Academic writing
Myths & Facts
MYTHS
FACTS
Writing well is a talent you either have or do not have.
Writing well is something that you need to learn and
practice.
There is one standard way of writing at university
You need to find out all you can on the topic and put it
all in your assignment.
Writing critically is when you say what is negative or
incorrect about something.
Many aspects of writing are common across subjects
and assignment types, but you need to develop
awareness of specialized characteristics of you subject,
task type and tutor's approach.
You should demonstrate that you can discriminate
between relevant and non-relevant sources.
Being critical means using the questioning process to
comment on or evaluate something. Your evaluation
can be positive, negative or both.
Myths & Facts
MYTHS
FACTS
You should use lots of quotations.
It is recommended that you re-express and integrate
the information using your own words and phrases.
Being original means coming up with a totally new idea
or making a new discovery.
You are expected to develop your own understanding
of an issue. This unique understanding arises as you
choose your resources, how you evaluate them and
the conclusions you come to.
You should not say what you think or use 'I' in the
assignments.
You can express your views through analysis and
evaluation of evidence and viewpoints from other
sources.
You do not need to explain things in your writing that
your tutor already knows.
Your assignments usually need to explain background
information and terms in a way that an educated and
intelligent non-expert reader would be able to
understand.
Myths & Facts
MYTHS
FACTS
Successful writing at university means writing
in long sentences and using lots of long
words.
Successful writing is precise, clear and to the
point. You need to use formal vocabulary
items.
Successful writers think, then write, check and
hand in.
Successful writers make lots of mistakes and
rewrite and correct their work many times
before arriving at the final revision.
Features of academic writing
Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every
part contributing to the main line of argument, without repetitions.
Its objective is to inform rather than entertain.
There are ten main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is
to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language
precisely and accurately. It is also well organised and planned.
HTTP://WWW.UEFAP.COM/WRITING/FEATURE/FEATFRAM.HTM
Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989).
Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language.
It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses
more long sequences of prepositional phrases
more adjectives
more passives than spoken language.
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Formality
In general this means in an essay that you should avoid:
colloquial words and expressions; ""stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of", “like”
 abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn’t”
two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
 sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in research paper.
asking questions.
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Precision (content)
In academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not
use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".
Examples:
Example 1
Chinese are Buddhist. They go to the temple five times a year, live simple lives, and give money to
charity.
Example 2
Many Chinese are Buddhists. Practising Buddhists go to the temple about five times a year,
generally try to live simple lives, and give money to charity when they can.
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Precision
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Objectivity
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the
arguments you want to make, rather than you.
 Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have
studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions.
In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".
Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."
Write: "This is a very interesting study."
Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.
Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."
Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."
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Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit in several ways.
It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson,
Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882).
For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it
clear.
The Bristol 167 was to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of
the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.
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Accuracy (Vocabulary & Grammar)
In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary.
Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly" , "gathering" or "conference".
Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".
You also need to be accurate in your use of grammar.
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Rules of academic writing
An academic text not a narrative-it is an argument.
Formal, logical, cautious & unemotional language.
No slang, jargon, personal anecdotes, colloquisms, exclamation marks & contractions (‘e.g. can’t’).
Clear, succinct writing.
A % of the overall mark will be awarded for clear, accurate writing & referencing & the converse also
true.
FJ SEPT. 2008
Rules of academic writing

Not 1st person (I and my).
 3rd person only–
‘this writer’ believes that’…
‘this student’s experience has been’…
It is believed…
Many researchers have noted…
Some writers have stated..
The research suggests…
The evidence indicates...
It will be argued that …
This essay will critically examine the process leading to….
FJ SEPT. 2008
Formatting Assignments
HEADER: First name and last name, Unit Code, Assessment #
FOOTER: Page number
MARGINS: Top & Bottom 3.0cm and Left & Right 2.5cm
PAGE SIZE: A4
BODY TEXT:
Font: Arial
Size: 12pt
Alignment: Justified (both sides); but not for references in a list or bibliography
Line Spacing: 1.5
Paragraph Spacing: 0pt ‘before’ and 12pt ‘after’
FILE NAME: Last name_First name_Student #_Unit Code_Assessment #
Assignments should be submitted to Learnline in Microsoft Word file type.
Word count
Word Count: all words from beginning of introduction to end of conclusion.
References List not included in word count.
Research topics
The following topics can be explored relevant to your chosen academic discipline:
business writing
crisis management
conflict management
social media
Types of research
primary research: is information gathered
through self-conducted research methods
secondary research (Literature review
research): is information gathered from
previously conducted studies.
HTTPS://WWW.GEOPOLL.COM/BLOG/PRIMARY-VS-SECONDARYRESEARCH/#:~:TEXT=PRIMARY%20RESEARCH%20IS%20INFORMATION%20GATHERED,USUALLY%20
WHERE%20MOST%20RESEARCH%20BEGINS.
Major parts of a research paper
The major parts of a research paper are
abstract,
introduction,
review of literature,
research methods, (primary: questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.; secondary: review of
literature)
findings and analysis,
discussion,
limitations, future scope and
References to the studies included in the literature review section
How to write a research question?
