them safely back to school with him.
如果先行词是性别不清楚的某人，在过去是一律视为男性处理。自从女权运动兴起，语言文字
也在变革，对于这类情况应该采用 he or she 这个性别平等的短语代替。
When a teacher takes his or her students on a field trip, he or she is fully responsible and must
bring every one of them safely back to school with him or her.
然而这样的句子笨拙啰嗦，在最新 the Times 中已出现直接视为女性用法的潮流。
When a teacher takes her students on a field trip, she is fully responsible and must bring
every one of them safely back to school with her.
当然也可以用复数来避免困扰。
When teachers take their students on a field trip, they are fully responsible and must bring
every one of them safely back to school with them.
代词指代的对象要清晰。
When tourists first arrived in this new resort, the locals thought they were very lucky people.
这个句子是不好的。因为 they 指代对象不清晰，是 tourists 还是 the locals，并不是很明确。更好的
方式是将句子改写如下：
When tourists first arrived in this new resort, the locals thought these outsiders were very
lucky people.
When tourists first arrived in this new resort, the locals considered themselves very lucky
people.
5. 形容词
形容词用于修饰名词，位于补语位置或者名词短语中。放于补语位置的形容词叫 predicative
adjectives 叙述性形容词，放于名词短语中的形容词叫 attributive adjectives 功能型形容词。
后位修饰的形容词。部分形容词在修饰名词时，只能放在名词后面。
当多个形容词形成短语时，可直接放于补语位置。如果要放于名词短语中，需将该形容词短语
改成一个单词（使用 hyphen）。
A five-year-old boy
The state-of-the-art technology
That hard-to-solve problem
形容词顺序
限定词-predictive-attributive-名词，越是客观、不变的属性越靠近名词，越是主观、可变的属
性越远离名词。写作中通常抓住两点，判断主观和客观，不变与可变。
后置形容词。
有一类形容词修饰名词时，要放在名词后面。
1. 在复合名词后面
I am meeting someone important tonight.
像 someone，anyone 等复合名词，是将限定词和名词合并在一起，导致原本中间的形容词位置
就不存在，若要使用形容词修饰该复合名词，则只能放在这种复合名词的后面。 Something
special, nothing else
2. 以 a-开头的形容词
Alive, afraid, alike, asleep, afloat, awake, adrift, ahead, alone, aware, aboard, aloof, abroad,
alert.
Jane and her mother alike are teachers.
These people alone, wood
3. 外来词汇形成的惯用语
多数来自法语的外来语形成的惯用语，要把形容词放在名词后面。
The President elect, elect: adjective,参与总统、首相选择的人。
Heir apparent
Court martial
Secretary General
Poet Laureate
Devil incarnates
Time immemorial
有一些做补语的形容词，本身还不具备完整意思，需要搭配不定词短语 infinitive,介词短语
prepositional phrases,和名词从句。
I am eager to begin the project. I am eager 本身虽然复合 S+V+C 句型，但是意思不能被表达完
整，此时需要补充不定词短语作副词，后置紧随并修饰形容词。
I am able to do the job. 同理。
These people are used to working overtime. These people are used 语义不详，搭配介词短语
to working overtime。本句 to 是介词，与不定词中的 to 不同。如
I am fond of playing video games. (of playing video games 是介词短语，of 是一个介词)
The pilot’s wife is concerned that he might get himself killed. 形容词搭配名词从句都是省略介
词短语的结果。本句是 the pilot’s wife is concerned over the possibility that he might get himself
killed.
I am sure that he made the right choice.
I am sure of the fact that he made the right choice.
6. 副词
副词用于修饰动词、形容词和副词，少数几类副词也可以修饰名词。副词在句中的位置比形容
词更为弹性，但应该满足两个原则：副词与其所修饰的对象尽量靠近。副词应避免有两个以上的可
能修饰对象。满足这两个原则才不会语义不清，模棱两可。比如
The boss wanted this man to be punished badly. 这个句子中 badly 是修饰动词 wanted 还是
punished，不清晰。
更好的表达方式：
The boss badly wanted this man to be punished.
The boss wanted this man to be badly punished.
1. Adverbs of frequency 是修饰动词专用的副词，位置应放在 action verb 前，助动词后。只
要满足两个原则，放在句首也可。
Occasionally I spend a whole day in the multiplex.
如果否定意义的频率副词放在句首，句子需要倒装。
Rarely does he leave the office before seven.
2. Adverbs of manner
放于修饰动词前面，或在句尾，只要表达清晰。
He stayed single reluctantly.
He reluctantly stayed single.
He stayed reluctantly single. 不好的表达方式，此时 reluctantly 是修饰动词还是形容词不清
晰
部分态度副词用于修饰整个句子，放于最前面并用逗号隔开。
Theoretically, your proposal might work.
= theoretically speaking, your proposal might work.
Scientifically, the experiment is a success, but financially, it is a disaster.
3. Intensifier adverbs: 语 气 副 词 ， 如 only, especially, particularly, absolutely, badly,
extremely, amazingly 等，可以修饰名词、动词、形容词和副词。放于所修饰对象的前面。
Only John saw the boss yesterday.
John only saw the boss yesterday.
John saw only the boss yesterday.
John saw the boss only yesterday.
You are absolutely a genius!
Your hair badly needs cutting.
The test is extremely difficult.
Time passed amazingly fast.
I like Beijing food, especially roast duck.
4. Adverbs of degree: extremely, almost, nearly, quite, barely, fairly, rather, very…
The plan almost failed.
Your son is quite a man now.
I barely know John.
That is a fairly long story.
He plays the piano rather well.
5. Conjunctive adverbs:连词性副词不具备连词的语法功能，不能直接用于连接两个句子。需
要使用分号或者句号分开两个句子。
Sales increased 20%; besides, production cost came down.
Consequently, we should have no problem reaching our goals this year.
However, projections for the next fiscal year are not very optimistic.
写作中最长犯错的地方在于使用逗号将两个句子连接到一起。Comma splice 错误
错误 He is short, however, he plays basketball well. （错误的句子）
改正 He is short; however, he plays basketball well.
He is short, but he plays basketball well.
6. Particles 介副词：看似介词，实际是直接当做副词使用，不加介词宾语。与动词连用时，构
成动词短语 phrasal verb。
we are going to gym, are you down?
Time is up.
Don’t look down.
He came over to talk to you.
7. Adverbs of time and place
时间副词位于最尾，或最前。
He had an accident around this very corner yesterday.
Yesterday, around this corner, he had an accident.
8. 形容词和副词判断
修饰语使用形容词还是副词，要视句型而定。
When you shake hand with people, you should hold it firmly.
这个 SVO 句型中，firmly 修饰动词 hold，强调用力握。
Hold the camera firm while you take the picture.
这个 SVOC 句型中，firm 修饰 camera，表示相机稳。而不是使用 firmly“用力抓住相机”。
（祈使句省略主语）
The enemy is advancing. Stand firm.
Stand firm 这是一个 SVC 句型，因祈使句主语被省略，firm 修饰主语人表示稳住，而不是
使用 firmly 修饰动词 stand“用力站着”。
The man wiped the windshield clean.(SVOC 句型)
He types cleanly and neatly. （SV 句型）
The teacher explained the lesson clearly.
She made the lesson very clear to all her students.
You should stand clear of the window.
Keep clear of this area.
7. 比较级和最高级
修饰语中的形容词和副词都有比较级和最高级的变化。
1. 对于单音节形容词和副词，只需在词尾加-er，-est 即可。
Tall-taller-tallest
Hard-harder-hardest
2. 对于三音节以上的形容词和副词，只需在前面加上 more，most 即可。
Expensive-more expensive-most expensive
Fundamentally-more fundamentally-most fundamentally
3. 对于双音节
1) 如果该形容词或副词是有常见标示后缀的词尾，则应该保留词尾的标识功能，在前面加
more 或 most。比如副词常见标示后缀-ly，形容词则更多，-ful, -ous, -ive, -ic 等等。
Basic-more basic-most basic
Famous-more famous-most famous
Crowded-more crowded-most crowded
Quickly-more quickly-most quickly
2) 如果该形容词或副词没有能够标示词类的词尾，则两种方式都可以接受。
Shallow-more shallow/shallower-most shallow/shallowest
4. 不规则变化
8. 介词
介词位于名词前面，构成介词短语，可以当形容词或副词使用，修饰名词、动词、形容词、副
词。
The company is in trouble.
I leave for Hong Kong tomorrow.
The country is rich in mineral resources.
The new janitor works half-heartedly at best.
介词与介副词 particles
Come in, the soldier stood up. In 和 up 都是介副词
The plumber went down to the basement. Down 是介副词修饰动词 went，to the basement 才
是真正的介词短语。
He has gone over to your house. Over 是介副词修饰动词 gone，to your house 才是介词短语
在动词后面加介副词组成一个意义单元，这个结构称动词短语 phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs 可当作一个动词看待，具有动词的属性，及物和不及物。
及物且其宾语应放在其后的：
You will get over it soon enough.
I will look into your complaint at once.
Henry takes after his father.
I will stand by you.
He is slowly catching up with his classmates in exam grades. (up 是介副词，with 是介词)
John hurt his leg and had to drop out of the race.
If you take the money, you can’t expect to get away with it.
I promise my kid a new cellphone, so I can’t go back on my word now.
及物且其宾语可放在其后或动词和介副词之间：
That woman brought up eight children.
That woman brought eight children up.
*这类动词短语遇到代词时，代词只能放在中间
That woman brought them up.
The boss has called off the meeting.
The boss has called the meeting off.
The boss has called it off.
I’m going to turn down this offer.
I’m going to turn his offer down.
I’m going to turn it down.
He made up a long story.
He made a long story up.
He made it up.
He and his wife finally made up.(make up 是不及物动词短语，表示和好)
不及物动词短语：
How did this all come about.
Business has fallen of badly since the SARS epidemic.
The bomb went off in the middle of the night.
The meeting weas postponed because too few people turned up.
空间中的 at，on，in，At 是点，On/along 是线，面，In 是体
时间中的 at，on，in，
Apart from = except for
Up to
Between 和 among
Between 不一定是两个之间，它带有标示位置的功能“夹在中间”，among 则没有，只表示在
其中。
The Rhine flows between France and Germany.
Switzerland lies between France, Germany, Austria, and Italy.
Among the major cities in the world, Shanghai is probably developing most rapidly.
Except 和 except for, except for 可用于句首。
You can all go except George.
You can all go except for George.
Except for George, you can all go.
On/about, 关于。。。，on 是正式的、学术性的口吻，about 非正式。
He has written a book on the temples of the Upper Nile.
He is talking about his childhood.
介词短语一般放在修饰对象后面，但同其他修饰语一样，要避免语义不清。
The secretary had to retype the letter which sha had been working on under the order of the
manager. （不佳）
此句 under the order of the manager 既是全句句尾，又是从句的句尾，是修饰 had to retype 还
是 had been working，模糊不清。
写作时需要避免这种情况，
Under the order of the manager, the secretary had to retype the letter which she had been
working on.
The secretary had to retype the letter which, under the order of the manager, she had been
working on.
I saw that many houses were destroyed by fire on TV. (不佳)
On TV I saw that many houses were destroyed by fire.
9. 分词
分词可以当做形容词看待。
现在分词是一个主动语态，或暗含进行的状态。
过去分词是一个被动语态，或暗示完成状态。
Be + 过去分词 = 被动语态，
Be + 现在分词 = 进行时，
这两条规则是片面错误的。
My wallet is gone. Gone 是一个过去分词作形容词表不见了的状态。
I’m done. It’s all yours. Done 是一个过去分词作形容词表示用完了的状态。
Split milk
A wounded soldier
Burnt-own houses
因此，对于这条规则，换个思路，将句子中的 be 看成句子的动词，后面的分词当作是形容词补
语。
既然如此，所谓的形容词结尾-ed 是修饰人的感受，-ing 是修饰物的性质，可以理解为当该分词
修饰主语时，用现在分词表示主动、或进行的状态，当该分词修饰宾语时，用过去分词表示被动、
或完成的状态。
Bugs frighten the girl.
Frightening bugs, frightened girl
Bugs are frightening to the girl.
The girl is frightened of Bugs.这里 frightened 作过去分词当形容词使用，并不是真正的动词被
动语态（否则介词短语应该是 by bugs 而不是 of bugs）。
The test results are disappointing to the students.
The students are disappointed at the test results.
The students consider the test results disappointing.
The ending is surprising to most readers.
Most readers are surprised at the ending.
Most readers consider the ending surprising.
Your empty boasts are rather tiring to me.
I am tired of your empty boasts.
I find your empty boasts rather tiring.
如果意思是令人感觉如何，就是表达主动的形容词，用现在分词，如果意思是觉得如何，就是
表达被动的形容词，用过去分词。
Generally, the -ed ending means that the noun so described ("you") has a passive relationship
with something — something (the subject matter, the presentation) has bewildered you and you
are confused. The -ing ending means that the noun described has a more active role — you are not
making any sense so you are confusing (to others, including your professor).
10. 动名词
动名词当名词使用。分词、动名词、动词不定式都是由动词衍生出来，称为动状词
（verbal），或非限定动词 nonfinite verbs。
动名词多数指一个动作、习惯，是不能由普通名词直接表达出来的。
She became overweight through overeating.
Fishing requires a lot of patience.
I love swimming.
It’s time for swimming / a swim. (swimming 是一种运动，a swim 表达游一趟泳)
动名词和普通名词和现在分词的比较。
Rising costs have finally forced the company to fold.
Rise 是动词，rising 在这个句子中作现在分词修饰 costs，表达一个进行中的动作“不断上涨
的...”。
Raising prices is the only way to make ends meet.
Raise 是动词，raising 在这个句子中作动名词与 prices 构成名词短语，虽然也是处于名词短语
中的形容词位置，但与现在分词的意义不同，raise 在此处没有进行的含义，而是与 prices 构成复合
名词表达涨价。如此才复合句意。Raising prices = the only way。
The rise in costs has caught the company off guard.
Rise 在这个句子中作普通名词，也是本句的主语。表达“上涨”这件事。In costs 是介词短语修
饰名词 the rise。
The raising of prices is going to scare off some customers.
Raising 在这个句子中作动名词，也是本句的主语，表达“上涨”这件事。Of prices 是介词短
语修饰名词 the raising。
普通名词可以表达大部分物品。
动名词是名词，通常代表一个动作，一个习惯，一件事。
现在分词是形容词，暗示主动、进行的含义。
动名词与普通名词可以构成复合名词，此时动名词处于名词短语中的形容词位置，作形容词使
用。现在分词是形容词，可以直接修饰名词，构成一个名词短语。都是名词短语，如何区分呢。
Those swimming swans came from Siberia. Swimming 是现在分词。
That swimming pool is always crowed. Swimming 是动名词。
区分的方法是将这个名词短语还原，看看是句子还是名词短语。
Those swimming swans = those swans were swimming
That swimming pool = that pool is swimming （错误）
That swimming pool = that pool for swimming.
可以看到，现在分词的名词短语是可以还原成句子。而动名词的复合名词可以还原成名词短语 。
另外第一个句子的重读在 swans，第二个句子的重读在 swimming。
补语位置的动名词和现在分词。
The most important industry in Macao is gambling.动名词
Many customers were gambling in the casino at the time.现在分词
补语位置更容易区分。通常结合语境就能判断出来。
复合的动名词
Mountain-climbing is primarily a winter sport.
= Climbing mountains is primarily a winter sport.
把爬山 climb mountain 这个动作变成一个登山运动，做法是动词 climb 变成 climbing，通过
hyphen 与 mountain 构成一个复合的动名词。或直接作形容词修饰 mountain，构成一个复合名词。
11. 动词不定式
动词不定式 infinite verb,指的是不定词 to 加动词原形，to + V。动词不定式与语气助动词类似，
都接动词原形，都具有不确定语气，且可以互相改写——所有的主要语气助动词都可以改写成不定
式。
Must  have to
Should  ought to
Will/would  be going to/be willing to
Can/could  be able to
May/might  be likely to/be allowed to
基于以上变化观察，动词不定式可以说是语气助动词弱化的结果。既把语气助动词改写为 to，
就可以把限定性动词短语（verb phrase）改写为非限定性动词不定式 to infinite，讲动词转变为其
他词性。
不定式短语可以当名词短语、形容词短语和副词短语使用。

