Tables and figures in scientific papers are wonderful ways of presenting data. Effective data
presentation in research papers requires understanding your reader and the elements that comprise
a table. Tables have several elements, including the legend, column titles, and body. As with
academic writing, it is also just as important to structure tables so that readers can easily understand
them. Tables that are disorganized or otherwise confusing will make the reader lose interest in your
work.
Table
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Title: Tables should have a clear, descriptive title, which functions as the “topic
sentence” of the table. The titles can be lengthy or short, depending on the discipline.
Column Titles: The goal of these title headings is to simplify the table. The reader‟s
attention moves from the title to the column title sequentially. A good set of column
titles will allow the reader to quickly grasp what the table is about.
Table Body: This is the main area of the table where numerical or textual data is
located. Construct your table so that elements read from up to down, and not across.
Figures can take many forms, such as bar graphs, frequency histograms, scatterplots,
drawings, maps, etc. When using figures in a research paper, always think of your reader.
What is the easiest figure for your reader to understand? How can you present the data in the
simplest and most effective way? For instance, a photograph may be the best choice if you
want your reader to understand spatial relationships.
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Figure Captions: Figures should be numbered and have descriptive titles or captions.
The captions should be succinct enough to understand at the first glance. Captions are
placed under the figure and are left justified.
Image: Choose an image that is simple and easily understandable. Consider the size,
resolution, and the image‟s overall visual attractiveness.
Additional Information: Illustrations in manuscripts are numbered separately from
tables. Include any information that the reader needs to understand your figure, such
as legends.
Explain any two types of charts with one example each.
Every type of graph is a visual representation of data on diagram plots (ex.
bar, pie, line chart) that show different types of graph trends and
relationships between variables.
Although it is hard to tell what are all the types of graphs, this page
consists all of the common types of statistical graphs and charts (and their
meanings) widely used in any science.
1. Line Graphs
A line chart graphically displays data that changes continuously over
time. Each line graph consists of points that connect data to show a trend
(continuous change). Line graphs have an x-axis and a y-axis. In the most
cases, time is distributed on the horizontal axis.
Uses of line graphs:
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When you want to show trends. For example, how house prices have
increased over time.
When you want to make predictions based on a data history over time.
When comparing two or more different variables, situations, and
information over a given period of time.
Example:
The following line graph shows annual sales of a particular business
company for the period of six consecutive years:
Note: the above example is with 1 line. However, one line chart can
compare multiple trends by several distributing lines.
2. Bar Charts
Bar charts represent categorical data with rectangular bars (to understand
what is categorical data see categorical data examples). Bar graphs are
among the most popular types of graphs and charts in economics,
statistics, marketing, and visualization in digital customer experience.
They are commonly used to compare several categories of data.
Each rectangular bar has length and height proportional to the values that
they represent.
One axis of the bar chart presents the categories being compared. The
other axis shows a measured value.
Bar Charts Uses:
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When you want to display data that are grouped into nominal or ordinal
categories (see nominal vs ordinal data).
To compare data among different categories.
Bar charts can also show large data changes over time.
Bar charts are ideal for visualizing the distribution of data when we have
more than three categories.
Example:
The bar chart below represents the total sum of sales for Product A and
Product B over three years.
The bars are 2 types: vertical or horizontal. It doesn‟t matter which kind
you will use. The above one is a vertical type.
3. Pie Charts
When it comes to statistical types of graphs and charts, the pie chart (or the
circle chart) has a crucial place and meaning. It displays data and statistics
in an easy-to-understand „pie-slice‟ format and illustrates numerical
proportion.
Each pie slice is relative to the size of a particular category in a given
group as a whole. To say it in another way, the pie chart brakes down a
group into smaller pieces. It shows part-whole relationships.
To make a pie chart, you need a list of categorical variables and numerical
variables.
Pie Chart Uses:
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When you want to create and represent the composition of something.
It is very useful for displaying nominal or ordinal categories of data.
To show percentage or proportional data.
When comparing areas of growth within a business such as profit.
Pie charts work best for displaying data for 3 to 7 categories.
Example:
The pie chart below represents the proportion of types of transportation
used by 1000 students to go to their school.
Pie charts are widely used by data-driven marketers for displaying
marketing data.
4. Histogram
A histogram shows continuous data in ordered rectangular columns (to
understand what is continuous data see our post discrete vs continuous
data). Usually, there are no gaps between the columns.
The histogram displays a frequency distribution (shape) of a data set. At
first glance, histograms look alike to bar graphs. However, there is a key
difference between them. Bar Chart represents categorical data and
histogram represent continuous data.
