NEW psych socio deck for madi 2.0

<div>{{c1::Gestalt principles}} are principles of how our mind groups things</div>"<div>Proximity </div><div><div>Similarity</div><div>Continuity</div><div>Subjective contours</div><div>Closure</div></div><div> </div><div><img src=""Gestalt Principles.jpg""></div><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-perception-topic/v/gestalt-principles"">Khan Academy Link</a></div>" According to the gestalt principle of {{c1::proximity}}, objects that are placed close together are perceived as being more related than those spaced farther apart"<div>In the below example, your mind sees set (a) as one group and set (b) as three distinct columns or groups </div><div> </div><div><img src=""Proximity.jpg""></div><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-perception-topic/v/gestalt-principles"">Khan Academy Link</a> </div>" According to the gestalt principle of {{c1::similarity}}, we tend to perceive things that physically resemble one another as part of the same object"<div><img src=""Similarity.jpg""></div><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-perception-topic/v/gestalt-principles"">Khan Academy Link</a> </div>" According to the gestalt principle of {{c1::continuity}}, when a shape is not complete, but enough of the shape is shown, our minds will fill in the blanks and construct the whole of the shape"<div>In the below example, the eye tends to want to follow the straight line from one end of this figure to the other, and the curved line from the top to the bottom, even when the lines change color midway through </div><div> </div><div><img src=""Continuity.png""></div><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-perception-topic/v/gestalt-principles"">Khan Academy Link</a> </div>" According to the gestalt principle of {{c1::closure}}, we tend to see complete figures even when part of the information is missing"<div><img src=""Closure.jpg""></div><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-perception-topic/v/gestalt-principles"">Khan Academy Link</a> </div>" {{c1::Law of Prägnanz}} states that people will perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images as the simplest form(s) possible"<div>The Law of Prägnanz governs all the Gestalt Principles </div><div><div> </div><div><img src=""Law of Pragnanz.png""></div><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-perception-topic/v/gestalt-principles"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div>" <div>According to the gestalt principle of symmetry, elements that are symmetrical to each other tend to be perceived as a {{c1::unified group}} </div>"<img src=""Symmetry.png""><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-perception-topic/v/gestalt-principles"">Khan Academy Link</a></div>" The Gestalt law of {{c1::common fate}} states that humans perceive visual elements that move in the same speed and/or direction as parts of a single stimulus "A common example of this is a flock of birds <div> </div><div><img src=""Law of Common Fate.png""></div><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqque_JJRMo"">YouTube Link</a> </div>" "The gestalt law of {{c1::past experiences}} states that elements tend to be perceived according to an observer's past experience""<img src=""Past Experiences.jpg""> " "A {{c1::flashbulb memory}} is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which an emotional memory was first formed ""<img src=""Flasbulb Memory.jpg""><div> </div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/executive-systems-of-the-brain/memory-lesson/v/memory-reconstruction-source-monitoring-and-emotional-memories"">Khan Academy Link</a></div>" The study of society and the individuals relationship in society sociology what is the ideal behind structural functionalism/ functionalism?individual parts work together to maintain social balance (dynamic equilibrium); living organism this was the OG theory on how society works  who is connected to functionalism?Emile Durkheim: - dynamic equilib - common consciousness -anomie Is functionalism a macro or micro theory?macro what is common consciousness?general agreement of understanding between people in a society which creates a strong coercive influence on the indiviual people.  social strucutres work synergistically towards societal solidarity thus creating common consciouness ex) standing for national anthem what are the two types of functions?manifest and latent what is manifest funtion?intended function or obvious ex) manifest function of higher education: gain knowledge  what is latent function?unintended side effects  Ex) latent function of higher education: networking, debt, find friends what sociological theory expains society is one big competition for resources?conflict theory individuals and groups compete for social, political, and materail power Is conflict a macro or micro theory?macro  who is tied to conflict theory? What did he say?Karl Marx AND MAX WEBER Marx: his theories of economy and society form the foundation for conflict theory  - capitalism encourages private ownership to produce wealth thus desire for wealth - thus want to keep more money for themselves-> minimized wages of workers--> creating a cycle of greater inequality  - workers would eventually see they are being exploited (class consciousness) --> revolts/revolutions  - thought capitalism would ventually be repalced with socialism: most of means of production is govt owned in order to benefit all members of society equally  what is class consciousness?Part of conflict theory; karl marx coined  is a social condition when the used realize they are being exploited by the overpowering group what is false consciousness?part of conflcit theory/ karl marx coined when used group does not see they are being exploited, instead see themselves as individuals instead of as an exploited group.  What sociological theory was Max Weber tied to?Conflict theory he agreed with karl marx that inequalities in captialism would lead to conflict but did not believe it was money alone at the center. he believed marx didnt pay attention enough to power of values and beliefs to influence societies he believed in rationalization- societies trned towards increasing efficiency (to do the most in littlest time) and away from traditional religious standards of puritan work ethic standards.  rationalization also promotes the creation of highly impersonal bureaucracies- agencies of non-elected officals that administer the laws of society (ex. DMV, TRICARE) who are considered the founders of sociology?"emile durkheim' karl marx max weber" what is the symbolic interactionism theory?its a way of descirbing why/ how society exists: people make sense of the world by ascribing meaning to symbols and langauge of shared culture; these meanings are derived from social interactions and adapted through individual interpretation. is symbolic interactionism micro or macro theory?mirco who is connected to symbolic interactionism?George Mead Self develops in 3 stages: prep, play, game Me & I What are the three stages George Mead said the self develops? "Prep Stage (0-2): children learn langauge and symbols but only mimic those around them Play Stage (2-6): children learn to play roles of others in pretend games ex) ""playing doctor"" (social play- two adults meeting for coffee) Game Stage (7+): children begin to understand the ""generalized other"": the generalized attitude of a larger social group (social games: stricter rule set and offer greater stakes- kids monopoly or adults MCAT- rules clearly defined and spoils go to the winner) " "What is the ""Me"" and ""I"" George Mead created about social self in symbolic interactionism theory""Me= what society expects of me I= ones personal identity Individuals develop a social self (Me) and a response to that social self is I The ME develops through interactions with others ans consists of how the ""generalized other"" (outside world) views us The I arises in response to the me and it is ones personal identity and individuality " What is the looking glass self?the self is shaped by others and our interaction with others and perceptions of others we shape ourselves on these perceptions tending to conform to expectations Charles Cooley said ones concept of oneself is developed in 3 stages: 1. we imahine how we must appear to others 2. we imagine what others must thinkabout us 3. we develop feelings about ourselves based on our (true or false) imagines judgements of others . this causes us to behave in ways that confirm these imagined judgements What is social constructionsim theory?"A sociological theory- trying to explain society why/how ""Reality"" is not inherent, but socially constructed Social constructionists believe: - focus on the study of how individuals and groups participate in the construction of reality;  -no ""natural"" reason for constructs have to be the way ther are  -Socialization!: the ongoing process which individuals internalize the values, beliefs and norms of their society and learn to function as a member  - socialization helps to explain how social constructs are maintained and passed along for generations how are gender roles socialized? showing emotions;dress/hairstyles; sports; jobs/pay; toys; colors" what is a social construct?"anything that appears natural or obvious to the people that accept it but is largely the invention of society ex) ""childhood""; race; fashion; marriage; calendar" Is social constructionism macro or micro?Both can be either  What is Rational Choice Theory/ Social Exchange Theory?Rational Choice: people make choices based on cost and benefit  - goal maximize benefit reduce cost  Social Exchange: people respons to rewards and punishments for social behaviors  -goal max rewards minimize punishments  usually micro theories what is feminist theory?"A variety of perspectives in the treatment or women vs men in society 3 feminism waves/eras: 1. around 1900: first wave feminism focused on women's suffrage-right to vote, to own property, to have equal rights within marriage and work for wages 2. 1960s and 1970s: second wave feminism focused on social liberties: gender equality, equal pay, destigmatize sexual, reproductive rights 3. 