不定式作名词使用
To be accurate is very important.名词当主语（should  to）
To be accurate 是一个不定式短语，从新语法观念讲，是由不定式 to be 加形容词构成的，
在句子中作主语。如果不定式短语太长，为了避免头重脚轻，可以使用形式主语 it 代替，
把不定式短语移到后面。It is very important to be accurate.
The manager decided to carry out the plan.当动词 decided 的宾语(would  to)
The best strategy is to stay put. 作主语补语。=to stay put is the best strategy. (should 
to)

不定式作形容词使用，放在名词后面修饰名词。
Tonight I have some important work to do. 作宾语补语，修饰 some important work 这个
名词短语。(must  do)
You are to report to the General immediately.作主语补语。(must report  to report)
Jane wanted her boyfriend to leave her alone. 作 宾 语 补 语 修 饰 her boyfriend 。 (should
leave  to leave)

不定式作副词使用，修饰动词、形容词和副词。
The agent called the movie star to tell her about the new movie.修饰动词 (could  to)
Your question is easy to answer.修饰形容词 (can  to)
The child is old enough to look after himself now. 修饰副词 enough（副词 enough 修饰
old, can  to）
不定式 to 是语气助动词弱化的结果，语气助动词没有表达时间的功能，因此不定式为了表达相
对于过去的时间，需用 to have Ven 表达。
I am fortunate to be here today.
I am fortunate to have been born into a good family.
The dog seemed to be badly hurt.
The dog seemed to have been hit by a car.
使役动词 make，had，let 后接的宾语补语可以是分词（形容词）或不带 to 的不定式（名词）。
不带 to 原因是对于这些使役动词，其动词是确定会发生的，因此不带有不确定语气，遇到要使用不
定式作为名词补语时，必须删掉 to 剩下动词原形。而当这些使役动词被用于被动语态时，那么改使
役动词转变为过去分词使用，真正的动词是 be，因此需要把 to 还原出来。
I will make him pay for this.
He will be made to pay for this.
He had his lawn mowed by cleaner.
He had the party going.
He had the maid clean up the mess after the party.
同理感官动词 see, hear, feel, smell 等，其动作是确定发生的，因此其后宾语补语可以是分词或
不带 to 的不定式。
I saw the car run over a dog.
The car was seen to run over a dog.
I felt cold rain streaming down my face.
I felt my wallet touched.
I felt my heart stop; I was so scared.
不定式的 to 和介词 to：不定式的 to 是语气助动词的弱化，带有不确定语气，后接动词原形。
介词 to 后接名词。
I used to walk three kilometers to school when I was a kid.
To walk 是不定式的 to，属于直接使用 used to 语气助动词，后接动词原形。
I am used to walking long distances.
Be used to 中的 to 是介词，与动词 be used 构成固定搭配，介词 to 后接名词。
My friend agreed to lend me a hand.
To lend 是 would/could lend 的弱化，表示愿意或能够做某事。
The board of directors agreed to laying off 30% of the workers.
Agreed to 是一个固定搭配，agree 在这里是不及物动词用法，to 是介词。
12. 动名词与不定式的选择
动词不定式的特点是不确定语气。因此凡是使用不定式的地方，都属于不确定的条件语气，而
且可以还原成某一种语气助动词来解释。不定式可以作名词、形容词和副词。而动名词一定是名词 。
作为名词它们都可以作主语、补语或宾语。

皆可且意思相同
某些动词如 like, begin 用不定式或动名词，意义差不多。
The mean began playing / to play bridge.
Playing bridge 表明这是开始进行某个事。To play bridge 是 would play bridge 的弱化，
表明开始要去进行某事。
I like travelling / to travel to different places.
Travelling 表示喜欢某件事。To travel 是 will/can travel 的弱化，表明喜欢去进行某事或希
望能够做某事，相当于 be going to 和 be able to。

皆可但意思不同
动词如 remember, forget, stop 等可以接不定式或动名词，但意思不同。
Please remember to bring this book to class next week.
=please remember that you must bring this book to class next week.
To bring 是 should/must bring 的弱化，表达要做的事，是一种不确定的语气。
I remember bringing a friend to your party last week.
=I remember that I brought a friend to your party last week.
Bringing 是名词从句减化的结果，表明做了某事。
I forgot to call in advance.
= I forgot that I should call in advance.
I forgot having called the pizza shop, so I called again.
= I forgot that I had called the pizza shop, so I called again.

只能用不定式
The first/second/last/only… to
Charles Lindberg was the first man to fly solo across the Atlantic.
To fly 是 could fly 的弱化，表明他是第一个能够做成某事的人。
Admitting your mistake openly is the only way to solve the problem.
To solve 是 can solve 的弱化，表明只有这个途径能够做成某事。
Easy, simple, likely, possible 等形容词后面接不定词是因为这些形容词是带主观感受的，应
该用不确定语气表达。
Mistakes are likely to happen in the final stages.
To happen 是 may happen 的弱化，表明“有可能”做某事。
It is possible to correct all the mistakes before the final deadline.
To correct 也是 can correct 的弱化，表明“有可能”作某事。
某些动词后面只能接不定式。
I would like to take the afternoon off.
Would like 表达想要做某事，是带有不确定语气的“将要”做某事的意味，所以只能带不
定式 to take 作为名词宾语。

只能用动名词
The speaker finished talking at last.
13. 动词时态
时+态：时间，状态，语态
时间 time
过去时
现在时
未来时
状态 aspect
一般
完成
语态 voice
主动
被动
进行
完成进行
动词的时态，由于所处时间、状态和语态的不同，动词的时态变化多达 24 种。由于每一个句子
都有动词，通过简单化分析，驾简御繁，将句子中的 be 视为动词，后面的分词视为形容词补语，那
么就时态就只剩下一般和完成两种状态了。
一般时状态，用于交代动作发生的时间。以一条数轴中心为 now 括号基准，一般过去时在 now
的左边，一般将来时在 now 的右边。
动作发生在过去时：
I saw the movie last week. （saw 表达动作发生在过去）
The US declared independence in 1776. （declared 发生在过去）
Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese. （was 发生在过去，invented 作过去分词表达被动
语态）
I was working on my thesis throughout last week. (was 发生在过去，working 作现在分词表达
进行的状态)
The house was being renovated when It collapsed on the workers. (was 发生在过去，being
renovated 是一个现在分词 being 和过去分词 renovated 组成的分词短语。Being 表示进行状态，
renovated 表示被动语态。该分词短语表示正在进行中的被动语态)
动作发生在现在时：动作发生在以 now 为中心，范围可大可小。
I have a headache.
Our summer house is located on the lake. (is 表达动作发生在现在，located 作过去分词表被动
语态)
The store is selling everything at a 30% discount this week. (is 用一般现在时，selling 作现在分
词表达进行的状态)
This rad is closed to traffic now because it is being widened. (is closed 是一个一般现在时被动
语态。Being widened 是一个正在进行的被动语态)
动作发生在将来：
传统语法观念认为：发生在将来的事情用动词的未来式 will do，will 是将来时专用的语法助动
词。新的语法观念认为：过去、现在发生的动作是确定的，既成事实的，要用事实语气，采用一般
的时态来表示。未来的动词尚未发生，还未成既定事实，需要用不确定语气，搭配语气助动词来表
示。
既新的语法观念只有过去式和现在时，没有将来时！
语气助动词有 must, should, would, can, could, will, may, might, need, dare, used to 等等搭配
动词原形，表达不确定语气，说明将来可能发生的、但未成既定事实的动作。
Maple leaves will soon turn red. In fact, the view might be completely different tomorrow. 传
统观念认为 will 是语法助动词，表达将来时。新的观念认为没有所谓的将来时，will 和 might 都是
语气助动词，属于不确定语气，表达尚未发生、尚未成既定事实的事，只是 will 更加肯定，might
比较不肯定。
The weatherman says it will rain tomorrow.
Even so, it might turn out sunny tomorrow.
It was sunny outside when we came in, but now it may be raining; the weather is so
changeable.
Will 是语气助动词，be going to 中的 be 是动词，属于事实语气。因此 be going to 语气要比
will 更肯定一些。
动词 come, go, leave, arrive, begin, end, start, finish 等常用在确定进程的 schedule 中，虽然尚
未发生，但都是非常确定会发生，不存在不确定性，这些动词可以用一般时、进行时把它当作事实
来叙述。
The train is leaving in 10 minutes.
The train arrives at 2:30.
World Cup finals begin tomorrow night.
同理只要是已经排定的 schedule，都可以用事实语气来叙述。
The power company says there is a power outage from 3 to 3:30pm tomorrow.
过去时间的将来时：以某个过去时间为出发点，其未来时间发生的动作。需要用 would 来表达
过去的不确定语气。
It was June 1945; Japan would soon raid Pearl Harbor.
The weatherman said it would rain, but it didn’t.
完成时状态：一般时的时间是括号状，有明确开始和结束，动作发生在这个范围内。完成时的
时间则是箭头状，并指向一个截止时间，动作在这个截止时间之前发生，并且已经完成。
动作发生在过去：动作截止时间发生在过去。
Everybody had left before she got to the station.
Nearly 60,000 soldiers had been killed when the President finally decided to pull out of the
war.
The students had been preparing for the college entrance exam for three years when the
Education Ministry suddenly announced a change of regulations.
动作发生在现在：如果动作没有明确的截止时间，只表达已经做过了的状态。则用现在完成时。
I have seen that movie.
You can’t enter now because the concert has already begun.
Everything that can be done has been done; now we can only wait and see.
Those marathon runners have been running for two whole hours without stop now.
动作发生在将来：新的语法观念没有将来时，也就没有将来完成时。只有不确定语气。而表达
不确定语气的助动词有 will, must, should, would, can, could, may, might.
Experts estimate that the last of your oil reserves will have been depleted by the middle of
this century.将 will have been 视为动词组，depleted 看作过去分词，表达被动语态。
In two more minutes, she will have been talking on the phone for three hours.
时态一致性：一个主句中的所有从句必须保持时态逻辑一致性。不是时态必须相同，而是从句
动词之间必须符合逻辑关系。
Some buildings that were destroyed in the 918 earthquakes were poorly constructed. (不佳)
主句是 some buildings were poorly constructed. 从句是 some buildings were destroyed in the
918 earthquakes. 建造的时间应该是先于地震发生的时间。因此主句应用过去完成时。
Some buildings that were destroyed in the 918 earthquakes had been poorly constructed.
Never before had rescue workers in Taiwan handled so many victims as they did in the
aftermath of 921.
Under a provision of the law that has never been applied, the President is required to seek the
approval of Congress before leading the country into war.
14. 语态
语态分为主动 active 和被动 passive。当句子中的宾语被拿出来当主语，句子就要改写成被动语
态。
The US invaded Iraq twice.
 Iraq was invaded twice (by the US).
Congress gave the President permission to launch war.
=Congress gave permission to the President to launch war.
 The President was given permission to launch war (by Congress).
 Permission was given to the president to launch war (by Congress).
The two invasions made the US an enemy to many Arabians.
 The US was made an enemy to many Arabians by the two invasions.
No one has ever sat on that chair since he died.
 That chair has never been sat on since he died.
(sat on 被看成一个 phrasal verb)
He had turned off the light before the accident happened.
 The light had been turned off before the accident happened.
They are debating the case in court.
 The case is being debated in court. (being 表进行时，debate 过去分词表被动)
对于英文使用习惯而言，主动语态是最常采用的，因为主动语态简洁、清楚且直接。使用被动
语态是为了加强修饰效果，在这过程中也必须保持句子连贯、清楚和简洁。
The chairman should step down for now because the court is investigating him for a possible
crime. （不佳）
这个句子没有语法错误，但是表达效果不佳，原因在于主句和从句的主语不一致。这里并非意
味着主句和从句主语必须保持一致，而是从修辞手法上来说，如果两个 clauses 主语相同，句子
的叙述就会更连贯，修辞效果更强。
 The chairman should step down for now because he is being investigated for a possible
crime.
The chairman is not available now because a meeting is being presided over by him.
 The chairman is not available now because he is presiding over a meeting.
Because the nurse told him to wait outside, the man found a chair and sat down.
 Because he was told to wait outside, the man found a chair and sat down.
当两个 clauses 的主语相同时，不仅连贯性加强，而且还可以通过减化使句子更加简洁。这在原
句中是无法做到的。比如上面最后一个例子。
Because the nurse told him to wait outside, the man found a chair and sat down.
 Because he was told to wait outside, the man found a chair and sat down.
 Told to wait outside, the man found a chair and sat down.
有些句子主语并不重要，或者叙述起来很模糊，这时候使用被动语态可以避免使用含糊不清的
主语，使句子更加清楚。
They speak Portuguese in Brazil.
 Portuguese is spoken in Brazil.
Someone stole my wallet.
 My wallet was stolen.
15. 语气助动词 modal auxiliaries
语气助动词 auxiliaries 是一种用来辅助、配合动词原形构成动词短语的词类。助动词分为语法
助动词和语气助动词。语法助动词包括 do、完成时态中的 have、进行时态中的 be。
语气助动词用于表达条件语气 conditional mood，一种不确定性的语气。
It is raining out there. is 表明这是一个 indicative mood，陈述语气，是一个事实语气。
I may be raining out there. may be 表明这是一个带有不确定性的条件语气。
语气助动词有两种用法：general 一般用法和猜测用法。
15.1 一般用法