The process of developing your research question follows
several steps:
Choose a broad topic
Do some preliminary reading to find out about topical
debates and issues
Narrow down a specific niche that you want to focus on
HTTPS://WWW.SCRIBBR.COM/RESEARCH-PROCESS/RESEARCH-QUESTIONS/
What makes a strong research question?
Focused and
researchable
Feasible and
specific
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Complex and
arguable
Sample research questions
Which of the following is a clear research question?
How should social networking sites address the harm they cause?
What action should social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook take to protect users’
personal information and privacy?
Which of the following is a focused research question?
What is the effect of global warming on the environment?
What is the most significant effect of glacial melting on the lives of penguins in Antarctica?
HTTPS://WRITINGCENTER.GMU.EDU/GUIDES/HOW-TO-WRITE-A-RESEARCH-QUESTION
Sample research questions
Which of the following research question has an appropriate level of complexity?
How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?
What main environmental, behavioral, and genetic factors predict whether Americans will
develop diabetes, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in
prevention of the disease?
HTTPS://WRITINGCENTER.GMU.EDU/GUIDES/HOW-TO-WRITE-A-RESEARCH-QUESTION
Research paper scaffold
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1155/scaffold.pdf
Example research paper scaffold
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1155/example_scaffold.pdf
Reading: Finding suitable resources
Types of texts in academic papers:
 textbooks, Websites, Journal articles, official reports, newspapers, magazine articles, E-books,
edited books, etc.)
How these can be find?
Using reading list
Using library websites to search electronic resources
Evaluating sources
CRAAP Test is a widely-used method to evaluate a resource
against a checklist of criteria.
Currency: When was the information published or posted?
Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs.
Authority: The source of the information.
Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness and correctness of the
content.
Purpose: The reason the information exists.
SOURCE: HTTPS://LIBRARY.CSUCHICO.EDU/HELP/SOURCE-OR-INFORMATION-GOOD
Wikipedia: Wikipedia pages can be edited by anyone, which
means that sometimes the information stated is not reliable.
Online News Articles: When examining online news articles,
find out what you can about the organization behind the
articles.
Evaluating
digital sources
Online Databases: the most reliable information you will
find on the internet will come from online databases
HTTPS://OWL.PURDUE.EDU/OWL/RESEARCH_AND_CITATION/CONDUCTING_RESEARCH/EVALUATING_SO
URCES_OF_INFORMATION/EVALUATING_DIGITAL_SOURCES.HTML
Using the CDU library
When using the CDU library database:
list out some possible keywords - a significant word or phrase - that would express your
research question
create a list of all possible synonyms for these key words
Make use of Boolean operators (AND, OR , NOT)
AND is used to combine two or more concepts
OR is used to combine synonyms or words that are acceptable substitutes for each other; it
helps expand your search and you will get more resources
NOT is generally used to exclude those "false hits"
Reading sources: developing a critical approach
1.
Titles and subtitles
2.
Text features
a.
Author
b.
Publication date and edition
c.
Abstract
d.
Contents
e.
Introduction: the reason for writing, the organization principle
f.
References
Structure of abstracts
1.
Background position
2.
Aim and thesis of the paper
3.
Method of research
4.
Results of research
Research Plan
Working Title (1 Noun Phrase)
◦ Give a title to your research essay.
Research Question (1 or two sentences)
Motivation for This Research.
◦ 1 paragraph about why this topic is interesting to you and relevant to the world.
Place of this research in current scholarship
◦ one or two sentences linking this topic to a chapter in a textbook or recent journal article.
Research Plan
Scope and Limitations of the Research
◦ Two or three sentences explaining what part of the topic you will study (i.e. what years, what countries, what
industry…)
Method(s) and Methodology
◦ What method(s) and methodology do you plan to use for your study?
◦ This study will be from a literature review of…
Proposed Timetable
◦ What are the key deadlines you will need to meet in order to submit your research on time? How will you be allocating your
time over the course of the semester?
Research Plan
Working Outline
◦ This should be a draft Table of Contents, including section headings and a sentence detailing what will
be included in each section.)
Introduction
Subtopic 1
Subtopic 2
Subtopic 3
Summary and Conclusion
Bibliography.
Research Plan
Starting Bibliography
◦ The three most important books or articles
Self Care Strategy
◦ How will you care for your mental, physical, social and spiritual health as you do your studies? (1
paragraph)
Harvard Referencing
When using Harvard referencing, there are two stages for acknowledging an author:
In-text citation is what you do in the text of your essay where you highlight the information and
ideas incorporated for someone else's work
Referencing is where you put all the information of the sources you used in a separate section
References are written on a separate page headed by the title References, centred and bold
References should be in alphabetical order by first named author, or title if there is no author
Harvard Referencing
Each of your references should be on a new line with double line spacing between each
reference entry
References should be left aligned
All your references should have a matching in-text citation and vice versa
Using in-text citation depends on whether you are quoting or paraphrasing information from a
source.
Direct quotation: you need to put quotation marks around the words. You have to indicate the
source of information at the end. This includes the author(s)'s last name followed by a data and
a page number.
Paraphrased: you should include the author's surname and the year the source was published.