1980s-now: third wave feminism focused on intersectionality: the study of how different social identities such as gender,race, class etc interact  this came from the first two waves mainly focusing on white, middle-class, heterosexual and american women" what is internal validity?extent to which the results are due to the experiment extent to which the outcome variable is due to the intervention Common threats to internal validity: - impression management - confounding variables - lack of reliability - sampling bias -attrition effects what is impression management? What validity does it threaten?people adapt their response based on researchers expectations or social norms; self-fufilling prophecy; hawthorne effect threatens internal validity what is confounding variables? what validity does it threaten?extraneous variables not accounted for  threatens internal validity what is lack of reliability? what vailidity does it threaten?measurement tools do not measure what they supposed to, lack consistency threatens internal validity what is sampling bais? what validity does it threaten?selection criteria is not random threatens internal validity what is attrition effects? What validity does it threaten?participent fatigue/ drop out threathens internal validity what is external validity? the extent to which the findings can be generalized to the real world threats to external validity: - experiment doesnt reflect real world - selection criteria (too restrictive; sample is not representative/ too much inclusion/exclusion) - situational effects (presence of lab conditions changes outcomes/ pre-test or post-test, presence of experiementer) - lack of statistical power(sample groups have high variablitity, sample size is too small) validity vs reliabilityrefers to an instrument (personality test) reliability is consitstency (do multiple administrations lead to similar scores?) validity is does it measure what it claims to ex) MCAT or BDI valid: yes better score will better in med school reliable: yes get around same scores  what are social institutions?standardized sets of social norms organized to preserve a societal value complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behavior of people.  5 social institutions: education family religion government health care systems  education is often refered to as the great equalizer.. what does that mean and is it true?helps people gain skills and advance SES As a social instituiton, education is a formal process where knowledge, skills and values are systematically transmitted from one individual or group to another kind of true but also promotes inequality (hidden cirriculum/ teacher expectancy)  ways that education promote equality: more education is associated with less inequality ways education promote inequality:Hidden curriculum: unintneded lessons about norms, values, and beliefs  Teacher Expexctancy: students tend to match teacher expectations (positive and negative) Educational segregation: the widening disparity between children from high income homes vs those from low income homes  and educational stratification:can reinforce social inequalities       what is nuclear family?directly blood related (core fam) vs extended which is gparents/aunt/uncles What is the iron law of oligarchy?states that all forms of organization develop oligarchic tendencies, especially in large groups ad complex organizations.  Some power will be concentrated, thus establishing a new ruling class.  according to Max Weber, what are the characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy:"1. hierarchial structure 2. division of labor 3. written rules and expectations  4. officials hired and promoted on technical competence 5. neutrailty/ impersonality <img src=""paste-b2280b1060601c6340fe8f3f567d045cbced8406.jpg"">" what is McDonaldizationrefers to the principles of the fast food industry dominating other sectors of society what is medicalization?process in which human conditions are defined and treated as medical conditions ex) alcoholism / ADHD/ PTSD/ anorexia/ sleep disorders  what drives the process of medicalization?-new info discovered  - changing social attitudes or economic considerations - development of new medications or treatments What is the sick role theory?a theory that people who are sick have certain rights and responsibiliites in society; if they are sick they cant fulfill the normal responsibilities and society allows for a certain amount of deviant behavior. right: sick person exempt from normal dutites right: sick person not responsible for her condition obligation: sick person should try to get well obligation: sick person should seek treatment  what is institutional discrimination?when a social structure engages in discriminatory practices against an individual or group healthcare delivery: availablility vs accessibilityAvailability: the presence of resources Accessability: the abililty to obtain exisiting resources what is the affordable care act (ACA)(Obamacare)?a 2010 law that significantly impacted the social insitution of healthcare. the objective of law: to increase health insurance rates through private insurance marketplace, Medicaid expansion, and subsidies for the purchase of health insurance. reduces the cost of health insurance for poor people what is social epidemiology?study of the social aspects of health and use social concepts to explain patterns of health in the population 1. what specific features of societal conditions affect health? 2. Through which pathways do societal conditions affect health? ex) low income people must often work multiple jobs no have time to workout thus contirbutes to higher rates of sickness what is social condition?social determinants of health such as availability of food supplies, drug use, access to quality education, unemployment, crime rates, and access to healthcare  favorable conditional factors improve the overall quality of life. social problems are social conditions with a negative impact.  social isolation is the complete lack of contact with others in society what is the socioeconomic gradient in health as SES increases so does overall health theory that there exisits a proportional increase in health and health outcomes as socioeconomic status increases - the gradient extends from the top to the bottom. its not simply a poverty threshold that separates those with awful vs good health - context and level matter: poor people living in poor neighborhoods are likely to have poorer health than equally poor people in more affluent neighborhoods what are the major demographic factors? (6)age  immigration status gender sexual orientation race and ethnicity what are the two major theories of demographic change?malthusian theory demographic transition model  what is the malthusian theory?demographic change model  thomas malthus hypothesized that unchecked population growth would quickly exceed carrying capacity  leading to overpopulation and catastrophes such as famine and war ( known as malthusian catastrophe)  what is the demographic transition model societies transition from high birth/high death to low birth/low death pre-industrial: high birth/ high death  rates industrial revolution: high birth rates but death rates fall; leading to population growth postindustrial: low birth rates low death rates; population stablizes how are sex and gender different?sex: biological gender: individually determined (self-identified)  what is the kinsey scale and what does it deal with?deals with sexual orientation  LOOK MORE UP ON THIS race vs ethnicityrace: assigned (white, hispanic, black) ethnicity: self-identified/ cultural (asian, african, pacific islander)  race: dividing people into groups on the basis of physical traits ; racial categories result form a shared genealogy due to geographical; distinguished by skin color, facial type etc. ethnicity: a group whose members identify with each other on basis of common nationality or shared cultural traditions)  what is residential segregationlines based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic class  what is environmental injustice?low SES and minority groups tend to live in areas where environmental hazards and toxins are disproportionally high what is a food desert?an area where healthy fresh food is difficult to obtain usually in lower income highly populated urban environments  prejudice vs discriminationprejudice= pre-judgement (a belief) discrimination= discriminACTION (baised treatment of person or group)  what is social segregation?tedency of people from the same social groups to interact with each other and have minimal contact with individuals from other social groups what is socioeconomic status (SES)?"the social standing or class of an individual or group. Often measured as a combination of education, income, and occupation.  SES can be defined by the 3 P's:  Power- the ability to enforce ones will on other people Property- possessions, incomes, and other wealth Prestige- ones reputation and standing in society <img src=""paste-9d5c674cfb5adabc3bfa838995add1f9d10f9f60.jpg"">" absolute poverty vs relative povertyabsolute poverty: an inability to secure the basic necessities of life  relative poverty: inability to meet the average standard of living defined by a given society what is social stratification?the way people are categorized in society  people can be categorized by race, education, wealth and income etc social stratification is a system that not only serves to define differences (or inequalities) but also serves to reinforce and perpetuate them types of stratification systems: caste system / class system/ meritocracy"caste system: closed stratfication wherer people can do noting to chnage the category they are born into class system: considers both social variables and individual intiative; class system groups together people of simsla wealth, income, education etc BUT the classes are open meaning people can move to a higher one or fall to a lower one.  Meritocracy: a stratification system that uses merit (or personal effort) to estblish social standing: this is an idealized system  <img src=""paste-a6df8521a6f413ed8d490ed657c292f64539a178.jpg"">" what is social reproduction? occurs when social inequality is transmitted from one generation to the next  what is structural mobility?mobility brought about by a change in stratification hierarchy what is social mobility?the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system what is physical captialmoney, property, land, other physcial assests what is social captial whom you know, social networks what is statusa socially defined postion in society  3 types of status: master status ascribed status achieved status what is master status"the role or position that dominates; this tends to determine your general ""place"" in society ex) parent me: college student " ascribed status one assigned to you by society regardless of your effort ex) sex, race, eye color, ethinicity what is achieved statusone that is earned  ex) doctor, olympic athlete, criminal, professor what is a role socially defined expectations based on position in society  what is role conflict occurs when there is conflict among the expectations for multiple social posititons ex) being a physican, parent, and spouse can create role conflict  different positions collide what is role strainoccurs when there is tension in the expectations of a single social position ex) torn as a student between studying for the MCAT and having fun in college create role strain  ex) a teacher who struggles with the need to discipline students while also empathzing what is a group VS aggregate VS categorygroup: a number of people who identify and interact  aggregate: people who exists in the same place but do not identify or interact  category: shares cetain characteristics but does not regularly interact  primary group vs secondary group"<img src=""paste-3b9fe7872c4b009520dbd5736e148cb50a7a7e98.jpg"">" what is an in groupany group a person belongs to and identifies with ex) MCAT takers are my in group  ex) other people on gap year what is an out groupany group a person does not belong to or identify with ex) waiters/ people who play volleyball/ vegans/ truck drivers what is a reference groupany group that one identifies with and compares themselves to; they may or may not be actually a member of this group ex) doctors   what is a social networka web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others what is cultural transmissionthe methods a group of people within a society or culture use to learn and pass on new information key part of culture: it is not passed biologically from parents but rather learned through experience and participation  cultural transmission: within a culture cultural diffusion: between groups (the spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from 1 group to another what is cultural diffusion the spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from one group to another ex) tradition of german pickle becoming popular in the US  ex) dylan appreciating anime from japan what is cultural assimilation"the process by which a person or group's culture comes to resemble those of another group ex) X+Y = X ex) american moves to india and stops wearing booty shorts and dresses more moderately " what is multiculturalism the preservation of various cultures or cultural identities within a single unified society  ex) X+Y= X+Y ex) classroom full of students from different countries speaking different languages what is enthocentrismthe belief in the inherent superiority of ones own ehnic group or culture X>Y germans > jews in holocaust what is cultural relativismthe priniciple that an individuals humans beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individuals own culture what is culture?everything that is made, learned, and or shared by the members of a society, including: beliefs, behaviors, values, and material objects material culture & nonmaterial culture what is material cultureconsists of concrete visible parts of a culture such as food, clothing, cars, weapons, buildings what is nonmaterial culturesymbolic culture consists of nontangible aspects such as values and beliefs; these are concepts and ideas shape who we are and make us different form members of other societies what is cultural lagexplains the fact that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations; social problems and conflicts are caused bu this lag ex) stem cell research what is cultural shock the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration, visit to a new country or a move between social envrionments what is impression managementthe process whereby we attempt to manage our own image by influencing the perceptions of others  what is the dramaturgical perspective "stems from symbolic interactionism we imagien ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others front stage self: we craft the way we come across to others       ex) giving a speech we look professional, calm, mature<div> back stage self: we can ""let our guard down"" and act like ourselves       ex) actually very nervous, lost, anxious, stressed</div>" what is self-concept/ self-identity/ self-perspectiveincludes all of you: both how you view yourself (personal identity) and how you are to world (social identity) self-concept= personal identity + social identity personal identity (personal adjectives: smart, funny, hardworking) social identity: group memberships + census cateogories (age, religion, SES, disabilities)  what are self-schemas"beliefs you have about yourself; impressions you have about yourself and how they influence your behavior they guide and organize the processing of information that is relevant to you  ex) exciting or dull; quiet or loud; smart ot dumb; pretty or ugly can include past selves(i came from califorina), present selves (i am in class now), future selves (i will be a good doctor)  <img src=""paste-82db93680911f9e18b7a2e33fb332302f33cdb06.jpg"">" what is self-efficacyhow good you think you are at doing something/ competence ability to do something high self efficacy: you believe you are good at doing something (ex: reading ACOTAR books) low self efficacy: you believe you are bad at it  (ex: drawing)  what is locus of control; internal vs externalwhether you think you have control over what happens to you internal locus of control: you believe you have control over events external locus of control: you do not believe you have control ex) luck, fate, God, chance What were the Martin Seligman experiments?"dogs/ shocking/ learned helplessness his hypothesis: dogs wont try to escape because they expect nothing they do will stop the shock <img src=""paste-da7daa2b065df651421497eb55884355a860635d.jpg"">" what is adversive control?occurs when behavior is motivated by the relaity or threat something unpleasant happening 2 types of averisve control: 1. escape behavior 2. avoidance behavior what is escape behavior?aversive control where termination of an unpredicted, unpleasant stimulus that has already occured ex) escaping burning building, take hand off of burning stove what is avoidance behavioravoidance of a predictable, unpleasant stimulus before its happened ex) avoiding an annoying person at party; wife leaving when drunk husband comes home what is social learning theory?learning can occur simply by observing  closely related to social cognititve theory, the belief that learning takes place in social contexts and can occur purely through observation, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement  this is known as social learning, vicarious learning, or observational learning what is social comparison theorywe all have an innate drive to compare ourselves to others we all have a drive to gain accurate self-evaluations by comparing ourselves to others. our identity will be shaped by these comparisons and they types of reference groups we have   social learning theory vs social comparision theorysocial learning: we adjust behaviors and actions based on observation social comparision: we adjust internal cognition/perceptions by comparing ourselves to others  what is role taking?"the ability to understand the cognitive and affective aspects of another person's point of view  also known as social pperspective taking" what is moral identity?the degree to which being moral is important to someone degree to which being moral is important to ones identity Lawrence Kohlberg!! believed moral identity develops in stages Stages of Moral Development- Kohlberg"Pre-conventional: (7-10)       - punishment and obedience: rules are obeyed to avoid punishment       - self-interest: rules are obeyed for personal gain (you dont tell on me and i wont tell on you)  Conventional: (10-16)       - conformity and interpersonal accord: rules are obeyed for approval (from parents and teachers)        - authority and social order: rules are obeyed to maintain social order Post-conventional: (16+)       - social contract: impartial rules are obeyed; rules that infringe on the rights of others are challenged       - universal principles: individual establishes own set of rules in accordance with personal ethical principles (life, pursuit of happiness; always believes their above the law)  <img src=""paste-9b9d1f9b6e10ef1c3bb88055b867ab3cd651c08c.jpg""> " what is the social facilitation effect?tendency of performance to improve for a simple task when being observed tendency to get worse in front of people if just learned task ex) do better cleaning OR when new hires there ex) do worse Top Golf with people there  what is deindividuationlose our normal individual identity in large arousing situations  in situations where there is a high degree of arousal and lwo dregree of personal responsibilty, we may lose our sense of restraint and our individual identity thus aligning our behaviors with the group ex) riot, mob mentality, fight what is the bystander effectpeople are less likely to help a victim when other people are present diffusion of responsibilities: occurs when responsibility to intervene in a crisis is inversly related to the number of people present  ex) Kitty Genovese- attacked and stabbed to death though many people heard her screams and did nothing what is social loafingwhen people work in a group, each person is likely to exert less individual effort than if they were working independently ex) one person does all the work on a group project  what is peer pressuresituations where individuals feel pressured to change their behavior to match that of their peers positive ex of peer pressure= study groups do individuals or groups tend to make better decisions?  what is groupthink?when desire to achieve harmony and reach a consensus causes groups to not crtically think of other viewpoints/ solutions and leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making groupthink tends to happen when: - the group is overly optimistic and strongly believes in its stance - mindgaurding occurs: opposing opinions, information, and facts are prevented from coming up  - individuals feel pressured to censor their own opinions to reach group harmony what is group polarizationwhen group agreement causes preexisting views of the group members to intensify- the average view of a member is heightened or moves towards one pole can be dislike it---> really dislike it can be like it---> really like it conformity vs obedience?conformity: when individuals adjust their behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others (NEVER involves authority figure/ set of instructions)  obedience: individuals yeild to explicit instructions from an authority figure (ALWAYS INVOLVES authority figure) what is attribution theory?attempts to explain how individuals view behavior, both out own and behaviors of others given a situation, people attribute behavior to internal causes (dispositional attribution) or external causes (situational attribution) what is dispositional attributionattribute behavior to internal causes  ex) that who they are what is situational attributionattribute behaviors to external causes  ex) external causes what is the fundamental attribution error?we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate impact of a persons character or personality ex) someone cuts you off while driving: wow that persons just a jerk instead of thinking they might be having a baby/ famliy emergency what is actor-observer biastendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame actions of others on their personalities  ex) If i cut someone off, its becuase i had a good reason to but if they did its because they are a jerk ex) when someone else litters- they are so inconsiderate when you litter- well there wasnt a trashcan what is self serving bias?we attribute our successes to ourselves but out failures to others  ex) get an A on test- cause i studied hard get a C on testt- cause the test was unfairly hard what is optimism bias"belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us ex) you need to sign up for health insurance but you think ""i have little risk of catastrophic illness or injury""" what is just world belief/phenomenonbad things happen to others because they deserve it/ took actions to get themselves there tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve karma ultimate attribution error "NOT fundamental attribution error this is tendency to only think of their in-group