Histogram Uses:
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When the data is continuous.
When you want to represent the shape of the data’s distribution.
When you want to see whether the outputs of two or more processes are
different.
To summarize large data sets graphically.
To communicate the data distribution quickly to others.
Example:
The histogram below represents per capita income for five age groups.
Histograms are very widely used in statistics, business, and economics.
5. Scatter plot
The scatter plot is an X-Y diagram that shows a relationship between two
variables. It is used to plot data points on a vertical and a horizontal axis.
The purpose is to show how much one variable affects another.
Usually, when there is a relationship between 2 variables, the first one is
called independent. The second variable is called dependent because its
values depend on the first variable.
Scatter plots also help you predict the behavior of one variable (dependent)
based on the measure of the other variable (independent).
Scatter plot uses:
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When trying to find out whether there is a relationship between 2
variables.
To predict the behavior of dependent variable based on the measure of the
independent variable.
When having paired numerical data.
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When working with root cause analysis tools to identify the potential for
problems.
When you just want to visualize the correlation between 2 large
datasets without regard to time.
Example:
The below Scatter plot presents data for 7 online stores, their monthly ecommerce sales, and online advertising costs for the last year.
scifinder
In addition to CAS databases SciFinder also provides access to MEDLINE® from the
National Library of Medicine, thus adding much literature of clinical interest and other
specialties relevant to biomedical researchers.
SciFinder provides access to a wealth of biologically oriented resources, as well as chemical
information, because thousands of the journals covered by CAS databases are in fact
biological.
A Massive Substance and Sequence File
Complementing the bibliographic information in CAplus is the CAS Registry database, the
largest substance identification system in the world. The substances represented in this file
are those encountered in the process of analyzing the scientific literature and patents indexed
in CAplus, plus additional substances from other sources such as regulatory lists. All types of
substances are recorded in Registry, e.g., inorganic and organic, alloys, coordination
compounds, minerals, mixtures, polymers and salts. Registry records contain chemical
structures for more than 25 million organic and inorganic substances, along with the
systematic CA index names, synonyms, molecular formulas, alloy composition tables, and
ring analysis data. In addition, Registry contains more than 56 million sequences. These are
peptide/protein sequences encountered by CAS analysts as they index journals and patents, in
addition to millions of nucleic acid sequences from the GenBank database. The sequence
types include those that are chemically modified and sequences with "uncommon" amino
acids or nucleotides. Other chemistry information of biological and pharmaceutical
importance in SciFinder is CAS's database of some nine million reactions.
The Pathways to Knowledge
SciFinder's graphic user interface presents several pathways to knowledge, including
Explore, Browse and Keep Me Posted. The user explores information easily by chemical
substance (exact structure, molecular formula or substance ID), sequence, reaction,
substructure, research topic, author or document identifier. Searches are conducted in a userfriendly, question-and-answer format, using internal dictionaries and a thesaurus to
automatically look up key terms and synonyms from the request phrase and thus increase the
search power. Users can also browse through the tables of contents of more than 1,800
journals, and a "Keep Me Posted" function monitors new literature on current subjects and
alerts users to recent arrivals. The database is updated daily—a crucial advantage.
Most importantly, SciFinder is designed to "make it look easy," despite the sophisticated
algorithms that come into play in the background. SciFinder provides relevant answers that
help scientists quickly find the information they need, unlike Web search engines that
produce large answer sets, which require a user to sort through pages of unneeded
information.
Significance of impact paper:
The impact factor (IF) is frequently used as an indicator of the importance of a journal to its
field.
Although IF is widely used by institutions and clinicians,
Impact factor is commonly used to evaluate the relative importance of a journal within its field and
to measure the frequency with which the “average article” in a journal has been cited in a particular
time period.
Journals with higher IFs believed to be more important than those with lower ones.
“impact simply reflects the ability of the journals and editors to attract the best paper available.”
Patents and its types
A patent is a right granted to an inventor by the federal government that permits the inventor
to exclude others from making, selling or using the invention for a period of time. The patent
system is designed to encourage inventions that are unique and useful to society. Congress
was given the power to grant patents in the Constitution, and federal statutes and rules govern
patents.
The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) grants patents for inventions that meet
statutory criteria. The following provides a general overview of what a patent is.
Patent Categories
There are three different kinds of patents: utility patents, design patents and plant patents.
1. Utility Patents: The most common type of patent, these are granted to new machines,
chemicals, and processes.
2. Design Patents: Granted to protect the unique appearance or design of manufactured
objects, such as the surface ornamentation or overall design of the object.