Reporting verbs
Presenting a case (believe, consider, say, suggest, think, argue, assert, claim, conclude, confirm,
contend, insist, maintain, state, warn)
Showing (demonstrate, explain, indicate, note, prove, reveal, show)
Commenting on previously stated opinions (accept, agree, deny, doubt, admit)
Negative or critical position (blame, condemn, criticize)
Describing (characterize, classify, define, evaluate, identify, portray, present)
Using in-text citation
Paraphrasing & summarising sources
Theory and research on impression management suggest that people may monitor the image
that they provide of themselves to the audiences they address (Baumeister 1982; Leary &
Kowalski 1990; Schlenker 1980)
Citing a direct quote
There seems to be a ‘consensus among researchers and policy makers that experiments
constitute a gold standard in policy evaluation, although they are not a complete recipe for policy
evaluation’ (Danielson 2007, pp. 381–382).
HTTPS://LIBGUIDES.SCU.EDU.AU/HARVARD/CITING-IN-TEXT
Using in-text citation
Citing sources with no date
If the publication date of a reference is unknown or unsure, cite it using n.d. (no date), e.g.
XXXXXXXXXXXX (Smith n.d.)
Smith (n.d.) maintains that……..
Citing a source if page numbers are not available (direct quotations)
For example:
As Myers (2000, para. 5) aptly phrased it…
…………………………….(Beutler 2000, Conclusion, para. 1)
[Tip: if your resource is a journal article in html format (and therefore with no page numbers), check to
see if the article is available elsewhere as a pdf. Usually, pdf documents include page numbers.]
HTTPS://LIBGUIDES.SCU.EDU.AU/HARVARD/CITING-IN-TEXT
Using in-text citation
Cite a source discussed in another source (secondary source)
For example, if Lister cited Miller’s work in his/her research and you did not read Miller’s work,
you should refer to Miller in text in the following way:
David Miller’s simple definition of social justice (1999, cited in Lister 2007, p. 113) sums up …
In the reference list, provide the details of the article you actually used (Lister):
Lister, R 2007, 'Social justice: meanings and politics', Benefits, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 113-25.
HTTPS://LIBGUIDES.SCU.EDU.AU/HARVARD/CITING-IN-TEXT
Activity: in-text citation
Create an in-text citation for the following reference entry.
Samuelson, W & Marks, SG 2015, Managerial economics, 9th edn., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
…… (Samuelson & Marks 2015)
Samuelson and Marks (2015) maintain that ………
Create an in-text citation for the following reference entry.
Patterson, J. 2005. Maximum ride. New York: Little, Brown
…………..(Patterson 2005)
Patterson (2005) claims that …….
Books & Ebooks
Author, AA & Author, BB Year of publication, Title of book, Edition, Publisher.
Single author
Reference
Deegan, C 2013, Financial accounting theory, McGraw-Hill Australia.
In-text citation …………… (Deegan 2013)
Deegan (2013) believes that …………..
2 authors
Reference
Fletcher, R & Crawford, H 2016, International marketing: An Asia-Pacific perspective, 7th edn., Pearson Australia.
In-text citation
Fletcher and Crawford (2016) maintain that ……
‘...facilitator and inhibitor of international business’ (Fletcher & Crawford 2016, p. 60)
Books & Ebooks
No author
Reference
Employment the professional way: A guide to understanding the Australian job search process for
professionally qualified migrants 2000, Australian Multicultural Foundation.
In-text citation
(Employment the professional way 2000) OR the book Employment the professional way (2000)
includes arguments about….
Shorten title and put in italics
For more information, refer to the CDU Harvard style guide.
Journal Articles
Author, AA & Author, BB Year of publication, 'Article title', Journal Title, vol., no./iss., p/pp.
Single author
Reference
Mirvis, P 2012, 'Employee engagement and CSR: Transactional, relational and developmental
approaches', California Management Review, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 93-117.
In-text citation
‘30 percent were dissatisfied, and 8 percent were outright disengaged’ (Mirvis 2012, p. 95).
Mirvis (2012) points out that …….
Journal articles
Multiple authors
Reference
Banke, R, Byzalov, D & Plehn-Dujowich, J 2014, 'Demand uncertainty and cost
behaviour', Accounting Review, vol. 89, no. 3, pp. 839-855.
In-text citation
... advantages such as fixed and higher variable costs (Banke et al. 2014)
Banke et al. (2014) mention that ……
Activity: finding a mistake
Chuah, S, Hoffmann, R & Larner, J 2014, 'Chinese values and negotiation behaviour: A bargaining
experiment', International Business Review, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 1203-1211.
What is the mistake in this reference entry?
Samuelson, W & Marks, SG (2015), Managerial economics, 9th edn., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Find two mistakes in the above reference entry.
Using referencing to emphasize different
aspects of academic sources
Emphasizing the information in your sources rather than the author
Although the law overlaps with ethics, it usually only regulates the lowest level of acceptable
behavior (Crane and Mattern 2007).
Emphasizing both the information and the author
Research has indicated that job satisfaction is linked to regulating emotion (Cote & Mogan 2002;
Barrik 2002).
Emphasizing the author
Wolf (2008) shares his view and Prindl and Prodham (1994) also suggest that …
What went wrong?
According to (Reynolds 2000) there is no strong evidence of long-term damage to health.
According to Padash 2000 there is no strong evidence of long-term damage to health.
George Marchais (1984) discusses three main factors.
Smoking and related illnesses cause over 500,000 deaths annually in the UK.