in positive terms and out-group in negative terms; usually in racists, prejudice people,bigots - a in group member does a good behavior= internal attribute ""that member did that good thing because they are good"" - a in group member does a bad thing= external attribut ""well theyre not bad, it was just circumstance"" - a good behavior from OUTGROUP member= external attribute ""well that outgroup member isnt really a good person its just circumstance"" - bad behavior from OUTGROUP member= internal attribution ""yep that persons a bad person cause they did a bad thing"" <img src=""paste-538f19975c61f8772fb01c560094e6c47ee13104.jpg"">" what is the self-fulfilling prophecysomeone starts with a false definition of the situation and evokes a new behaviro or thought process that makes the original thought/ conception come true ex) teacher expects student to do bad= student does bad  ex) math test experiment= men do better than women= men did better but in control they both did equally good what is stereotype threatrefers to a self-fuflilling fear that one will be evauated based on a negative stereotype ex) in the group where women were told they would do worse---> that is sterotpe threat = they were in a situatin where they were at risk of confirming a negative stereotype  stereotype threat is a specific type of self-fulfilling prophecy what is a stereotype boostwhen people are exposed to a positive stereotype and they preform BETTER than otherwise would ex) asians are better at math  what are they 3 key elements to persuasion:1. Message characteristics: features of message itself (logic itself, length of argument, grammar) 2. Sourse characteristics: person or thing delievring the message (is the person an expert/ are they attriactive/ is the venue air conditioned/ any distractions?) 3. Target characteristics: characteristics of the people reading or listening to message ( do they care/ do they understand the message) what is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion"the one model of persuasion for the mcat proposes two cognitive routes of persuasion 1. central route: people are perusaded by the content of argument itself 2. peripheral route: people focus on superficial or secondary parts of speech or orator like the attractiveness, length of speech, if the person is an expert in their field bases of model says the type of audience DETERMINES which route will be effective: - if audience actually cares and understand the message: central route will persuade them effecitvley= this produces LASTING CHANGE and RESISTS fading against COUNTERARGUMENTS - if audience does not understand the message/ does not care about it: peripheral route will be effective in persuading them--> leads to TEMPORARY change but not permint and FADES due to counter agurments  <img src=""paste-1dec0d32972c6883a34fa4961808c97b4671e9cf.jpg"">" foot in door technique leading with a small request then asking for a larger one next ex) asking for 1 pimple but they asking for 3 more door in face technique"first asking for an outragous thing then asking for a small thing they'll probs say yes to ex) can you give me 100 for food... okay fine then 20?" what is the low-ball techniquegetting someone to agree with something then changing the terms up= more likely to still say yes ex) can you drive me home? oh and pick up food on the way  ex) you want this game for $200? yes... 15 min later.... with taxes its $300.. okay fine what is the ingratiation techniqueinvolves gaining compliance by gaining personal approval from an individual first ex) use flattery ex) get a guy to buy you a drink at the bar what is the norm of reciprocitywe are more likely to comply with a request from someone who has done us a favor in the past  "What were Asch's experiments about?""conformity.  <img src=""paste-f3d0f0c7561d8da12e934662bee366e5a53674a1.jpg"">" what were stanley milgrams experiments about?"obedience  shocking experiments  <img src=""paste-7f1a10e3cafe1d5e6dd680779ea0def1df4fa271.jpg"">" what were the harlow experiments?"comfort> food monkeys: attached more to cloth ""mom"" than wired food ""mom"" showed touch and comfort just as big of a motivatior (if not more) than food <img src=""paste-78dc5f548ba8edecf2698b302eb25e5fde9425a7.jpg"">" what is mary ainsworth experiements?"strange situation experiments / attachment styles  children would display either: - securely attached (happy when mom was in room/ cried when she left/ stopped crying when she came back) -insecurley attached:       -ambivalent attachment (mixed emotions. cried when leaves/ AND crying when she gets back; mix of hug, hit, cry, happy) (ambivalent means mixed)       -avoidant attachment (indifferent to mom leaving and returning; doesnt seem to care left or present; behavioral signs indicate indifference but physiological signs show stress- blood pressure, cortisol levels)       -disorganized attachment (child acts erratically; indicated abuse; toddler cant predict moms behavior= abuse)  <img src=""paste-c0ee3815cd134dce39e7cbc987d4acbca2666cfb.jpg""> <img src=""paste-990ad187641252d7554a6c0912c2e52252352ed8.jpg"">" what is ambivalent attatchment style"type of insecure attachement mixed of emtions  cries when mom leaves/ cried when returns/ mix of hug, hit, cry, happy <img src=""paste-990ad187641252d7554a6c0912c2e52252352ed8.jpg"">" what is avoidant attachement style"type of insecure attachment indifference to mom leaving or returning doesnt care she left or return <img src=""paste-990ad187641252d7554a6c0912c2e52252352ed8.jpg"">" what is disorganized attachment"type of insecure attachment child acts erratically (unpredictable) due to abuse <img src=""paste-990ad187641252d7554a6c0912c2e52252352ed8.jpg"">" what is the halo effect?"a tendancy to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics our overall impression of a person is influenced by how we feel or think bout his or her character ex) you think your neighbor is ""a nice guy"" thus you make other assumptions about him (""he must be a good dad"")" physical attractiveness stereotypea type of halo effect that when a person is attractive you more likely to assume they are also smart, funny, good people etc what are social norms"explicit and implicit rules specifying acceptable behaviors within a society <img src=""paste-be7fcbb509a90c458a19201ada5ea5393ab0fac7.jpg"">" folkways vs mores vs taboosfolkways: standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant       ex) waving & smiling, appropriate dress, thank you mores: more strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior      ex) faithful in marriage, dont abduct kids taboos: behavior that is strongly prohibited becuase the behavior is considered morally or ehthically horrible      ex) cannibalism, addiction what is deviance"a violation of society's standards of expectations; deviant behavior often violates social norms, both formal and informal " what is social sanctionsanction: a threatened penalty for breaking a law or rule 1. Legal Sanction: formal deviance, or violation of legal codes results in criminal action           ex) stealing, murder---> formal dev---> legal sanciton (jail) 2. Stigmatization: informal deviance or violation of the unwritten social rules or behavior results in social sanction or social stigma          ex) goth, emo---> not breaking law but outcast/stigma 3.Preference for one behavior over another: lesser degrees of social violation result in preference rather than stigmatization what is hostile aggression-accompanied by strong emotions (anger) - behavior is impulsive, unplanned, uncontrollable - goal: harming the other person what is instrumental aggression- behavior is goal-oriented, planned, controlled - goal: harming the person to obtain something else what are the 3 things that foster attraction to humans?-proximity -attractivness - similarity what is the mere exposure effecta psychological phenomenon where we tend to develop a preference for things were familiar with ex) hear a song on radio at first= hate it= but after hearing it a lot you like it what is the five factor model of personality?"OCEAN personality traits theory Openness to experience  Conscientiousness (wishing to do ones work throughougly) Extraversion Agreeableness (kind, easy going, conseiderate) Neuroticism (negative, anxiety, impulsive) <img src=""paste-874db36b3112c6c3596041b4c96790deff6e01d1.jpg"">" what is personality?overall endurance of our pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person  what is the life course perspective"1/7 personality perspectives  a multidisciplinary approach developed to understand individual lives from a cultural, social, and structural perspective  all of these impact ones personality <img src=""paste-9e284f671eef36892113d184cf6d246e8421ae10.jpg"">" what is the psychoanalytic perspective?2/7 personality perspective  asserts that personality is shaped largely by the unconscious. mental illness is result of unconscious conflicts stems from childhood iceberg model id, ego, superego frued psychosexual stages  erik erikson psychsocial stages of development what did sigmund freud say in regards to psychoanalytic perspective?"unconscious drives shapes personality Sigmund Freud suggests human behavior is motivated by: <ul><li>the libido (or life drive) (drives behavior focused on pleasure, survival, and avoidance of pain) (sexual view of behavior)</li><li>the death drive (drives dangerous behavior and underlies the desire to hurt oneself or others) (PTSD today)</li></ul>Iceberg Model: <img src=""paste-8375620424412caa78af7b7fffac8b2eab0f4664.jpg""> " what are the 3 components freud divided the human psyche into?id- inner child (seek pleasure now; avoid pain now) ego- compromise (try to find practicle ways to do what id wants/pleasures) superego- internalized parent (make right/wrong judgements/ morals) ex) id: lets party!!      