Must：表示必须。无时态变化。
We must all keep together.
He said we must all keep together.

Will/would:表示愿意、决定承诺。有时态差别。
I will have my own way.
He said he would have his own way.
Would you like a cup of coffee? Would 是猜测用法。不是过去时。

Shall/should: shall 用法比较古老，现代英语中很少用到。通常用于表达询问意愿或强烈决
心的口吻。
Shall I/shall we go now?
The enemy shall not pass!
Should 表达责任、义务。无时态变化。
We should always be on time.
He said we should leave early, and we did.

Can/could：表示有能力、有权利。有时态差别。
I can drink a dozen beers in an hour.
Last night there was something wrong with my stomach, and I couldn’t even finish one
beer.
Could you please help me with my homework? could 不是过去时，而是猜测用法。

May/might:表达准许、许可，有时态差别。
You may go now.
He said we might go.
Might I ask a big favor of you? Might 不是过去时，而是猜测用法。
15.2 猜测用法
用于猜测用法时，must, should, will/would, can/could, may/might 失去表达时间的功能，只
是用来表达猜测把握的轻重。这些语气助动词搭配完成时态 have done，是指相对过去时间的猜测
语气由轻至重 must  might.
Must
It must be raining hard outside.
It must have rained last night, for the ground is still wet.
Will
That will be George at the door, I expect.
You will all have heard the news.
Would
This seat would be mine, right?
That would have been the mailman; I found some new mail in the box.
Should
We should be on the right track.
He should have left; his car is gone.
Can
Where can he be at this hour?
Where can he have gone?
Could
Of course, I could be wrong.
The police is here; something could have gone wrong.
may
Don’t go near that snake; it may be dangerous.
The snake may have been dangerous, but now it’s gone.
Might
Bring a compass; you might get lost in the woods.
Check your voice message, he might have left something for you.
15.3 其他语气助动词
Ought to=should
I think you ought to apologize to him.
Ought we to go?
You oughtn’t to have done that.
He ought to be home now. （猜测用法）
Have to=will
You have to tell your father.
I don’t have to leave now.
That has to be the pizza man at the door. （猜测用法）
Used to:表达过去习惯
He used to smoke a pipe.
Did he use to smoke a pipe?
I don’t use to smoke a pipe.
Need:需要
I don’t think you need go.
Need I remind you of the consequences?
You needn’t do that.
Need 可以作动词使用。
I don’t think you need to go.
Do I need to remind you of the consequences?
You don’t need to do that.
Dare:敢
I’m not sure I dare touch that snake.
Dare you sleep in that haunted house alone?
I dare not tell my wife the truth.
Dare 可以作动词使用。
I’m not sure I dare to touch that snake.
Do you dare to sleep in that haunted house alone?
I don’t dare to tell my wife the truth.
Had better 最好
I think we had better leave now.
Hadn’t we better be leaving now?
You’d better not lie to me.
Would rather 宁愿
I would rather go abroad than study at a local graduate school.
Would you rather stay here?
I would rather not talk about it.
Might as well 不如
We might as well walk, with so much traffic on the road.
We might as well not drive at all.
16. 语气 mood
语气由动词的变化来表示，语气分为：陈述语气，条件语气，虚拟语气和祈使语气。
16.1 陈述语气 indicative mood
陈述语气用于叙述事实，是英文最常用的语气，动词有各种时态数的变化，并且不加语气助动
词（包括将来时的 will）。
Many years ago, Bill Gates quit college to start his own company.
In the future he is going to devote most of his time to charity.
By now he has built that company into the largest of its kind.
16.2 条件语气 conditional mood
条件语气表达不确定性，是对未成事实事件的猜测，采用语气助动词+动词原形。
Students should study every day.
I have no idea where he should be right now.
16.3 虚拟语气 subjunctive mood
虚拟语气表达的是非事实的情况，既“虚拟的、假设的、说假的、说反话”。前提不可能为真 ，
这样的假设才属于非事实语气；如果前提有可能为真，应该使用正常的陈述语气，结果用条件语气。
If it rains tomorrow, I will stay at home.
常用的三种虚拟语气复杂句型有带 if 副词从句，wish 的复杂句，it is time that 引导的复杂句。
虚拟语气是非事实假设，因此动词采用“过去”表达非事实语气，既现在时间，则用过去时；过去
的时间，则用过去完成时。
现在时间：动词采用过去表达非事实语气，因此在现在时间中，动词使用过去式。

If 副词从句。在 if 句型中，主句必定带有 would, should, could, might 四种语气助动词之
一，用来表达“就应该、就会、就能够、就可以”有怎么的结果。
事实 I am not you. I can’t accept the offer.
非事实 if I were you, I would accept the offer.
省略倒装：Were I you, I would accept the offer.
*note: 在虚拟语气中，be 动词变成过去来表达非事实语气时，一律使用 were。在 if 从句中
如果只有 be 动词，可以省略 if，将主语和动词倒装。
事实 I cannot give it a try. I don’t know how.
非事实 if I knew how, I should like to give it a try.
事实 I don’t have wings. I cannot fly to your side.
非事实 if I had wings, I could fly to your side.
事实 he is not able to help. He is not here.
非事实 if he were here, he might be able to help.
省略倒装：were he here, he might be able to help.
事实 she doesn’t love me.
非事实 if only she loved me, too!

表达假设、愿望的动词 suppose、wish。Suppose 和 wish 后面引导的名词从句表达虚拟
语气。
事实 you don’t have three wishes. You can’t wish for anything.
非事实 suppose you had three wishes, what would you wish for?
事实 I don’t have any money.
非事实 I wish I had the money.