Plagiarism
How to avoid accidental plagiarism
No reference = all you
It’s all or nothing when paraphrasing
Change almost everything except key terms or change nothing and use it as a quotation
Putting a source into your own words is good but not giving it a reference is bad
One reference is often not enough
Example:
Dickinson (2009) argues that the language translation industry, for example translation brochures
and websites, is a key to helping Britain recover from recession. He also stresses the importance
of hiring professional translators.
How to avoid accidental plagiarism
An assignment that has too much quotation
Don’t give the impression that you have read something when you haven’t
Opponents of the concept of ethics in business include those who claim that making a profit is the
only responsibility a business has to society (Friedman 1970, cited in Fisher and Lovell 2003)
Writing a definition
Simple definitions
Word
Category
Application
An agenda
is a set of issues
to be discussed in a meeting.
A grant
is a sum of money
given for a specific purpose.
A seminar
is an academic class
meeting with a tutor for study.
BAILEY, S. 2018, ACADEMIC WRITING: A HANDBOOK FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS (5TH ED.).
NEW YORK: ROUTLEDGE.
Writing a definition
Complex definitions
Quote from another writer
Example: Bowlby (1982) suggested that attachment is an organized system whose goal is to make
individuals feel safe and secure.
A variety of relevant situations
Example: The definition of a failed project ranges from abandoned projects to projects that do
not meet their full potential or simply have schedule overrun problems.
Process explanation
Example: Development is a socio-economic-technological process having the main objective of
raising the standards of living of the people.
BAILEY, S. 2018, ACADEMIC WRITING: A HANDBOOK FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS (5TH ED.).
NEW YORK: ROUTLEDGE.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is one way to use a text in your own writing without directly quoting source
material
Your own version of essential information and ideas expressed by someone else, presented in a
new form
A more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single main idea
Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...
◦ It is better than quoting information
HTTPS://OWL.PURDUE.EDU/OWL/RESEARCH_AND_CITATION/USING_RESEARCH/QUOTING_PARAP
HRASING_AND_SUMMARIZING/PARAPHRASING.HTML
Techniques for paraphrasing
Changing vocabulary by using synonyms
Example: argues > claims; prize > awards; anarchy > chaos
Changing word forms
Example: Explanation > explain; analyse > analysis; extend > extensive
Changes in structure
Example: medical services are coming under pressure as a result of people living longer.
> People are living so much longer that medical services are coming under pressure.
PATERSON, K. 2013, OXFORD GRAMMAR FOR EAP, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD.
Steps for effective paraphrasing
Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a piece of paper/Word
document.
Check your version with the original to make sure that your version accurately
expresses all the essential information in a new form.
Use quotation marks to identify any unique term you have borrowed exactly
from the source.
Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it
easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.
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HRASING_AND_SUMMARIZING/PARAPHRASING.HTML
Example
Original text
Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations
in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as
directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source
materials while taking notes.
Lester, J 1976, Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed., pp. 46-47.
Paraphrase
In research papers, students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a
desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the
material recorded verbatim (Lester 1976).
HTTPS://OWL.PURDUE.EDU/OWL/RESEARCH_AND_CITATION/USING_RESEARCH/QUOTING_PARAP
HRASING_AND_SUMMARIZING/PARAPHRASING.HTML
Original text
Because of the complexity of homelessness from a social policy and service delivery
perspective, there are a wide range of views on what constitutes homelessness. Definitions of
homelessness are culturally and historically contingent. They range from limited objective
measures which conflate homelessness with rooflessness to more subjective definitions
founded on culturally and historically determined ideas of ‘home’.
Paraphrasing A
Homelessness is complicated from both policy-making and service delivery points of view. For
this reason, there are many different opinions on what homelessness means. Characterisations
of homelessness are linked to culture and history. They encompass both narrow objective views
which define being homeless as being roofless, and more personal definitions based on cultural
and historical understandings of 'home' (ABS 2012).
Paraphrasing B
A multi-faceted concept, homelessness can be defined in a variety of ways, most simply as the
basic lack of shelter. However, our understanding of what constitutes a ‘home’ is also informed
by our culture and history. This complexity impacts the development of effective policy and
services to address homelessness (ABS 2012).
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Summarising
Summarising means briefly outlining the main points of a reading in your own words without
adding your own ideas or changing the author’s meaning.
Here is how to summarise:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Similar to paraphrasing, the first step is to read the original text and get a full grasp of it.
When reading, ask yourself: What is the overall message? What are the key points?
Concentrate on the essentials and leave out details and examples.
Put the source aside and state its key points in your own words.
Finally, proofread, revise and edit your summary as necessary.
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What to include in a summary?
Your summary should include the following:
1. a topic sentence; including the author's last name and date of publication and the main point
of the article.
2. 5-7 supporting sentences that prove the main point.
3. a concluding sentence that reinforce the main point of the article.
Original text
With respect to daily intakes of specific micronutrients, 40% of adolescent girls and 8% of adolescent
boys were at risk for inadequate intakes of iron. While protein intakes were adequate in these
subpopulations, the top two sources of iron were from plant-based, iron fortified sources (breakfast
cereals and breads and bread rolls). With regard to higher iron bioavailability and density, animal-based
protein sources may be another strategy to address iron intake, particularly among females, as it has
been previously shown to be a less popular food choice among Australian children and adolescents and
avoided by young female adults (Fayet-Moore et al., 2017).