supergo: study for the MCAT       ego: study for a few hours then go out what are frueds psychosexual stages of development"5 stages  2 outcomes for each stage: good or bad (creates fixation) Old Aged People Love Grandchildren  <img src=""paste-9a743783116d0f3c95013a580b8f8c018e860b9e.jpg"">" what did erik erikson work on/ related to?"psychanalytic thinker expanded Freuds ideas about stages of development expanded past just sexual things to include social and interpersonal factors   - added additional stages to go into adulthood <img src=""paste-84deb860cc7cb19dfb6a07b9b58e85c7e0fdae68.jpg"">" compare frued and eriksons stages "<img src=""paste-d32d4ce3256b98f0d5d4b5baf659d2bb2b287af3.jpg"">" what is the humanistic perspective to describe personality"asserts that humans are driven by a tendency to realize their highest potential and personality conflicts arise when this is somehow thwarted carl rogers: ""other theories dont think of people as people"" <ul><li>main goal of development is the establishment of a differentiated self-concept </li><li>self-actualization is accomplished when parents exhibit unconditional positive regard</li><li>those raised with conditional postitive regard will only feel worthy when they've met certain conditions</li></ul> " what is the behaviorist perspective of personality?"personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on our environment B.F. Skinner  - founder of behaviorist perspective  - personality is soley a result of interaction between the individual and the environment - only observable/measureable behaviors are of interest - people begin as blank slates then reinforcement and punishment completely determine following behavior/personality -thought frueds theories were untestable  -he focused on measureable traits - operant conditioning (rewards and punishments) <img src=""paste-7389d4e89e9378c5bfef07784498e17ee040b494.jpg""> " what is the social cognitive perspective"personality is a result of reciprocal interactions between behavioral, cognitive, AND environmental factors does not reject behavioral perspective. yes environment and conditioning has effect but said internal cognitive perceptions are the most important factor driving personality Albert Bandura  -observational learning theory/ vicrious learning theory - self efficay- personal belief how effective you are at certian tasks - bobo doll experiment  <img src=""paste-369d1c4d7462fc6671b183508ea59d8839db36d5.jpg"">" what is albert bandura known for?"social cognitive theory observational learning bobo doll experiment <img src=""paste-fc9c62a63bc9089e9c41399bc0d3be66e04d5411.jpg""> <img src=""paste-d309275f815a456bb951b3f519df95f6c62043d6.jpg"">" what is trait perspective of personality"personality is a result of traits, which are habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that are relatively stable over time Hans Eysenck premise: stop trying to answer ""why"" (nobody really knows) and lets properly describe ""what"" <ul><li>certain people just innately have certain traits </li><li>doesnt explan why</li><li>how OCEAN came about</li></ul> lumped traits into 3 types of traits: 1. cardinal traits 2. central traits 3. secondary traits  <img src=""paste-cb2d83b5f70c4e040554296d229cd2169f077419.jpg""> " what are the 3 types of traits coined by the trait theorycardinal traits: rare, develop later in life, often the point a person becomes known specifically for these traits     (ex. MLK- brave, leader, altruistic) central traits: heneral characteristics that form basic foundation of personality and describe people across different situations     (ex. kindness,honesty, friendliness) secondary traits: sometimes related to attitudes or preferences these characteristics are based on situation     (ex. shyness, irritability, anxiety) what is the biological perspective of personality"personality is the result of individual differences in brain biology ex) amygdala size correlates to level of neuroticism ex) pre-frontal cortex damage seems to cause lack of morality neurobiology= behavior <img src=""paste-65e5114b6c65bd10157ef7c0d82460e3f886d370.jpg"">" what is behavioral geneticsa field in which variation amoung individuals is separated into genetic vs envrionmental components  <ul><li>nature vs nurture</li><li>shared environment</li><li>nonshared (or unique) envrionment</li></ul>heritability methodologies: - familty studies - twin studies - adoption studies what is nature vs nurturecentral question of behavioral genetics (personality approach)  how much of a variation can be explained by differences in biology (nature) vs differnces in environment (nurture)? what is shared environment? what is nonshared (or unique) environment?SES, location, parents etc = the environment shared by siblings reared in the same family part of behavioral genetics (personality lecture)  nonshared: the enviro unique to the individual (kids friends, different teachers etc) what is heritabilitya metric used to determine how much a variation is caused by genetic differences what does the behvaioral genetics personality approach focus on?on separating genetics from the environment what are the 3 methodologies used in behavioral genetics? (3 methods used to determine heritability)"<ol><li>family studies: </li><li>twin studies</li><li>adoption studies</li></ol><img src=""paste-801ee79748cc503142f03de4c44b6e1419715e24.jpg""> " what is motivationthe driving force that causes us to act or behave in certain ways driving forces: - instinct - drive - need - arousal what is an instinctunlearned behaviors in fixed patterns thoroughout a species ex) affection for caretakers ex) desire to deal with crying baby what is a driveurges originating from physiological discomfort such as hunger pangs or dry throat (drink) what are needsbiological needs and higher needs, such as need to belong or need for love what is arousalrestlessness, boredom or curiosity may motivate behavior even when other needs are met what is the drive reduction theory"a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives an organism to address that need by engaging in some behavior that will reduce the arousal negative feedback loop <img src=""Screen Shot 2021-11-01 at 5.40.57 PM.png"">" what is abraham maslow"sought to explain human behavior as motivated by a hierarchy of needs each level needs to be met to move on to the next  <img src=""paste-f93ba098984916743b804fff4bce53fc4f4eef5b.jpg"">" what are the 3 components of emotion- physiological: youre scared (increased heart rate, sweating, inc breathing, shaking) - cognitive: @ funeral= cry because sad;   @ wedding cry bc happy - behavioral: ur happy= you smile and laugh                      ur afraid= you run away, strike back what are the three theories of emotion"James-Lange: stimulus- body response- emotion         (body arousal causes emotion) Cannon-Bard: stimulus- body response & emotion same time         (emotion and body arousal happen simultaneously) Schachter-Singer: stimulus- body response- cognitive interpretation- emotion    (emotion is determined by arousal AND CONTEXT) <img src=""paste-8f584863b2f34a4be4b7ab22b754000393f1388f.jpg"">" what is the yerkes-dodson law"relationship between arousal and performance  there is an optimal level of emotion arousal for performance  <img src=""paste-99d101a8214066c72031fac0705bc8bc5fbd95f4.jpg"">" what are the 6 universal emotions<ul><li>happy</li><li>sad</li><li>surprised</li><li>scared</li><li>disgust</li><li>anger</li></ul> what are stressors? what are the 4 types of stressors?stressors: events that pose a threat to our physical or mental well-being <ol><li>daily hassles (traffic, annoying people)</li><li>significant life changes (marriage, birth, death, divorce)</li><li>catastrophes (war, natural disasters)</li><li>ambient stressors (part of background environment: pollution, noise, overcrowding) (they are part of our environment; might operate outside awareness but put stress on our system)</li></ol> what is cognitive stress appraisal?"it is a self-care strategy based on a persons evaluation of how they preceive stressors. primary response: initial evaluation, focuses directly on present threat- is it: irrelevant/ postiive or negative/ dangerous or threatening? secondary response: evaluation of our ability to cope  with this stressor- damage caused and how to deal with situation <img src=""paste-405e2931d64b8bb578eb6e62ef68b45c84eb09f4.jpg"">" what is social support? what are the 2 models of social support?"social support: the perception that one is a member of a supportive social network. support can be emotional, tangible, informational, companionable two models of social support: the buffering hypothesis: social support serves as a buffer between a person and a stressful event  (feels things will be okay because you have friends/family) the direct effects hypothesis: social support provides better health and wellness benefits; they're healthier to begin with (healthier people are better able to manage stress) <img src=""paste-c4c33970807f867ccacebee976b5cf04fddcc4c3.jpg"">" "What is Selye's theory?""general adaptation syndrome <img src=""paste-52c952ce1a0bf4b0f01664b2f5260b3b14d31ac4.jpg"">" what is general adaptation syndrome"describes what happens when we encounter a stressor: <ol><li>Alarm: immediate (3-4 sec) fight or flight; initially shocked</li><li>Resistance: body resists the stress and we work to improve it</li><li>Exhaustion: chronic stress (studying for MCAT; months at a stressful job); body's ability to resist stress falls and we get very stress/ very affected by the stress</li></ol><img src=""paste-52c952ce1a0bf4b0f01664b2f5260b3b14d31ac4.jpg""> " what are the 3 components of attitude?attitude: our evaluation of other people/situations/ events postiive or negative components: 1. affect: our feelings about the event/person/ thing 2. behavior: our internal and external responses to the thing 3. cognition: out thoughts and beliefs about the thing attitudes influence our behavior, but out behaviors also influence our attitudes review the theories of personality in a nutshell"<img src=""paste-d21f28ee6bcf9dd568a66731bd0bc67ceea1f19d.jpg"">" review the therapeutic approaches chart"<img src=""paste-0efbbc158faeb227a62b7b978e2bc3787bda2444.jpg"">" functional techniques vs structural techniques in imaging"functional techniques ""functioning"":  <ul><li>PET: diffusion using radioactive glucose</li><li>fMRI: functional MRI</li><li>EEG: electrical activity</li></ul>Structural techniques ""snapshots"": <ul><li>MRI</li><li>CT Scan</li></ul> <img src=""paste-735d32402505ce5e6002bc10f32c26fe644c9de3.jpg""> " what are the 2 types of changes in synaptic connections in the brain"<ol><li>Neural Plasticity</li><li>Long-term Potentiation (LTP)</li></ol><img src=""paste-34fde4f7b98d192472f72cd6beaa4de5c18cd96e.jpg""> " what is neural plasticity?changes in the brain due to learning, thinking, behavior, emotions etc changes can occur from the cellular level to the anatomical level ex) stroke- lost ability to read- gained it back over time because other parts of the brain learned to read! what is long-term potentiation"connections between neurons strengthen (what ""fires together, wires together"")  *physical mechanisms for LTP still not fully understood, but LTP is thought to underlie learning and memory. *what area of brain is central to memory and learning? hypocampus" biomedical approach vs biopsychosocial approach to mental disorders"biomedical- the og approach- all illnesses can be explained by biological processes biopsychosocial: mix of factors cause mental illness not just genetics/brain biology <img src=""paste-3a26ef9759cccac131f3b1443d3e053986bbedce.jpg"">" difference between level 1 and level 2 disorders"level 1 disorders: AAMC mentions overall broad category but not so much specific ones; so focus on category level 2 disorders: specific disorders- need to be able to diagnose <img src=""paste-ca3804f966c738b694c759e6d337828db7c5ade8.jpg""> <img src=""paste-a579a9908dc8d90f248d6f2767ae0a4ae488edb0.jpg"">" anxiety disorders (cat 1)"- fear of future, not something currently present  - excessive fear  - avoidance behaviors specifc anxiety disorders:  <ul><li>phobias</li><li>generalized anxiety disorder</li><li>social anxiety</li><li>panic disorder</li></ul><img src=""paste-20a9b4f449f57e7ee7f15277f6d0f21ebead8eb9.jpg""> <img src=""paste-8b964723e94b9e1c5707d866d220ee6813fa9e93.jpg""> " name the 4 specific anxiety disorders"<ol><li>phobias: a very specific fear (spiders, clowns, open spaces)</li><li>generalized anxiety disorder: excessive