It is time that…句型，表示“时间造就到了，但一直还没实现”。That 引导的形容词从句
用虚拟语气。
事实 you are not living on your own.
非事实 it is time that you started living on your own.
事实 we are not dealing anything with sexual harassment at the workplace.
非事实 it is high time that we dealt something with sexual harassment at the workplace.

灵活表达虚拟语气
Without plants, there could be very little oxygen.
Without plants 表达了一种与事实相反的假设，是一种虚拟语气。
过去时间：虚拟语气要求动词使用过去表达虚拟语气，因此在过去时间中，动词“过去的过
去”既是“过去完成时”。

If 副词从句
事实 the landslide didn’t occur a few seconds later. The bus didn’t pass through safely.
非 事 实 if the landslide had occurred a few seconds later, the bus could have passed
through safely.
省 略 倒 装 had the landslide occurred a few seconds later, the bus could have passed
through safely.
*note：在 if 从句中如果有助动词 had，可以省略 if，将从句主语和动词倒装。
事实 the accident happened because the drive was not careful.
非事实 if the drive had been careful, the accident could have been prevented.
省略倒装 had the drive been careful, the accident could have been prevented.

Suppose、wish 名词从句
事实 I didn’t go abroad when I graduated.
非事实 I wish I had gone abroad when I graduated.
Wish 句型和 if 句型不同。If 句型有前提和结果，从句和主句都是表达非事实假设，都要用
虚拟语气。Wish 是只有在表达非事实假设的句子中才使用虚拟语气，且 wish 是表达愿望，
是一种条件而非结果，也就不用使用 would、should 等语气助动词来表达结果怎么样了。
事实 I barely had little money twenty years ago.
非事实 I supposed that I had had so much money twenty years ago.