Summary
Fayet-Moore et al. (2017) found that 40% of adolescent girls, compared to 8% of boys, are likely to have
an inadequate amount of iron in their diets, in spite of a sufficient protein intake. They attribute this to
a tendency to avoid foods derived from animals.
HTTPS://WWW.MONASH.EDU/RLO/RESEARCH-WRITING-ASSIGNMENTS/WRITING/PARAPHRASINGSUMMARISING-AND-QUOTING
Quoting
Quoting means repeating the author’s exact words.
Some situations which might justify direct quoting could be:
◦
◦
◦
◦
the author has devised and named a new theory, model, concept, technique or scale
the author has provided a definition of a concept
the author’s words have unusual impact and would be difficult to express in any other way
the author is a notable authority on the subject and their words will lend weight to your argument
Keep the quote as brief as possible and integrate it into the development of your argument or
discussion.
All quotes require page numbers in the citation.
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Synthesizing resources
Synthesis is putting together your sources that agree or disagree and try to draw broader
conclusions.
Note that synthesizing is not the same as summarizing.
◦ A summary restates the information in one or more sources without providing new insight or reaching
new conclusions.
◦ A synthesis draws on multiple sources to reach a broader conclusion.
In order to successfully synthesize your sources, you might begin by grouping your sources by
topic and looking for connections.
Construct your body paragraphs in a way that acknowledges different sources and highlights
where you can draw new conclusions.
HTTPS://OWL.PURDUE.EDU/OWL/RESEARCH_AND_CITATION/CONDUCTING_RESEARCH/RESEARCH_OVERVIEW/SYNTHESIZING_SOURCES.HTML
Example
Parents are always trying to find ways to encourage healthy eating in their children. Ben-Joseph, a
doctor and writer for KidsHealth, encourages parents to be role models for their children by not
dieting or vocalizing concerns about their body image. The first popular diet began in 1863.
Banting named it the “Banting” diet after himself, and it consisted of eating fruits, vegetables,
meat, and dry wine. Despite the fact that dieting has been around for over a hundred and fifty
years, parents should not diet because it hinders children’s understanding of healthy eating.
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Example
Parents are always trying to find ways to encourage healthy eating in their children. Different scientists and
educators have different strategies for promoting a well-rounded diet while still encouraging body positivity
in children. Just and Price (2009) suggest in their article “Using Incentives to Encourage Healthy Eating in
Children” that children are more likely to eat fruits and vegetables if they are given a reward. Similarly, BenJoseph, a doctor and writer for Kids Health, encourages parents to be role models for their children. She
states that “parents who are always dieting or complaining about their bodies may foster these same
negative feelings in their kids. Try to keep a positive approach about food” (Ben-Joseph 2000 p.90). Nepper
and Chai (2012) support Ben-Joseph’s suggestions in their article “Parents’ Barriers and Strategies to Promote
Healthy Eating among School-age Children.” Nepper and Chai note, parents felt that patience, consistency,
educating themselves on proper nutrition, and having more healthy foods available in the home were
important strategies when developing healthy eating habits for their children. By following some of these
ideas, parents can help their children develop healthy eating habits while still maintaining body positivity.
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Types of Synthesis
The explanatory synthesis:
Wilson (2009) and Smith (2011) state that by providing continual exposure to appropriate
listening material can improve acquisition.
The effectiveness of these cognitive, metacognitive and socicognitive strategies are wellstudied (O’Malley & Chamot 1990; Goh 2002; Lynch & Mendelsohn 2002; Miller 2005)
The argument synthesis:
…they need what is called ‘comprehensible input’ (Krashen 1982). However, the opposing
argument here, is highlighted by Blake (2008, p. 19), who questions what constitutes to
‘comprehensible input’.
HTTPS://WWW.ACADEMIC-ENGLISHUK.COM/SYNTHESIS
Example
Using assignment essays for assessment supports learning better than the traditional
examination system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays can lessen the extreme
stress experienced by some students over ‘sudden death’ end of semester examinations and
reduce the failure rate (Langdon 2016; Jones 2018). Study skills research by Jones et al. (2014),
UCL (2016) and Peters (2018) support assessment by assignment because research assignments
can be used to assess student learning mid-course and so provide them with helpful feedback.
They also consider that assignment work lends itself to more critical approaches which help the
students to learn the discourse of their subjects. In contrast, Abbot (2008) and Cane (2018) both
argue that assignments are inefficient, costly to manage and are the cause of plagiarism
problems in universities. A key argument is that “assessment by examination is a clean-cut
approach as you obtain students’ knowledge under supervised circumstances” (Bable 2008,
p.20). The weight of evidence, however, would suggest that it is a fairer and more balanced
approach to have some assessment by assignment rather than completely by examinations.
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Synthesis Explained
Synthesis questions (Reading tutorials)
1.
How many sources are mentioned in the X section?
2.
Which writer examines the X argument?
3.
What was the main argument of X’s study?
4.
Which writer looked at X?
5.
Why do you think page numbers are given for X author?
6.
Summaries the different points made by each of the X sources cited.