anxiety without a specific cause</li><li>social anxiety disorder: fear/anxiety around social situations</li><li>panic disorder- includes panic attacks</li></ol><div><img src=""paste-51135833f5b90128a6dfa70463677eca4b86469e.jpg""> </div>" depressive disorders (cat 1)"- sad empty and irritable mood - not realted to normal grief  specific diagnosis to know: Major Depressive Disorder (Need >5 of below) <ul><li>depressed or irritable mood</li><li>fatigue</li><li>feelings of worthlessness or guilt</li><li>impaired concentration, indecisiveness</li><li>insomnia or hypersomnia</li><li>loss of interest in hobbies</li><li>suicide thoughts</li><li>weight loss</li></ul><img src=""paste-b6cddfd9c88eef7067b9379afcfd4cc37c266786.jpg""> " what is the monoamine hypothesis"leading theory about the connection between biology and depression predicts that the underlying pathophysiologic basis of depression is a depletion in the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/ or dopamine in the CNS depletion of 1 or more neurotransmitters causes depression <img src=""paste-1cad74721e6c36a172264cb14d540c2f722da4d8.jpg""> " bipolar disorder (cat 1)"there is a manic phase and a depressed phase <img src=""paste-b4d3dbde810abc0fa123d9ad91ba0a85c3f53385.jpg""> 2 types of bipolar: BP1: swings w/ extreme manic   - hallucinations ONLY during manic episodes (not cont 24/7)   - manic followed by swing of depression BP2: mostly swings into depression    - followed by something approaching mania BUT not outright mania Cyclothymia: avg between 2 (both BP1 & BP2 osciallations between mania/ depression BUT its the severity and direction that determines diagnosis)   " Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders (cat 1)"- delusions, hallucinations - disorganized speech and thoughts - may involve negative symptoms (lack of) - involve a general detachment from reality specific diagnosis: Schizophrenia <ul><li>postive sympoms: hallucanations, delusions, bad speech</li><li>negative symptoms: avolition (loss of motivation to do things) reduced speech</li><li>cognitive symptoms: poor exectuive functioning, trouble focusing, problems working memory, emotional distress</li></ul>3 causes: genetic, environmental, brain biology <img src=""paste-9b21f4f41d060f2a2d6df8f046c0f6ac9541b5bd.jpg""> " hallucination vs delusionhallucinations: someone experiencing a stimulus  delusion: cognitive belief not stimulus trauma & stress related disorders"- always follow a traumatic event  - wide range of symptoms specific diagnosis that develop: - PTSD: see word web below -actue stress disorder (ptsd but only for a few days) - adjustment disorder (milder case of ptsd) <img src=""paste-9574ded57f230c98f44f370a97b685ab20580832.jpg"">" personality disorders (cat 1)"<ul><li>enduring lifetime patterns of inflexible behaviors across a range of settings and relationships (meaning behaviors that are @ odds with social norms and constant in all aspects of their life) </li><li>diagnosis in early adulthood (kids CANNOT be diagnosed with it cause their personality is still developing)</li></ul> specific diagnosis: (3 W's) <ul><li>cluster A: weird</li><li>cluster B: wild</li><li>cluster C: worried </li><li>see below</li></ul> <img src=""paste-633db6ec96332a047d0e7b354319cba341aeba8b.jpg""> " what are the 3 personality disorder clusters"<img src=""paste-96d0f4df8894aa4043ddf428b492e6b4371afb87.jpg"">" obsessive compulsive disorders (cat 1)<ul><li>obsessions (thoughts or urges) and or compulsions (repetitive behaviors)</li><li>ex) obsession: thinking about germs constantly</li><li>THUS compulsion: washing hands frequently</li></ul>there is a obsession that manifests as a compulsion specific diagnosis: OCD somatic symptom disorders"""soma"" = body  <ul><li>excessive and/or medically unexplainable symptoms</li><li>a mental cause leads to body symptoms</li></ul>specific diagnosis - Somatic Symptom Disorder: the mind feels pain and magnifies it (extreme focus on body system and someones pain is not normal) - Illness Anxiety Disorder: someone worries too much about getting sick that it causes them to get sick <img src=""paste-b7d0cfaed10c21c3897003e6a9a652e1f49864dc.jpg""> " Dissociative Disorders"<ul><li>disruptions in core identity</li><li>abnormal integration of consciouness, identity, emotion </li><li>becomes dissociative (diconnected) usually after a truama</li></ul>specific diagnosis: Dissociative Identity Disorder: has amnesia ALSO manifests a seperate identity during amnesia Dissociative Amnesia: BIG gaps in memory (weeks) Depersonalization (events happening right now not happening to me, its happening to someone else) & Derealization <img src=""paste-666f65634b81562314d691ac3096fabe0f071b25.jpg""> <img src=""paste-c50ef5f4cc14dfd561e07fb9b53b570547d252a9.jpg""> " personality disorder vs dissociative disorderdissociative differs from personality disorder b/c  w/ personality disorder someone has 1 stable personality that causes probems/ problems around them level 1 mental disorders summary"<img src=""paste-4c556274583aa5fb8fa9748a661b0629ae601971.jpg"">" neurodevelopment disorders: autism & ADHD"ADHD: - unknown causes - motor restlessness, bad attention, impulsivity Autism Spectrum Disorder - range of complex neurodevelopmental disorders chacterized by social impairments, communication difficulties, and repetitve/restricted/ stereotyped patterns of behavior - diagnosed IN childhood - impaired social interaction - may lack empathy - inability to play with other kids - difficulty interpreting what others are thinking or feeling <img src=""paste-a60a53704e20ade37f46da7adbeb9b63e1e86ff2.jpg""> <img src=""paste-dfd6c8dd00bc994941ea1489d612bab5c9ced27a.jpg"">" "Neurocognitive disorders: Alzheimer's & Parkinson's""Neurocognitive disorders: cognitive decline Alzheimer's Disease: - 2 abnormal structures in the brain associated:      - Amyloid plaques: clumps of protein fragments that accumulate outside of cells       - Neurofibrillary tangles: clumps of altered proteins inside cells its the destruction of nerve cells that causes memory failure, personality changes, problems of Alz Parkinsons Disease: - caused primarily by low dopamine levels  - dopamine involved with areas of brain of coordnation and movement - unlike alz, parkinsons is restricted to a veryspecific part of the brain called the Substantia nigra (in midbrain) = the neurons here make dopamine - unlike alz, is more related to motor control - abnormal aggregates of protien called Lewy Bodies develop inside neurons <img src=""paste-8815d308eeb6540ea79cc1ee0cb456b1a07b21c3.jpg""> <img src=""paste-63af89a77dcaa97f944e79fbaa28461035b21111.jpg"">" what are symptoms of Alzheimers disease"Alzheimer's Disease: - 2 abnormal structures in the brain associated:      - Amyloid plaques: clumps of protein fragments that accumulate outside of cells       - Neurofibrillary tangles: clumps of altered proteins inside cells its the destruction of nerve cells that causes memory failure, personality changes, problems of Alz" what are the symptoms of Parkinsons DiseaseParkinsons Disease: - caused primarily by low dopamine levels  - dopamine involved with areas of brain of coordnation and movement - unlike alz, parkinsons is restricted to a veryspecific part of the brain called the Substantia nigra (in midbrain) = the neurons here make dopamine - unlike alz, is more related to motor control - abnormal aggregates of protien called Lewy Bodies develop inside neurons Sleep-Wake Disorders "<ol><li>insomina: inability to fall/remain alseep</li><li>narcolepsy: sudden sleepiness while awake</li><li>sleep apnea: breathing issues while sleeping that result in repeated awakenings</li></ol>Dyssomnias: bad sleep/ not enough sleep <ol><li>somnambulism: sleep walking</li><li>night terrors: appearing terrified, babbling, screaming while asleep (occurs during stage 3 - unlike nightmares which occur during REM sleep toward morning)</li></ol>Parasomnias: abnormal behaviors during sleep think Paranormal movies- spooky behavior <img src=""paste-2887d3b2a68c4cb6f2cfc331d95a6773eedcbe82.jpg""> " Substance-Related & Addictive Disorders"disorders invlolve brain's reward system Alcoholism Gambling Disorder drug classes and effects <img src=""paste-954418865069827ba8c9dcf6bf3431d196252f35.jpg"">" what are the 3 drug classes and their effects"<ol><li>depressants: reduce CNS activity (alcohol, barbituates, opiates)</li><li>stimulants: increase CNS (caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine)</li><li>hallucinogens: distort perception (LSD, Marijuana (THC))</li></ol><img src=""paste-954418865069827ba8c9dcf6bf3431d196252f35.jpg""> " what are depressant drugs? ex?"reduce the CNS  - alcohol - barbiturates - opiates <img src=""paste-954418865069827ba8c9dcf6bf3431d196252f35.jpg"">" what are stimulant drugs? ex?increase CNS activity - caffiene - nicotine - cocaine - amphetamines what are hallucinogens? ex?Distort perception LSD Marijuana what are the 4 types of drug use effects?"<ol><li>tolerance: need more and more to get same effect</li><li>dependence: need it to function normally</li><li>withdrawl: unpleasnt bodily symptoms that occur </li><li>addiction: a compulsive drug use despite harmful condequences and inability to stop</li></ol> <img src=""paste-ac3a78e236965bb88785bca3389bade1e036a069.jpg""> " what are the most prevanlt mental disorders?<ol><li>anxiety disorders 4%</li><li>depression 4%</li><li>alcohol 1%</li><li>drug use 1%</li><li>bipolar</li></ol> level 2 cat mental disorder chart"<img src=""paste-b62b846e0491062b777d94a3fd9e46286ad5ed1c.jpg"">" what are the 2 states of consciousness? what regulates them?"1. alertness (being awake) 2. sleep alertness and arousal is controlled by the Reticular Activating System (RAS) structure in the brain. RAS= Regulates Awake Sleep <img src=""paste-a7ccfe3dfe16e0665414b3f0e0d3134ad7758365.jpg""> " what are the 4 brain wave patterns"<ul><li>beta: awake, alert             (15-30 Hz)</li><li>alpha: awake, relaxed       (7-14 Hz)</li><li>theta: little sleep               (4-7 Hz)</li><li>delta: deep sleep               (0-4 Hz)</li></ul>the more alert = the higher frequency <img src=""paste-58aa855b82de2f7680aae2128e50673beb30f33a.jpg""> " what are circadian rhythmscontrol the increase and decrease in our alertness in predictable ways over 24 hours what are the 3 physio indicators of a mammals circadian rhythm? 1. melatonin released by pinal gland, body temp, serum cortisol levels "what are the 3 physiological indicators of a mammal's circadian rhythms; where is it regulated in brain""<ol><li>melatonin released by pineal gland</li><li>body temperature</li><li>serum cortisol levels (what wakes us up in AM)</li></ol>The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN, in hypothalamus) regulates sleep, melatonin production and body temp.  <ul><li>takes signals from retina then sends off to other part of brain based on if recieving light or not </li></ul><img src=""paste-a751d9d997f0f2fe9f1757005f0935a4d2ba7530.jpg""> plasma melatonin is the hormone made by pineal gland--> during the day pineal inactive --> @ night when we stop staring in light--> signlas being sent from SCN  --> sent to pineal to start producing plasma melatonin--> released in blood (highest levels at night)" what are the sleep stages "Stage 1: theta waves; not really sleeping; winding dow Stage 2: SLeep spindle/ K complex; NO eye movement; might toss n turn; light sleep stage 3 & 4 : delta waves; heart and digestion slow, growth hormones secreted, deepest levels of sleep REM: similar to beta waves but more jagged; rapid eye movements; when dreams happen <img src=""paste-81971fb356c8912d81406223a27df618c45d375c.jpg""> 2 trends below: - dreams in REM get longer as night goes on -stages 3/4 get shorter/ disappear we go 1-2-3-4 then 4-3-2-1-REM  <img src=""paste-233cafed350cfc93b3a38ec93df8565bed926f3f.jpg"">" what is hypnosis vs meditationhypnosis: state of consciousness which attention is more focused and peripheral awareness is reduced Meditation: a practice in which an individual induces a mode of consciousness for some purpose whats a PET scan"type of functional technique  diffusion using radioactive glucose <img src=""paste-77b4db87403750f57dc000766de72f12d23dcc93.jpg"">" what is a fMRI"type of functional technique Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with brain activity. ... fMRI may detect abnormalities within the brain that cannot be found with other imaging techniques. <img src=""image-20170207-30931-lpzk18.jpg""> " what is EEG"type of functional technique imaging measures electrical activity An EEG is a test that detects abnormalities in your brain waves, or in the electrical activity of your brain <img src=""Sketch-of-how-to-record-an-Electroencephalogram-An-EEG-allows-measuring-the-electrical.png"">" what is MRI vs CT scan"both are types of structural techniques  measure what the brain looks like MRI more resolution and more expensive  The biggest difference is that MRIs (magnetic resonance imaging) use radio waves and CT (computed tomography) scans use xrays. <img src=""CT-vs-MRI.jpg""><img src=""Difference-between-a-MRI-scan-and-a-CT-scan.ppm""><img src=""paste-77b4db87403750f57dc000766de72f12d23dcc93.jpg"">" what are the two types of changes in synaptic connections in the brain"<ol><li>neural plasticity: the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections</li></ol><div>ex) stroke- lost ability to read- gained it back over years b/c other parts of the brain learned to read</div><ol><li>Long-term Potentiation: connections between neurons strenghten (what fires together, wires together)</li></ol><div><img src=""paste-2247e58ca2bd268e11416f822aea8ab67885a315.jpg""> </div>" what is systems consolidation"process of making new memory/info paths <img src=""paste-675c75864261080a121d078ffd5418e0219ded2c.jpg"">" what are the 3 steps of memory process<ol><li>encoding: transfer of sensations into our memory system</li><li>storage: retaining info in short-term or long-term memory</li><li>retrieval: extracting info that has been stored</li></ol>breakdown can happen at any step what is the multi-store model of memory"<img src=""paste-1d0615f44f34bcf20a5afb3c183ef910a41572c8.jpg""> walk through this" what are the two types of serial position effectsserial postiion effects: order influences ability to remember things <ol><li>primacy effect: remember first part of a list</li><li>recency effect: remember last items on list</li></ol> what is encoding?"the process of transforming information into a form that is more easily stored in our brains 4 basic kinds of encoding: <ul><li>semantic (meaning)</li><li>acoustic (sound)</li><li>visual (images)</li><li>elaborative (association with previous long-term memories)</li></ul> encoding strategies: <img src=""paste-9c7fd3c2d0ae405e3feba7b896162c2f56b1dc89.jpg""> " "{{c1::Rehearsal}} is the repetition of information leading to increased retention  ex) abc's" "types of encoding strategies: {{c1::rehearsal}} is the repetition of information leading to increased retension {{c2::chunking}} grouping related information together into chunks ex) phone numbers 760 522 4169 {{c3::elaboration}} intertwining info be remembered with well-entrenched pre-existing memories ex) his name is dylan same as my bf {{c4::self-refrence:}} making info personally relevant  ex)need to remember events of a break in- visualize ur own door and walking around in ur house to remember order of it {{c5::spacing:}} memory works better when review is spaced out over time ex) study small bits over long time instead of cramming {{c6::mnemonics}}: a phrase or acrym imrpve retention of info ex) OCEAN, ROYGBIV <img src=""paste-bc5ed46495b4f3679b8e1724b65cefa6df76d8a2.jpg"">" review the memory chain "- pay attention to decay times/ names consolidation, retireval etc <img src=""paste-3287513131e9ce6b40cd062c70137f3809954e08.jpg"">" what are the 2 types of long term memory"explicit memory         vs           implicit memory -conscious recall                     - cant consciously recall it - Episodic memory                  - procedural memory - Semantic memory                 - classical conditioning                                                 - priming declarative memory                 nondeclarative memory <img src=""paste-e2e5b924c8ad028a2968a45468e8365e873dac7d.jpg"">" what is episodic memory"type of long term memory under explicit memory -events you have personally experienced ex) grauated UF ex) started my jobs <img src=""paste-e2e5b924c8ad028a2968a45468e8365e873dac7d.jpg"">" what is semantic memory"your general knowledge of facts, information general language, facts, +abstract concepts you can consciously think of type of long term memory under explicit memory <img src=""paste-e2e5b924c8ad028a2968a45468e8365e873dac7d.jpg"">" what is procedural memory"learning motor skills, physical actions ex) riding a bike muscle memory type of long term memory under implicit memory-cant consciously think of it  <img src=""Screen Shot 2021-12-09 at 6.03.49 PM.png"">" what are semantic networks/ spreading activation model"how memory is organized cities (nodes) with roads (associations)btw them spreading activation model: when we think of 1 node, unconsciously spreads/ activates related nodes  ex) doctor---> medicine, white coat, hospital its the theory of how memory retireval works within semantic networks its why hints are so helpful <img src=""paste-888479fd1333732e10ebf1b19a01967119ca8c16.jpg"">" what are retrieval cues? what are the 3 types?"any stimulus that assists in memory retrieval Priming: occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences repsonse to another  Positive priming speeds up processing ex) fill in while i go get hot food: s__p soup ex) fill in while i go take a bath: s__p soap Negative priming slows down processing ex) say the ink color of the words: RED GREEN BLUE Context-dependent memory- better at remembering in the same environmental context in which we learned the information  ex) studying in little hall for exams and taking it there State-dependent memory- better at remembering when we are in same internal state when we learned the info ex) on adderall, chewing gum, good mood etc <img src=""paste-473ac31704bc10e92d02e6f83c715899604874ad.jpg"">" what is priming"type of retrieval cue Priming: occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences repsonse to another  Positive priming speeds up processing ex) fill in while i go get hot food: s__p soup ex) fill in while i go take a bath: s__p soap Negative priming slows down processing ex) say the ink color of the words: RED GREEN BLUE " what is context-dependent memory vs state-dependent memorytype of retrieval cues Context-dependent memory- better at remembering in the same environmental context in which we learned the information  ex) studying in little hall for exams and taking it there State-dependent memory- better at remembering when we are in same internal state when we learned the info ex) on adderall, chewing gum, good mood etc what are the 4 types of retrieval"<ol><li>free recall: w/o any retrieval cues to help you/ off the top of ur head ex) what is capital of USA</li><li>cued recall: there is some visual cue ex) flashcards</li><li>recognition: multiple choice test just have to recognized the correct answer</li><li>relearning: much more effective than learning it the first time</li></ol><img src=""paste-5dfe65270deab5068741b1d671269ec86fd29ad5.jpg""> " the 10 types of memory<ol><li>flashbulb memory</li><li>eidetic memory</li><li>reproductive memory</li><li>prospective memory</li><li>dual coding theory</li><li>levels of processing model</li><li>reminiscence bump</li><li>practice effects</li><li>method of loci</li><li>peg words</li></ol> what are intrusion errors? what causes them"- substitution of a close word during free and serial recall of word lists ex) remembers goose when word was duck or fence instead of gate  happens due to reconstructive process- each time a memory is retrieved, the memory trace is strengthened but also potentially altered. intrusion errors can also occur in episodic memories when info is consistent but did not actually happen. ex) why dont want jury watching the news <img src=""paste-52e148dae4b986b66cb7e88547babdbb90810741.jpg"">" what is the process of forgetting? what is it called if the storage decay happened at short term mem? if happened at long term memory?"follow ex of forgetting someones name after hearing it <img src=""paste-531ac7727b474a0b680662ec0b9f6a788db61bf3.jpg""> if you forgot it in short term memory its called decay intrusion errors displacement (intrusion= block/ disp= go away) if you forgot from long term memory called decay interference retrieval failure (retrieval faliure)" what is interference? what are the 2 types?"when competing material makes it hard to remember things <ol><li>proactive interference: (PRoactive = Prior interferes)</li></ol>hard to remember mom new phone number having previously learned the old number 2. retroactive interference: (Retroactive= Recent interferes) ex) student remembers better what he learned at the end of the school year (retroactve=rececny effect almost) <img src=""paste-fcc5a3b5f836cee4609c18bd7400aaaa1a6b3af3.jpg""> " proactive interference vs retroactive interference<ol><li>proactive interference: (PRoactive = Prior interferes)</li></ol>hard to remember mom new phone number having previously learned the old number 2. retroactive interference: (Retroactive= Recent interferes) ex) student remembers better what he learned at the end of the school year (retroactve=rececny effect almost) memory in aging; what improves, stable, declines"Improves: <ul><li>emotional intelligence (wisdom)</li><li>semantic memory (recollection of words, concept, numbers)</li></ul>Stable: <ul><li>implicit memory (referred to as unconscious memory or automatic memory. Implicit memory uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them.)