It is time that 形容词从句
事实 I wasn’t living on my own until I turned 20.
非事实 it was time that I had started living on my own before I turned 20.
未来时间：未来发生的事尚未明确，是不确定性的，在前提可能为真下用陈诉语气，结果条件
语气。在未来时间中使用虚拟语气，由于虚拟语气要求动词使用过去表达虚拟语气，意味着这是
“与事实相反且未来也绝不可能发生”。
条件语气：
The weatherman says it will rain tomorrow.
When you graduate, there will be several jobs waiting for you.
If you graduate without trouble, I will buy you a new car.
虚拟语气：
事实 I’m not going to tell the truth to my girlfriend. She will not dump me.
非事实 if I were to tell the truth to my girlfriend, she would dump me.
省略倒装 were I to tell the truth to my girlfriend, she would dump me.
*note：在未来时间的虚拟语气中，通常用 were to 表达 be going to。
事实 he is not going to graduate on schedule. You can’t call me blind.
非事实 if he were to graduate on schedule, you could call me blind.
省略倒装 were he to graduate on schedule, you could call me blind.
在未来时间中，未来的事情尚未发生，如果表达不确定性的事实则用条件语气，如果表达事实
相反且未来也决不可能发生才会用虚拟语气。但是还在存在一种“万一”的情况，既介乎“事实”
和“非事实”之间，此时从句用 should + 动词原形表达“万一”的条件语气，主句用语气助动词表
达条件语气或虚拟语气。
If the man should prove innocent, I will apologize openly.
Will apologize 表达条件语气，暗示这个人可能真的无罪，我可能要道歉。
If the man should prove innocent, I would apologize openly.
Would apologize 表达虚拟语气，暗示“这个人一定有罪，（这是我的假设），我不必道歉”
省略倒装 should the man prove innocent, I will/would apologize openly.
If an asteroid should hit Earth in an hour, humans can become extinct.
Can 表达条件语气，暗示小行星有可能真的会撞击地球，人类可能毁灭。
If an asteroid should hit Earth in an hour, humans could become extinct.
Could 表达虚拟语气，暗示小行星不可能撞击地球，（这是我的假设），人类不会毁灭。
Should an asteroid hit Earth in an hour, humans could become extinct.
归纳：在未来时间中，如果从句采用 should +动词原形，意思是“万一”，这是主句如果采用
现在时拼法的语气助动词如 will + 动词原形，表达的是条件语气，意思是“有可能发生”；如果主
句采用过去时拼法的语气助动词如 would + 动词原形，表达的是虚拟语气，意思是非事实，绝不会
发生。
混杂时间中的语气
事实 I didn’t marry much younger. I don’t have my own grandchildren now.
非事实 if I had married much younger, I might have my own grandchildren now.
省略倒装 had I married much younger, I might have my own grandchildren now.
从句中用过去完成的虚拟语气，主句用过去时表达虚拟语气。
事实 I didn’t ignore the insult then. I was too angry.
非事实 I should have ignored the insult then, only that I was too angry.
从句用过去时表达陈诉语气，主句用 should 配合完成时表达虚拟语气。
16.4 祈使语气 imperative mood
表达命令、希望、要求的语气，使用动词原形。
直接祈使句是省略主语 you 直接以动词原形开头，表达一种命令。
Watch your step! 我要你小心！
Come in! 我要你进来！
这和条件语气有本质区别。
You should watch your step.表达一种不确定语气，你走路应该小心。
You may come in.表达一种不确定语气，进不进来纯粹是对方的意愿。
另一种祈使句也是使用动词原形，表达一种祈求。
God bless you! =may god bless you.
Long live the King! = may the King live long.
Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home.
=although it may be ever so humble, there is no place like home.
间接祈使句的特点是主语并不省略，使用动词原形，由 that 引导的名词从句，从句表达一种命
令或要求的语气。主句的动词或形容词通常有强烈的命令语气。It is necessary/important/essential
that …, suggest, demand, insist that…
It is necessary that the letter be sent out before noon.
I insist that the letter be sent out before noon.
The coach suggests that the player stay at school.
The boss demanded that everybody work overtime.
16.5 未来时间的语气
对于将来发生的事情，传统语法用语法助动词 will 表达未来时，新语法认为未来的事情尚未发
生，是语气问题。当未来的事情是一种事实时，用陈述语气，当未来的事情不确定时，用条件语气，
当未来的事情是非事实且决不可能发生时，用虚拟语气。
事先排定：既定事实，用陈述语气，动词用现在时表示将来，这些动词通常是 come, go, begin,
leave, arrive 等。
The train leaves at 3:30, five minutes from now. / The train is leaving at 3:30, five minutes
from now.
时间、条件副词从句：被当作事实，也用陈述语气，动词用现在时，主句用条件语气。
When the game is over, I will treat you to dinner.
If we win this game, we will qualify for the finals.
不确定性：用条件语气，用语气助动词+动词原形表示。
The weatherman says it will rain tomorrow, but I think it may not.
事实相反且未来绝无可能发生：用 were to 表达虚拟语气。
If I were to grow three inches this month, I could pass the physical.
“万一”的情况，介乎于“事实”和“非事实”之间：从句用 should + 动词原形表达虚拟语气，
主句可以用根据情况使用条件或虚拟语气。
If I should win the lottery, I will buy up the company.
If I should win the lottery, I would buy up the company.
17. 连词
英语中有两类连词，一是并列连词 coordinate conjunctions，用于连接两个或两个以上并列对
等的单词、短语或句子。二是从属连词 subordinate conjunction，用于将从属从句连接到主句上，
形成一个复杂句。
17.1 并列连词
并列连词所连接的每个部分必须符合平行对称要求，既词类必须相同，在语法构造、内容上对
称。
George and Mary are good friends.
George, Mary, and Jane are always good friends.
We always worked and played together.
We ran, jumped, and shouted for joy.
One day, the big bad wolf came to the cottage.
I saw a black and white cat on the wall.
She had bright, mischievous, and laughing eyes.
He spoke very quickly.
He spoke quickly but clearly.
对于多个修饰语，平行对称的要求是同类修饰语须用连词，不同类修饰语可以不用。如 the big
bad wolf 中 big, bad 是不同类形容词则不需用连词，而 black, white 都是表示颜色一类的形容词则
需要用连词；very quickly 中的 very 和 quickly 是不同类副词则不需用连词（实际上 very 是修饰
quickly），而 quickly 和 clearly 是同类副词修饰动词 spoke，则需用连词。
Should I leave the key under the doormat or in the flowerpot?
War is destructive, wasteful, and ultimately futile.
What I like about John is his sincerity, humor, and maturity.
在并列连词中，还有一类相关连词 correlative conjunctions，用于连词两个对象，使之表达更
清楚，逻辑性更强。比如
He spoke to George and me.不佳，是同时给我们讲还是分别跟我和 George 讲，并不清晰。
He spoke to both George and to me.
常见的相关连词有
Both A and B
Either A or B, Neither A nor B
Not only A but also B
Gold jewelry lasts forever but expensive. 语法错误，forever 是副词，expensive 是形容词。
Gold jewelry looks beautiful and elegant.
Gold jewelry looks beautiful and last forever.
Gold jewelry not only looks beautiful but also elegant. 错 误 ， looks beautiful 是 动 词 短 语 ，
elegant 是形容词。
Gold jewelry looks not only beautiful but also elegant.
Gold jewelry not only looks beautiful but also last forever.
18. 句子 clause
英文句子有三个层次，简单句必须有限定动词，复合句是由两个以上的简单句通过连词构成，
每一个简单句都是复合句里面的子句 clause。子句 Clause 分为限定子句 finite clause 和非限定子句
nonfinite clause。限定子句是指在具有限定动词在内的子句。非限定子句是指由非限定动词，既动
状词（现在分词、过去分词、动名词和不定式），构成。
He understands that he did the wrong thing then.
He understands 是限定子句，he did the wrong thing then 是限定从句，通过 that 从属连词
（引导词）连接起来。
He hates his girlfriend’s spending so much time on makeup every day.
He hates his girlfriend…是限定子句，spending so much time on makeup every day 是由现在
分词构成的非限定子句，两个子句通过所有格’s 连接。
句子的第三个层次是减化复合句，既只留下一个限定子句，其余改写为非限定子句，从而减化
句子，精简修辞效果。
We are sitting here in the sun. We can see snow-covered hills.
=we are sitting here in the sun, and we can see snow-covered hills.
=As we sit here in the sun, we can see snow-covered hills.
=Sitting here in the sun, we can see snow-covered hills.
19. 并列句 compound sentence
由两个以上的简单句通过连词构成，通过并列连词 coordinative conjunction 连接起来的是并列
句 compound sentence。或者或由两个以上的限定子句通过连词构成的句子，称为并列句。
并列句中，最重要的内容就是平行对等原则。使用连词连接的子句必须在结构上一致。
Most of us were in the hall, and the door had been closed.