Structure & sequence
Sections
Ideas & Arguments
Words
Introduction
State the main issues you will
deal with in the paper
10%-15%
Main body
Readings, lecture
70%-80%
Conclusion
This is not a summary of all the
points made in paper but it
should state what you believe to
be reasonable conclusions based
on the arguments made. It is
important to relate the
conclusions to the question
10%-15%
(Adapted from Nottingham Trent University, Academic Writing Information Sheet)
Paragraph structure
Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion
Introduction: the first section of a paragraph should include the topic sentence and any other
sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information.
Body: follows the introduction discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis,
examples, and other information.
Conclusion: the final section summarizes the connections between the information discussed
in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.
HTTPS://WTS.INDIANA.EDU/WRITING-GUIDES/PARAGRAPHS-AND-TOPIC-SENTENCES.HTML
Topic sentences
Every paragraph in your paper needs a topic sentence. The topic sentence expresses what the
paragraph is about. It should include two key things:
The topic of the paragraph
The central point of the paragraph.
Example: Research has consistently shown that the effective conflict management has
a significant workplace relationship impact.
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Ways to support an argument
Statistics
Examples
Expert opinions
Reporting on experiments and case studies
SOURCE: HTTPS://WWW.UMT.EDU/WRITINGCENTER/DOCS/RESOURCESFORWRITERS/WAYSTOSUPPORTANARGUMENT.PDF
Counterarguments
What is included in a counterargument paragraph?
1.
Identify the opposing argument.
2.
Respond to it by discussing the reasons the argument is incomplete, weak, unsound, or
illogical.
3.
Provide examples or evidence to show why the opposing argument is unsound, or provide
explanations of how the opposing argument is incomplete or illogical.
4.
Close by stating your own argument and why your argument is stronger than the identified
counterargument.
Sample: https://writingcenter.ashford.edu/sites/default/files/inlinefiles/Sample%20Counterargument%20Paragraph.pdf
HTTPS://WRITINGCENTER.ASHFORD.EDU/COUNTERARGUMENT
Coherence
Each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence
Each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps.
Techniques to establish a coherent paragraph
1. Repeat key words or phrases
2. Create parallel structures
3. Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs
SOURCE: HTTPS://WTS.INDIANA.EDU/WRITING-GUIDES/PARAGRAPHS-AND-TOPICSENTENCES.HTML
Example
Credit cards are convenient, but dangerous. People often get them in order to make large
purchases easily without saving up lots of money in advance. This is especially helpful for
purchases like cars, kitchen appliances, etc., that you may need to get without delay. However,
this convenience comes at a high price: interest rates. The more money you put on your credit
card, the more the bank or credit union will charge you for that convenience. If you're not
careful, credit card debt can quickly break the bank and leave you in very dire economic
circumstances!
SOURCE: HTTPS://LITERARYTERMS.NET/COHERENCE/
Writing the introduction
The introduction should include four elements:
General sentence which introduces the general topic, background information, reasons for
controversy.
Specific sentence what is the main topic, definition (if applicable)
 Thesis statement (the main argument that the essay/research paper will be based on)
Outline (the subsections of the paper, which aspects of the topic will be the focus of the
research paper)
General sentence
Specific sentence
Thesis statement
Outline
HTTPS://WWW.ACADEMIC-ENGLISHUK.COM/THESIS-STATEMENTS
Thesis statement
How to tell a strong thesis from a weak one?
A strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand (viewpoint)
There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of
muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.
 A strong thesis statement justifies discussion
My family is an extended family.
While most American families would view blood-related marriage as a threat to the nuclear
family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce
kinship ties in an extended family.
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Thesis statement
A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea
Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and Web pages can provide
both advertising and customer support
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this
potential by using Web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.
A strong thesis statement is specific
World hunger has many causes and effects.
Hunger persists in Glandelinia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely
profitable.
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Sequencing language
 Verbs, such as start, begin, move on to, follow, finish, conclude
 Words and phrases such as firstly, first of all, in the second part, next, then, finally, lastly, in
conclusion
Example:
First of all, this essay will define the strategies for expansion beyond the country of origin,
globalisation, internationalisation, and 'worldification'. Then, it will identify examples of each of
these in the strategies of well-known companies. Next, it will move on to an evaluation of the
value added by each model. Lastly, the essay will conclude with .....
PATERSON, K. 2013, OXFORD GRAMMAR FOR EAP, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD.
5 Easy steps to write a thesis statement
Make a Thesis Question
Example: Divorce. Thesis Question: How does divorce affect children?
Brainstorm Answers
Example: Divorce causes children to feel insecure about the future, not do as well in school, feel
insecure in relationships, worry about their parents, become bullies or be bullied, have to get
along with a new family of siblings, have a lower standard of living, wonder if they caused the
divorce.
Pick a Thesis Answer
Example: How does divorce affect children? Divorce causes children to feel insecure.
SOURCE: HTTPS://OWLCATION.COM/HUMANITIES/EASY-WAYS-TO-WRITE-A-THESIS-STATEMENT-FOR-AN-ESSAY
5 Easy steps to write a thesis statement
Make a Thesis Road Map
Example: How does divorce affect children? Divorce causes children to feel insecure because
they often have a lower standard of living after the divorce, they feel less secure in relationships,
and they worry about the future.