3. Plant Patents: Granted for the invention and asexual reproduction of new and distinct
plant varieties, including hybrids (asexual reproduction means the plant is reproduced
by means other than from seeds, such as by grafting or rooting of cuttings).
Determining What is Patentable: The Basics
For an invention to qualify for a patent, it must be both "novel" and "non-obvious." An
invention is novel if it is different from other similar inventions in one or more of its parts. It
also must not have been publicly used, sold, or patented by another inventor within a year of
the date the patent application was filed. This rule reflects the public policy favoring quick
disclosure of technological progress. An invention is non-obvious if someone who is skilled
in the field of the invention would consider the invention an unexpected or surprising
development.
Naturally occurring substances and laws of nature, even if they are newly discovered, cannot
be patented. Abstract principles, fundamental truths, calculation methods, and mathematical
formulas also are not patentable. A process that uses such a formula or method can be
patented, however. For example, a patent has been granted for an industrial process for
molding rubber articles that depends upon a mathematical equation and involves the use of a
computer program.
A patent cannot be obtained for a mere idea or suggestion. The inventor must have figured
out the concrete means of implementing his or her ideas in order to get a patent. A patent also
will not be granted for an invention with no legal purpose or for an unsafe drug.
Exclusive Rights: As mentioned earlier, patents provide exclusive rights which allow the
inventor to exclude others from using the invention. Particularly, for 20 years from the date
of filing the patent application.
Strong Market Position: Since the inventor has obtained the exclusive right to the invention,
the inventor can exercise this right by preventing others from commercially using the
patented invention thereby reducing the competition and thus establishing a place in the
commercial market.
Higher Returns on Investments: Having invested a considerable amount of time and money
in developing the invention, under the umbrella of exclusive rights, the inventor could bring
in the invention to the commercial market and thus obtain higher returns on the investment.
Of course, this depends on the economic utility of the patent. For this reason, the inventor
must ensure the commercial viability of the patent before investing in a patent.
Opportunity to License or Sell the Invention: Sometimes, the inventor might not want to
exploit the invention himself. In such cases, the inventor can sell or license the rights to
commercialize it to another enterprise. This would result to bring royalty and revenue to the
inventor.
Positive Image for the Enterprise: Business partners, investors, and shareholders may
perceive the patent portfolios as a demonstration. Particularly, the high level of expertise that
is provided by the subject matter experts. This acts as a spectacle of the organization‟s
capability. Further, this may prove useful for raising funds, finding business partners and also
increase the company‟s market value
Examples of Patentable Items
These categories include practically everything made by humans and the processes for
making the products. Examples of things that are patentable include:
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Computer software and hardware;
Chemical formulas and processes;
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Genetically engineered bacteria, plants, and animals;
Drugs;
Medical devices;
Furniture design;
Jewelry;
Fabrics and fabric design; and
Musical instruments.
Applying for Patent Protection
Unlike a copyright, a patent does not arise automatically; an inventor must apply for a patent.
The inventor must apply within one year of publicly disclosing the invention, such as by
publishing a description of the invention or offering it for sale. An inventor, or his or her
attorney, generally makes a preliminary patent search before applying for a patent to
determine if it is feasible to proceed with the application. The application and a fee are
submitted to the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, where it is reviewed by a patent
examiner.
If a patent is granted, the inventor must pay another fee, and the government publishes a
description of the invention and its use. Only a patent attorney or patent agent may prosecute
patents before the PTO. Before a person may be licensed as a patent attorney or patent agent,
she must have a degree in certain technical or scientific fields.
Utility and plant patents last for 20 years from the application date; design patents last for
fourteen years. If the owner of a utility patent does not pay maintenance fees, the patent will
expire earlier. After a patent expires, the invention becomes public property and can be used
or sold by anyone. For example, after the patent on Tylenol expired, other pharmaceutical
companies began producing a generic version of the drug
Importance/ purpose of bibliography
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First, by providing full details of every source you used, you enable your readers to
find those books and read them, if they so choose.
Second, a thorough bibliography shows that you have used appropriate sources for
your research.
Third, your bibliography can help you make sure that you have used the best versions
of all of your sources—whether they are primary or secondary, books or journal
articles. A reader looking at your bibliography can see that you used the latest or most
authoritative version of a given work.
Fourth, your bibliography can help you demonstrate to your reader—whether they are
scholars, students, or lay readers—that you are aware of all of the relevant literature,
and that you are up to date with the latest trends in your field.
In other words: The bibliography is not just a formal requirement of academic editing. It is an
important ingredient of a good piece of academic research