Most of us were in the hall, the door had been closed, and the lights were out.
Everyone knew it, but no one admitted it.
Either he did not like our hairstyle, or we had offended him in some other way.
所连接起来的元素都是完整句子。
并列句也可以由相关联词连接起来：
China is not only the world’s most populous state but also the largest market in the 21 st
century.
Not only is China the world’s most populous state but it is also the largest market in the 21 st
century.连接起来的是句子。（否定意义的连词位于句首时，句子要倒装。But also 没有否定意义，
所以句子不用倒装。）
Either he did not like our hairstyle, or we had offended him in some other way.
并列句的省略：
After years of hard work, spring floods and summer droughts have not been eliminated from
this area. Spring floods and summer droughts may never be eliminated from this area.
 通 过 连 词 and 连 接 两 个 句 子 。 After years of hard work, spring floods and summer
droughts have not been eliminated from this area, and spring floods and summer
droughts may never be eliminated from this area.
 由于并列句必须复合平行对称原则。在省略并列句子的成分时，必须保持头尾的句子成分完
整（代表了整个句子的开始和结束），再将句子中重复的元素省略。 After years of hard
work, spring floods and summer droughts have not been and may never be eliminated
from this area.
20. 复杂句 complex sentence
由两个以上的简单句（限定子句）通过从属连词 subordinate conjunction 构成一个句子，这个
句子称作复杂句 complex sentence. 主句是一个本身可以独立的完整句子，从句是一个意思不完整的
句子，需要有引导词（从属连词）与主句连接并附属于主句，可以作为当作主句的名词、形容词和
副词。
I saw the mirror.
I saw that the mirror was broken.
Chicago is a grain-shipping center.
Chicago is a center that ships grain.
He worked overtime for the money.
He worked overtime because he needed the money.
20.1 名词从句 noun clause
从陈述句改写而来的名词从句，用 that 作从属连词。
I believe that he didn’t take the money.
从特殊疑问句 information questions 改写而来的名词从句，需要把疑问语序还原，把疑问词作
为从属连词连接到主句上。
What happened at his party?
I never asked him the question.
 I never asked him what happened at this party.
Where did he keep the money?
He never revealed the question.
 He never revealed where he kept the money.
从一般疑问句 yes/no questions 改写而来的名词从句，需要把疑问语序还原，且使用 whether
或 if（维持疑问语气）作为从属连词连接到主句上，此时 whether/if 表示是否的意思。
Is it going to rain soon?
By looking at the sky, I can tell the question.
 By looking at the sky, I can tell whether it is going to rain soon (or not).
 By looking at the sky, I can tell if it is going to rain soon.
Whether 和 if 都可以表达是否，但是 if 还有如果的意思，可以用于虚拟语气中；并且当从句位
于句首时，只能使用 whether，不能使用 if；在介词后面也只能用 whether 不能用 if。因此写作
时尽量使用 whether 来表达名词从句更清楚。
Whether we can win the big prize will be decided soon.
The manager hinted at whether he would sign the contract.
名词从句作为名词使用，在主句中可以充当主语、动词宾语、补语、同位语 appositive 和介词
宾语。来自陈述句（用 that 连接）的名词从句不能位于介词宾语，来此疑问句（用 wh-疑问词
连接的）的名词从句可以位于任意五个位置之中。因为 that 只有起到连接句子的作用，并无实
际意义，所以在多数情况下可以省略，而疑问代词 wh-各有意义，所以不能省略。
主语从句：
That the suspect has a strong alibi is an undeniable fact.
that 引导的名词从句作主语时，that 不能省略。
Where he is hiding now is a big mystery.
Where 疑问词是表示在哪里的一起，与无实意的 that 不同，因此不能省略。
名词从句作主语位于主首时，通常为了避免头重脚轻(从句在前，主句在后)，使用形式主语 it
将该从句移到句尾。
 It is an undeniable fact that the suspect has a strong alibi.
 It is a big mystery where he is hiding now.
宾语从句：
Many people believe (that) one’s zodiac sign determines one’s character.
That 引导的宾语从句中，that 可以省略，并不影响理解。
在 SVOC 句型中，宾语由于还跟随有补语，通常使用形式主语 it 代替该宾语，将宾语从句移到
句尾。
I find something amazing. You are still pretty young.
 I find it amazing that you are still pretty young.
He explained why he had bought so much of that stock.
补语从句：
That 引导的补语从句中，that 可以省略。
It seems that we are going to win this game after all.
The question is whether we can do anything about it.
同位语从句：
That 引导的同位语从句中，that 可以省略。同位语是指与另一个名词前后是相等的关系，用于
进一步解释前面所讲的名词。
The woman can’t forget (the fact that) her husband cheated on her.
The student is worried (that) he may fail in the exam.
The family was unaware (that) a burglar had broken into the cellar.
The question why the dinosaurs died out may never be answered.
I am not sure what caused the delay.
介词宾语从句：
介词后只能接名词短语，不能接连词，否则会造成语法冲突。因此 that 引导的从句不能位于介
词后，因为 that 作为引导词是一个没有实际意义的从属连词，只是起到连接从句和主句的作用 。
而疑问代词 wh-可以代替名词，所以疑问代词所引导的从句可以位于介词后，符合语法的规则。
My response depends on what he really meant by that.
如果要强行使用 that 引导的从句，则需要补充介词后的宾语。
 My response dwells on the fact that he owe me a favor.
将直接引用句（quoted speech）改写为间接引用句（reported speech），要注意时态一致。
The guard said, “The road is closed.”
 The guard said (that) the road was closed.
引用句可以移到句首，主句采用倒装（也可以不倒装）。
“The road is closed,” said the guard. = “The road is closed,” the guard said.
 The road was closed, said the guard. = the road was closed, the guard said.
在写作时，当引用句与主句间隔太远时，常常使用这种方式，既把引用句移到句首，主句采用
倒装，使读者快速了解引用句的内容，这样的修辞效果更好。
Frank Kazinsky, chief analyst for the International Monetary Fund and an expert on oil, says
that oil prices will keep rising until the supply completely runs dry.（修辞手法不佳，但无语
法错误）
=Oil prices will keep rising until the supply completely runs dry, says Frank Kazinsky, chief
analyst for the International Monetary Fund and an expert on oil.
20.2 副词从句
副词从句作副词使用，可以修饰动词、形容词和副词。
从陈述句改写而来的副词从句，使用 because, although, if, as, when, where 等表达各种逻辑关
系的连词，如原因、让步、条件、状态、时间、地点等。也可以使用相关性连词 so/such…that, in
that, in order that…表达目的、结果、说明等等。
I believe ghosts because I have seen one with my own eyes.
He said it so sincerely that his wife forgave him right away.
从特殊疑问句改写而来的副词从句，需要把疑问语序还原, 再在疑问代词前面加上 no matter 或
者给疑问代词添加-ever 后缀（维持疑问的逻辑关系），从而连接从句和主句。
No matter where the criminal is hiding, the police is going to get him.
Wherever the criminal is hiding, the police is going to get him.
从 一 般 疑 问 句 yes/no questions 改 写 而 来 的 副 词 从 句 ， 需 要 把 疑 问 语 序 还 原 ， 且 使 用
whether/no matter（维持疑问的逻辑关系）作为从属连词连接到主句上，此时 whether/no matter
表示不论的意思。
Whether he is still alive (or not), I’m not going to marry anyone else.
No matter he is still alive or not, I’m not going to marry anyone else.
常用的副词从句连词：
 After
After he graduated, the young man found himself unemployed.
 Although/though（though 只能用于句中，although 可以用于句首）
my sister doesn’t have a boyfriend, although/though she is very pretty.
 As
 As…as
 As far as
 As if
 As long as
 Because
 Before
 For
 If
 In case that
 In order that
 In that
 Lest that
 No matter/whether
 No sooner … than…
 Now that
 On condition that
 Only that
 Since
 So that
 So/such…that
 Suppose that…
 Than
 Until/till
 When, where
 While
 Wh-ever
时间状语从句，条件状语从句，从句用现在时代替将来时。
20.3 形容词从句
形容词从句又称关系从句。结构上来说是用关系词当做连词，功能上来说从句是用作形容词使
用。名词从句是外加一个无实意的 that，或由 wh-疑问代词连接。副词从句是外加一个有实意、表
逻辑关系的连词，如 because 等。
形容词从句则没有外加连词，而是将主句和从句重复的一个元素作为关系词连接起来。这个重
复的元素称为先行词 antecedent。由代词改写的称为关系代词。由副词改写的称为关系副词。
I know something which nobody else knows.