Add Emphasis
Example: How does divorce affect children? Although some people argue that children quickly
get over a parent's split, in reality, divorce causes children to feel insecure for a long time
afterwards because they often have a lower standard of living after the divorce, they feel less
secure in relationships, and they worry about the future.
SOURCE: HTTPS://OWLCATION.COM/HUMANITIES/EASY-WAYS-TO-WRITE-A-THESIS-STATEMENT-FOR-AN-ESSAY
Conclusion
The conclusion normally starts with ‘In conclusion’ or ‘To sum up’ and should include the
following:
Restatement of your thesis statement
Summary of the major points
Research Outlines
Outlining using a topic sentence for each paragraph
Introduction
i.
begins with discussion of your specific topic (not a broad background overview)
ii.
provides just enough context (definitions of key terms, for example) to prepare your readers
for your thesis or purpose statement.
Thesis statement
i.
comes at the end of your introduction and state clearly and concisely what the purpose or
central argument of your paper is.
The introduction prepares your reader for this statement, and the rest of the paper follows in
support of it.
HTTPS://ACADEMICGUIDES.WALDENU.EDU/WRITINGCENTER/WRITINGPROCESS/OUTLINING
Research outlines
Review of literature should be divided into sections and subsections that answer your research
question(s)
Conclusion
i.
restates your paper's major claim and ties that claim into a larger discussion.
ii.
Rather than simply reiterating each major and minor point, quickly revisit your thesis
statement and focus on ending the paper by tying your thesis into current research in your
field, next steps for other researchers, your broader studies, or other future implications.
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Structure of a report
1.
Title page
2.
Table of contents
3.
Introduction
4.
Body, use headings, subheadings and numbering
5.
Conclusion
Voice in Writing
1. Make your unattributed (not referenced) assertion at the start of paragraphs followed by
evidence, findings, arguments from your sources.
Example:
"To date there is no well-established tool to measure divided attention in children. Current
methods used to assess divided attention usually involve a variation of the CPT with an
additional task included e.g. counting or listening to auditory stimuli (Salthouse, 2003)."
2. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between sources.
Example:
"Smith (2009), however, takes a different approach..."
SOURCE: HTTPS://LIBRARY.LEEDS.AC.UK/INFO/14011/WRITING/106/ACADEMIC_WRITING/8
Voice in writing
3. Use language to show your strong agreement/disagreement/cautious agreement with
sources.
Example:
"Smith's (2009) findings show a clear...A serious weakness with this argument is...The research
suggests..."
4. Include "so what" summary sentences (evaluative sentences) at the end of paragraphs.
Example:
"This shows that it is detrimental to strictly categorise chronological periods with artistic genres,
as many art historians suggest different movements were taking place in separate geographical
locations at the same time."
SOURCE: HTTPS://LIBRARY.LEEDS.AC.UK/INFO/14011/WRITING/106/ACADEMIC_WRITING/8
Advanced ways to show your attitude
Agreeing with an author:
acknowledges
affirms
analyses
applauds
argues
contends
explains
identifies
observes
persuades
proves
supports
HTTPS://WWW.UTS.EDU.AU/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/REPORTING%20VERBS%20REFERENCE%20SHEE
T.PDF
Advanced ways to show your attitude
Disagreeing with an author:
accuses
alleges
apologises
speculates
Asserts
comments
doubts
guesses
hopes
questions
HTTPS://WWW.UTS.EDU.AU/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/REPORTING%20VERBS%20REFERENCE%20SHEE
T.PDF
Advanced ways to show your attitude
Perhaps you don’t feel positive or negative about the source you are citing. In this situation, you
should use a neutral reporting verb.
accepts
acknowledges
adds
agrees
assures
claims
concludes
confirms
describes
expresses
maintains
recognizes
reports
says
thinks
HTTPS://WWW.UTS.EDU.AU/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/REPORTING%20VERBS%20REFERENCE%20SHEE
T.PDF
HTTPS://WWW.UTS.EDU.AU/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/REPORTING%20VERBS%20REFERENCE%20SHEE
T.PDF
HTTPS://WWW.UTS.EDU.AU/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/REPORTING%20VERBS%20REFERENCE%20SHEE
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The grammar of reporting verbs
Pattern 1: Verb + Noun (noun phrase)
The authors show the devastating results of this policy (Smith & Jones 2008, p. 12).
Gillard (2012) indicated her negative opinion of Abbott’s proposal.
Pinker (2002) frequently approves of Chomsky’s theories.
Pattern 2: Verb + That + clause (i.e. sentence)
The authors show that this policy had devastating results (Smith & Jones 2008, p. 12).
Gillard (2012) indicated that Abbott’s proposal was indefensible in her opinion.
HTTPS://WWW.UTS.EDU.AU/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/REPORTING%20VERBS%20REFERENCE%20SHEE
T.PDF
Tense
Reporting verbs are normally present simple – especially for recent articles and books:
Turner (2010) states that the modern state wields more power in new ways.
However, use the past tense if presenting the results of past research – even in recent literature:
The groups observed during the research showed a range of leadership styles (Kang 2006).
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T.PDF
Common errors in critical writing
Conclusion given before the evidence or argument
Ethical behavior is not compatible with successful business practice. This essay will look at the
reasons why…
Opinion that is then presented as fact
Animal testing is thought by some to be necessary. This essay will argue that even though such
testing is currently needed, we should put more effort into finding alternative methods for
testing new drugs.