20.3.1 关系代词。
当 先 行 词 是 人 时 ， 如 he ， she ， they ， him ， her ， his 等 ， 关 系 代 词 就 是 who, whom, 和
whose。当先行词是物时，如 it，they，its，their 等，关系代词就是 which, whose(=of which)。先
行词无论是人还是物，只要具有指代功能，都可以用 that 作为关系代词。
关系代词在从句中作主语时，不能省略。
People who/that live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.
I like movies which/that make me think.
关系代词在从句中作宾语时，可以省略。
Jack is a man (whom/that) I trust completely.
Jack is a man )who/whom/that) you should talk to.
=Jack is a man to whom you should talk. (that 不能位于介词后，且 to whom 不能省略)
The movie (which/that) I saw last night was excellent.
My favourite movies are those in which all ends well.
That chair (which/that) you are sitting on is an antique.
That chair on which you are sitting is an antique. （介词提前，后不能使用 that，且不能省
略）
关系代词在从句中作补语时，可以省略。
After the stroke, John is not that man (who/that) he used to be.
The name (which/that) John calls his dog is a really odd one.
关系代词 whose 在从句中作所有格。不能省略
Jack is a man whose judgement I trust.
I saw a mountain whose top was completely covered in snow.
=I saw a mountain the top of which was completely covered in snow.
=I saw a mountain of which the top was completely covered in snow.
Which 的其他功能。
作为限定词，相当于 this/that 的指示功能。
You can marry any daughter of mine. You like that daughter.
 You can marry any daughter of mine （which/that） you like.
虽然先行词是人，但是关系代词 which 指代的是原句中的限定词 that。
关系代词 which 的先行词可以是前面整个句子。此时需要用逗号隔开主句和从句，这种情况要
保证句意清楚，不能模糊不清。
The whole house was overrun with ants, which was rather weird. Which 的先行词是整个主句。
The whole house was overrun with ants, which were rather weird. Which 的先行词是 ants。
The whole house was overrun with ants, which frightened the visitor.此时无法判断 which 是
指代整个句子还是 ants。一个好的办法是在 which 前加入一个同位语，来表明是哪一个先行词。
 The whole house was overrun with ants, a sight which frightened the visitor.
 The whole house was overrun with ants, nasty insects which frightened the visitor.
关系从句如果具有指示功能，关系代词 who/which 就可以用 that 替换，这种关系从句称为限定
性从句。如果关系从句不具有指示功能，则 who/which 不能用 that 替换，这种关系从句称为非
限定性从句，且要用逗号与主句隔开，作用类似同位语，是一种可补充说明。
I met a friend who/that went to the same high school with. who/that 明显有“某一个”的指示
功能。
I met Jack Wang, who went to the same high school with me. 人名属于专有名词，语法上不需
要有限定词如 the 的修饰，因此当先行词是专有名词时，后面的关系从句不具有指示功能，是
非限定从句。
I like those movies which/that kill time.
I like movies, which kill time.
非限定性从句的关系代词不能省略，由于逗号隔开，从句需保留完整。
My uncle Tom, who/whom you met the other night, is quite a character.
I like The Da Vinci Code, which many people like, too.
有无逗号隔开是区别限定从句和非限定性从句的重要依据，但是要小心一些插入语的干扰。
I met a friend, quite by chance, who/that went to the same high school with me.
That 作为关系代词具有明确的指示功能。当句子带有明确的范围时，用 that 从修辞上比
which/who 更好，但是用 which/who 在语法上是没有错误的。
1. 当先行词是 all, anything, everything 等有明确范围的字。
2. 当先行词有 first, next, last, only 等限定词在内，或有最高级修饰语，使先行词产生明确的
范围。
Thirty minutes is all the time that I can spare.
You are the only person that really understands me.
关系从句在句中的位置通常是位于先行词之后。但是最基本的原则是：放在什么位置语意最清
楚，就放在什么位置。
I can’t leave a man behind. This man has done so much for my family.
 I can’t leave a man who has done so much for my family behind.表达不好，主句被隔开了。
 I can’t leave a man behind who has done so much for my family.
I found a book in the library. The book focuses on social relations.
 I found a book which focuses on social relations in the library.语意不清，in the library 是
属于主句还是从句不得而知。
 I found a book in the library which focuses on social relations.语意不清，此时 which 的先
行词会被误认为是 library，而不是 book.
 In the library, I found a book which focuses on social relations.
关 系 代 词 引 导 的 形 容 词 从 句 升 格 成 名 词 从 句 的 情 况 ： 当 先 行 词 是
anybody、anything、something 等词时，可以省略先行词，将关系代词改写成复合关系代词。
此时该从句取代了先行词，升格成名词从句。复合关系代词有 what, whatever, whichever,
whoever, whomever。
You mustn’t let something that he said bother you.
 You mustn’t let what he said bother you.
Anything that you say now may be used against you in court.
 Whatever you say now may be used against you in court.
Any day which you choose is fine with me.
 Whichever day you choose is fine with me.
Any person who reaches the mountaintop first will win a prize.
 Whoever reaches the mountaintop first will win a prize.
The girl will marry any person who gives her a diamond ring.
 The girl will marry whoever gives her a diamond ring.
I will give 100 dollars to any person who returns first.
 I will give 100 dollars to whoever returns first. (这里不用 whomever 是因为关系代词是从
句中的主语，同时，whoever 引导的整个形容词从句取代了 any person 升格成名词从句，
整体作为介词 to 的宾语。
Any person whom you see in this room qualifies for the job.
 Whoever/Whomever you see in this room qualifies for the job.
20.3.2 关系副词
关系副词有 when, where, how, why，分别由时间副词 then、地方副词 here/there、状态副词
so 和表原因的副词 for…改写而来。由于先行词仍是名词，所以关系副词引导的从句还是形容词从
句。并且关系副词属于修饰语，不可能作为句子其他成分，因此可以省略。
The earthquake hit at a time. Most people were sound asleep then.
 The earthquake hit at a time (when/that) most people were sound asleep.
The artist lived in a place. It was impossible to work there.
 The artist lived in a place (where/that) it was impossible to work.
I never found out the way. He escaped so.
 I never found out the way (how/that) he escaped.
The man didn’t explain the reason. He wanted a divorce for a reason.
 The man didn’t explain the reason (why/that) he wanted a divorce.
关系从句有指示功能时，关系副词可以用关系代词 that 代替。在非限定性关系从句中，关系副
词不能用 that 代替，且该从句没有指示功能，只有补充说明的作用。在四个关系副词中，只有
when 和 where 可以用于非限定性关系从句中。
Written history of American began in 1492, when Christopher Columbus arrived with his
ships.
The civilization of ancient Egypt was born along the Nile, where the soil was kept fertile by
annual flooding.
When 和 where 引导的关系从句出现在句子的补语的情况：
关系从句必定有先行词，一般不能直接在句子主语补语。当被用于主语补语时，实际是省略的
结果。
This is where I get off.
这个从句如果理解成副词从句，那么副词从句只能修饰动词，但是主句是一个 SVC 的句型，如
果认定该从句是副词从句，那么该句子就缺少了补语，句型就会不完整。因此这个从句不是副
词从句。
这个从句也不是名词从句。如果理解为名词从句，那么该从句是由疑问句改写而来，是一个
“我在哪里下车”问题，这与原句的本意有差别，原句的本意是指这是我下车的地方。
该从句是一个由关系副词 where 引导的关系从句省略先行词的结果。如果将句子拆开得到：
This (station) is the station.
I get off at the station.
 This station is the station where I get off.
同一个句子出现三次 station 过于累赘，分别是名词短语中的 station，补语 the station，和关系
从句指代的 station。名词短语 this station 在对话场景中双方都知道，因此可以省略 station，
直接用 this 表示；再将补语 the station 省略。句子简洁明了。
Thanksgiving is when American families get together.
同理，该句子不可能是副词从句或名词从句。将省略的部分还原出来：
Thanksgiving is the time when American families get together. 可 以 看 出 该 句 重 复 三 次
thanksgiving, 分别是主语、the time 和 when 指代的 the time（即 thanksgiving）。
20.3.3 准关系代词
准关系代词有 than，as，but。用于比较句式中。功能上类似关系代词，但有区别。

Than
The theory raised more questions than it answered.
Than 类似关系代词，先行词是 questions，在从句中作 answered 的宾语。如果深入到句型结构，
这个句子其实是省略的结果，还原后是这样的：
The theory raised more questions than the questions that it answered.
比较级 than 要求平行对称原则，只有 questions 和 questions 能对比。Than 引导的是一个副词
从句，这个副词从句中套入一个形容词从句。由于该句出现三次 questions，经过省略后保留第
一个 questions，于是 than 看起来才像关系代词的用法。

As
Her performance is as good as can be expected.
Her performance is as good as the performance that can be expected.
比较级 as 要求平行对称原则，只有 performance 和 the performance 可以对比。同理用于关系
从句，是一个省略的结果。

But
There is no one but knows this.
There is no one but the one that knows this.
连词 but 要求平行对称原则，只有 no one 和 the one 可以对称。同理用于关系从句中，是一个
省略的结果。
20.4 区分名词从句、形容词从句和副词从句
-wh 作为连词时，可以分为关系代词和关系副词引导形容词从句，疑问词引导名词从句，从属
连词引导副词从句。
引导形容词从句：代词 who, which,副词 when, where, how, why
My father is a man who always keeps his word.
Paris, which has a long history, is a legendary city.
I will never forget my high school days, when life seemed so simple.
Let’s spend the weekend at Tommy’s, where we can be quite free.
Please show me the way how I can start this motorcycle.
Money is one reason why I don’t take any vacations.
引导名词从句：疑问词 who, which, what, when, where how, why，是由疑问句改写而来的从
句
Who stole the money will be revealed soon.
Tell me which of the two designs is prettier.
The question is what you are going to do about it.
Nobody knows when he will return.
I have a pretty good idea where he may be hiding.
The most important thing in fishing is how you prepare the bait.
That is why I need your help.
引导副词从句：从属连词 when，where 引导的时间、地点状语从句。
The game ended when he hit a homerun.
The ship is to boldly go where none has gone before.
21. 比较句
22. 分裂句
It be … that …句型被称为分裂句 split construction。用于强调除了动词之后的任何句子成分，
只需将要强调的句子成分提取到前面，将剩余部分改写为关系从句放于后面，形成一主一从的结构。
Your friend bought a can of peaches at a 7-11 last night.
强调主语 It was your friend that/who bought a can of peaches at a 7-11 last night.
强调宾语 It was a can of peaches that/which your friend bought at a 7-11 last night.
强调地点 It was at a 7-11 that/where your friend bought a can of peaches last night.
强调时间 it was last night that/when your friend bought a can of peaches at a 7-11.
如果要强调动词时，需将动词改写为不定式作名词，将剩余句子成分必须改写成另一个名词，
这样通过系动词 be 构成一个完整 SVC 简单句型，这两个“名词”是对等关系，可以互换位置。
如何将其他句子成分改写成一个名词，只要是通过加入一个名词或代词作为先行词，把句子成
分改写为关系从句修饰先行词。
有以下几种改写方式：
The thing/The only thing/All/ (that) your friend did at a 7-11 last night was (to) buy a can of
peaches.
To buy a can of peaches was the thing/the only thing/all (that) your friend did at a 7-11 last
night.
这个加入的代词或名词是普遍性的，如 thing，person，the only thing，all 等，因此可以省略
先行词，将关系代词改写为 what，使关系从句升格成名词从句。
What your friend did at a 7-11 last night was to buy a can of peaches.
To buy a can of peaches was what your friend did at a 7-11 last night.
另外，当动词不定式位于主语补语位置时，当主语从句有助动词 do 时，to 可以省略，留下动
词原形。但是当动词不定式位于主语时，不能省略。
All I wanted was to help him.这个句子中，主语从句中没有助动词或动词 do，因此不定式不能
省略 to。
 All I wanted to do was (to) help him. 这么改写就可以省略。
23. 倒装句
倒装句 inversion，是将句子的主语和动词倒换位置。
What I need is your word.
What I need are a few good tools, some money, and a lot of time.
24. 主谓一致 subject-verb agreement
主语与谓语在人称和数上必须保持一致。当主语表示复数概念时，谓语动词使用复数；当主语
表示单数时，谓语动词使用单数。主语存在有集体名词、单复数同型情况。
There are people waiting outside to see you.
Three aboriginal peoples live along this river.
Many fish in this lake live on manual feeding. (当 fish 表示成 fishes 时，表达不同种类的鱼)
Mathematics is an exacting science.
Mumps is not a serious disease.
Seven thousand dollars is a lot of money to spend in one evening.
Two hours and 28 minutes is the total length of the movie.
Five kilometers is not too long a distance to walk in one hour.
Three pounds of brown sugar is quite enough for now.
当主语集体名词表示一个整体时，谓语动词使用单数，当集体名词表示每个成员时，谓语动词
使用复数。
The police is working on this case.
The police are there.
The committee was founded in 1980, so it has quite a bit of history now.
The committee are mostly seated now, and they are impatient to begin.
My family is large.
My family are all highly educated intellectuals.
限定词修饰的名词。
A number of major earthquakes happen every year.
The number of major earthquakes last year was five.
(a number of 表达数量，the number of 中 number 有实际意义，表达数目)
表达 1 的限定词，every/each/either/neither/many a 配合单数名词，谓语动词使用单数。
Every day is a new beginning.
Each participant is entitled to a memorial pin.
Each of the participants is entitled to a memorial pin.
Either way is fine with me.
Either of the ways is fine with me.
Neither solution looks attractive.
Neither of the solutions looks attractive.
Many a student has felt the urge to cheat in exams.
(many a 是一个旧式用法，需搭配单数名词)
Some 和 any 表达某一、任一时，搭配单数可数名词，谓语动词用单数。表达一些、任何时，
搭配复数可数名词时谓语动词用复数，搭配不可数名词时，谓语动词用单数。
There is some man waiting to see you.
Any day you pick is fine with me.
Some students were injured in the demonstration.
some money was spent on medication.
There weren’t any major hospitals around.
There wasn’t any money left.
A large/small… number of 接可数复数名词，a large/small/… amount of 接不可数名词。
A large number of new books are on sale at that bookstore.
A small amount of money is enough for your purchase.
连词
And 连接两种东西时，是一个复数概念。
A digital camera and an expensive watch were stolen.
当这两种东西表达同一件事时，是一个单数概念。
All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.
Every man and every woman has to make sacrifices for the war.
注意限定词。
A black and white cat is perched on the windowsill. 这是一个名词短语
A black and a white cat are chasing after a mouse. 这是两个名词短语
The famous poet and philosopher is giving a lecture tonight. 这是一个名词短语
A knife and fork is wrapped up in a paper towel. 这是一个名词短语
Both…and…是很明确的连接两个对象。表达一个复数概念。
Both the poet and the philosopher are giving a lecture tonight.
Or 连接 A or B，选择接近动词的那个名词当主语。
John or his friends are going to bring the wine.
Is john or his friends going to bring the wine?
Either one red pill or two white pills are going to stop the pain.
Is either one red pill or two white pills going to stop the pain?
Neither the mayor nor his advisors support the tax-cut proposal.
But not 连接 A but not B 时，A 是主语，动词与 A 保持人称和数的一致。
The eggs but not the hen were stolen.
Not only…but also 连接 not only A but also B，选择接近动词的那个名词当主语
Not only my friends but also I am against the plan.
25. 减化句子
26. 附录：大量阅读英文
在非英语母语环境下，要把英文学好，最好的办法就是大量阅读。大量阅读可以积累词汇和句
型，在这过程中，要学会词汇分类、熟悉常见词根，同时要对句型分析，逐渐熟透语法。
TESOL（teaching English to speakers of other languages）中的英文教学方法有：语法翻译
grammar translation ， 句 型 练 习 pattern practice ， 沟 通 法 communicative approach ， 阅 读 法
reading approach 和综合法 general approach。
Grammar translation 是教师用母语教授一套完整的语法系统，讲解范文时大量采用母语翻译。
这个方式对读和写有很大帮助，不过对听和说，特别是口语，帮助不大。以这种方法训练出来的学
生，英文的读写能力通常不错，但听说能力往往不足。
Pattern practice