Empty, circular argument
The government should instigate an “opt out” system of organ donation. This will ensure that a
person’s organs are automatically available for donation unless they have specified otherwise.
Therefore, this legislation should be introduced as soon as possible.
Common errors in critical writing
Assumption of a causal connection
Children who play violent computer games commit more violent acts; therefore, the violence
portrayed in computer games causes violent behavior in children.
Steps in reasoning that do not follow logically
Identity theft is increasing, therefore the government should introduce identity cards.
Statements that do not analyse in enough detail
The growth in international trade requires improved legislation to control worldwide monopolies.
Overgeneralisation or vague statements
Men are stronger than women
Portable technology is used by everyone nowadays.
Using first person pronouns in academic
writing
Use the first person pronoun to …
Example
…to organize the text and guide the reader
through your argument
In this paper, I will argue that…
First, I outline the development of…
We conclude that…
… to report methods, procedures, and steps We analyzed…
undertaken.
I interviewed…
… to signal your position in a debate or
contrast your claims with another source.
Contrary to this theory, our findings suggest
that…
However, I contend that…
How to avoid first-person pronouns
First-person sentence
Revision
Revised sentence
I interviewed 20 students.
Use 3rd person
The researcher interviewed 20 students.
We argue that the teaching
method should be refined
further.
Use a different
subject
This paper argues that the teaching
method should be refined further.
I checked the dataset for missing
data.
Use passive
voice
The dataset was checked for missing
data.
Expressing levels of certainty and caution
Verb phrases
Certainty
The data show
The findings indicate/ suggest/tend to show
The data seem/ appear to
There appears/ seems to be
This might/may/could indicate
This would seem to/appear to
Caution
Expressing levels of certainty and caution
Adverb/verb phrases
Certainty
This strongly/certainly/definitely suggests
This almost certainly/definitely suggests/ shows
This essay would strongly suggest
This perhaps suggests
Caution
Expressing levels of certainty and caution
Adjectives/Noun phrases
Certainty
This proves with absolute certainty
It is almost certainly/it is highly probable
There is a good/strong/definite possibility
It is probably/likely
There is a tendency for
It is possible
There is a slight/small possibility
Caution
MQO004
Features of academic writing
Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every
part contributing to the main line of argument, without repetitions.
Its objective is to inform rather than entertain.
There are ten main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is
to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language
precisely and accurately. It is also well organised and planned.
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Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989).
Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language.
It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses
more long sequences of prepositional phrases
more adjectives
more passives than spoken language.
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Formality
In general this means in an essay that you should avoid:
colloquial words and expressions; ""stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of", “like”
 abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn’t”
two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
 sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in research paper.
asking questions.
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Precision (content)
In academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not
use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".
Examples:
Example 1
Chinese are Buddhist. They go to the temple five times a year, live simple lives, and give money to
charity.
Example 2
Many Chinese are Buddhists. Practising Buddhists go to the temple about five times a year,
generally try to live simple lives, and give money to charity when they can.
HTTPS://WWW.MONASH.EDU/RLO/RESEARCH-WRITING-ASSIGNMENTS/WRITING/CLEARCOMMUNICATION/WRITING-CLEARLY-CONCISELY-AND-PRECISELY
Precision
HTTPS://WWW.MONASH.EDU/RLO/RESEARCH-WRITINGASSIGNMENTS/WRITING/CLEAR-COMMUNICATION/WRITING-CLEARLYCONCISELY-AND-PRECISELY
Objectivity
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the
arguments you want to make, rather than you.
 Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have
studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions.
In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".
Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."
Write: "This is a very interesting study."
Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.
Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."
Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."
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Objectivity
1. Compare these two paragraphs:
The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual
dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education
and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers have suggested ways of making second
language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller,
1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language
proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.
We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a
long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more
communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something we use
for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test
it.
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Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit in several ways.
It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson,
Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882).
For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it
clear.
The Bristol 167 was to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of
the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.
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Accuracy (Vocabulary & Grammar)
In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary.
Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly" , "gathering" or "conference".
Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".
You also need to be accurate in your use of grammar.
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Hedging
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Hedging
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Hedging-Examples
Compare the following:
It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less
strong than it is now.
The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.
There are certainly cases where this would seem to have been the only possible method of
transmission.
There are cases where this would have been the only possible method of transmission.
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Responsibility
In academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text.
You must also be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any
claims you make.
This is done by paraphrasing and summarising what you read and acknowledging the source of
this information or ideas by a system of citation.
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Organisation
Academic writing is well organised. It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical
fashion.
A good place to start is the genre of your text. Once you have decided on the genre, the
structure is easily determined.
Looking at typical structures can help you with your organisation
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Planning
Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation, according
to a specific purpose and plan.
The following procedure is typical when writing an extended essay or assignment:
Read the question or brief and understand what you are required to do
Think about what you know and write it down in some way
Go to the library or a database and find relevant books, articles or websites
Find the books on your reading list - if you have one - and study them
Make notes on these books and articles
Organise your piece of work
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Planning-continued
Type or write your first draft
Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other members of your class and your lecturer if
possible
Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any comments that were made in your discussions and
produce your second draft
Proofread your draft
Produce a final typed version
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