</li><li>crystallized memory (the ability to retreive general information)</li></ul>decline: <ul><li>episodic memory</li><li>source memory</li><li>divided attention</li><li>working memory span</li><li>processing speed</li></ul><img src=""paste-fd80e09f1a7319e9be8f1a9f1d367f9fa4a15a96.jpg""> " types of memory errors (6)"<ol><li>source monitoring errors</li><li>false memories</li><li>misinformation effect</li><li>anterograde amnesia</li><li>retrograde amnesia</li><li>korsakoff's syndrome</li></ol><img src=""paste-56e7e04cc1ff10fd840d82e703d7850e8a59dd00.jpg""> " {{c1::source monitoring errors}} is when people misidentify the origin of our knowledge. also called {{c2::source amnesia}} did i remember it from the news or TV show? a memory error- {{c1::false memories}} is remembering that didnt actually happen has impacts on eye-witnessing testamony ex)bringing in mask from the car.. but didnt, still in the car "memory error - the {{c1::misinformation effect}} is when episodic memories become less accurate because post-event information works backwards in time to distort the memory of the original event through retroactive interference (REcent info interrrupts old) ex) When asked the question, 'How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?' the answer typically involved a higher rate of speed than when the question was phrased, 'How fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?'" memory error- {{c1::Anterograde amnesia}}: loss of the ability to create new memories after event ex) 50 first dates memory error- {{c1::retrograde amnesia}}: loss of acess to older memories before onset disease ex) cant remember life before; cant remember husband "memory error- {{c1::Korsakoff's Syndrome}}- chronic memory disorder casued by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1), most commonly caused by alcohol misuse. " what is nonassociative learning?"repeated to ONE stimulation over and over  when an organism changes the magnitude of its response due to the repeated exposure to a particular stimulus  habituation dishabituation sensitization <img src=""paste-5ec39a746218e5ed8a8da92719e258b49d808444.jpg"">" what is habituation"a type of nonassociative learning occurs when response diminishes as the organism becomes accustomed to a repeated stimulus ex) overhead lights made a constant buzzing noise habituation: wouldnt notice the buzzing <img src=""paste-5ec39a746218e5ed8a8da92719e258b49d808444.jpg"">" what is dishabituation"type of nonassociative learning occurs when an organism that had once become habituated to a stimulus recovers its responsiveness because of the removal of the stimulus and/or the experience of a different stimulus ex) constant buzzing overhead lights dishabituation- stopped noticing the buzzing (habituated) then you cough and notice the buzzing in the silence that follows =dishabituated  <img src=""paste-5ec39a746218e5ed8a8da92719e258b49d808444.jpg"">" what is sensitization"a type of nonassociative learning occurs when instead of exhibiting habituation, organism has increasing responsiveness to a repeated stimulus ex) dylan leaving on the bathroom fan- get more and more annoyed with it (me=sensitizing it) while dylan forgets about it (habituation) <img src=""paste-5ec39a746218e5ed8a8da92719e258b49d808444.jpg"">" what is associative learning"deals with TWO stimuli a process in which 2 stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes Ivan Pavlov- classical conditioning <img src=""paste-9aadbb0f58214380fe3f650d8ffff805473910d2.jpg"">" what is another name for associative learningOperant conditioning? Or conditioning? beyond conscious learning what were the NS, UCS, CS in the pavlov experiments"<img src=""paste-bdf36f22a8824c7f608670a3b019d08071ff00ee.jpg"">" what are the 4 phases of classical conditioning"<img src=""paste-45ea520e3ddd119c1318e63b0999573d13ad1fe2.jpg"">1. Acquisition Phase: NS (food) + US (bell) paired strong conditioned response! (salvate) 2. First extinction: CS alone (bell alone w/o food) decreasing conditioned response (salvate) 3. Rest Phase: ring bell= NO reponse dogs DONT salvate anymore 4. Spontaneous recovery during the second extinction phase:occurs after a break, you ring the bell again there is a resonse but it is lower, not a strong and it goes away faster" "what are the terms generalization and discrimination <div style=""text-align: center;"">(dealing with classical conditioning)</div>""generalization: occurs when stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned resposne  ex)dogs salvate to door bell discrimination: occurs when the conditioned stimulus is distinguished from other similar stimuli and is the only thing that elicits the conditioned response.  ex) dogs ONLY responded to the bell; no other tone <img src=""paste-b82189960e4bda8995d5914960f90c4b040c4303.jpg"">" what is taste aversion"a specific type of classical conditioning associate food with throwing up thus I stay away from Caramels <img src=""paste-940e23bb1af9b0bd91cf8807cc49727615ef1206.jpg"">" what is operant conditioning (associative learning)"a process in which reinforcement and punishment are employed to mold behavioral responses BF Skinner (one of the founders of Behaviorist Perspective) <img src=""paste-376f0d1b9efaadf24a0a1017a9febb06af9a8bef.jpg""> <img src=""paste-49ec7768b947f453e4b983adb76ea1b016ccdf70.jpg"">" what is the skinner box?"operant conditioning experiment by BF Skinner <img src=""paste-82deaf1f7a10d8ed6639b1bf989e2ee38fbec9a7.jpg""> <img src=""paste-49ec7768b947f453e4b983adb76ea1b016ccdf70.jpg"">" explain the +/- punishment & +/- reinforcement"<img src=""paste-840b0a3476bb237eeeb4f6590fd01a2777f2effe.jpg"">" primary reinforcers/ punishers secondary reinforcers/ punishers"primary punishers: pain, physical punishment primary rewards: food, water, sex  secondary punishers: fines**, bad grades secondary rewards: money, good grades ** fines are negative sec punishment (not positive) b/c losing money!! <img src=""paste-b0d1bb0ab0617a6b97ef12d29eda4764061d75bc.jpg"">" what is token economy"a system in which behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and can be later be exchanged for desirable stimuli such as play time, toys, food, screen time <img src=""paste-19cfca3117de8f2406c927167c38e37fb9abbaab.jpg"">" terms used to describe classical also apply to operant conditioning: acquisition, extinction, generalization, discrimination, spontaneous recovery"<ul><li>Acquisition: process in which rate of reinforced response increases</li><li>extinction: the decrease in the rate of previously reinforced responses when reinforced ceases</li><li>generalization, discrimination, spontaneous recovery</li></ul><img src=""paste-706ac55e0002a02d3190432b41e2c356f9cdb3f2.jpg""> " other terms relating to operant conditioning: extinction burst, shaping, discriminative stimulus"an extinctino burst- increase of the undesired behavior when its reinforcers are cut out shaping- refers to the rewarding of successive, closer approximations of the desired behavior discriminative stimulus- a stimulus that increases resposes when present because the subject has learned that this stimulus signals more likely reinorcement. ex) christmas, for ex, makes it more likely for children to wake up early and check their stockings <img src=""paste-706ac55e0002a02d3190432b41e2c356f9cdb3f2.jpg"">" what are the 2 biological processes that might affect associative learning?"<ol><li>biological predispositions: easier to condition w/ something that alligns w/ instincts (ex. bird peck not pull lever)</li><li>instinctive drift: animals instincts get in the way of operant conditioning (ex a dog with the nature to bark at visitors thinking they are intruders might have been taught to sit quietly when a guest enters through reward and punishment.)</li></ol><div><img src=""paste-884f064125d4b08534b76f7804d25de134929bca.jpg""> </div>" biological processes that affect obervational learning (2)"<ol><li>mirror neurons: many brain neurons fire in the same pattern when we observe another perform a known action (aka monkey see monkey do) (ex. yawning)</li><li>vicarious emotions: mirror neurons also appear to be activated when we ""feel"" emotions responses of others (ex. second hand embarrasment)</li></ol><img src=""paste-a0f56cdce07059b2c9fa894263f3b3e0038cf13e.jpg""> " what is insight learning?"when the solution to a problem suddenly comes to us  - Wolfgang Kohler showed power of insight learning by conducting studies with chimpanzees and boxes around the room= had to use boxes to stack and reach hanging banana. <img src=""paste-9a1cd96eb391b78017879d8674e1246e1c7e9843.jpg"">" what is latent learning"a process in which learning occurs without any immediate expression or obvious reinforcement; later, when helpful, this learning demonstrates itself For example, a teenager riding in a car with a parent takes note of how the parent is driving; when to use a signal, when to yield, etc. But the teenager does not display this knowledge until the incentive of a driver license is obtainable. Latent learning describes learning that is hidden or not observed until a reason exists or motivation exists to use it. <img src=""paste-892dcd8a6ffb1aaf89f22583898c967f0c798c56.jpg"">" sensation vs perception; what is psychophysics?"sensation: ENCODING physical senses from environment perception: DECODING of sensations- making sense of them(selection, organization, interpretation) psychophysics: study of how physical stimuli are translated into a psychological experience <img src=""paste-d00ebda25a2058974dac0628a1441102a9980fc6.jpg"">" what is flashbulb memory?"people can remember great detail about their episodic memories emotionally arousing events--> remember vivid details about when/where you were ex) 9/11  ex) wedding <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg"">" Eidetic Memory"aka photographic memory the ability to vividly recall images from memory after only a few instances of exposure *always just visual*  (vs reproductive memory along same lines but not always visual)  <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg"">" what is reproductive memory"accurate retrieval of info from memory without significant alteration *not always visual* <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg"">" what is prospective memory"remembering to do a planned action or recall a planned intention in the future ex) remembering to do your next assignment before out next class ex) swtich the laundry when get home ex) pay rent on the 1st  <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg"">" what is dual coding theory"a theory that says were better at remembering things when use 2 sensory pathways  ex) better to write def and put a visual example on flashcards <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg"">" what is the levels of processing model"focuses on the dept of processing involved in memory; predicts the deeper the info is processed, the longer a memory trace will last <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg""> " what is reminiscence bumb?"older people remember their teenage years better than their 60s/70s has to do with identity ex) pappy remembering all the WW2 stuff <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg"">" what are practice effects?"the improvement expected to occur simply from repeated exposure to a specific memory test. researchers have to accound for this in statisitical significance <img src=""paste-49b1a5b873b12405c0ee897bb81885c905546370.jpg"">" what is method of loci"a method of memory retention in which the individual uses visualized spatial info (such as the street on the way home) to recall lists of words to be memorized. used to remember ordered lists ex) imagine ur hosue--> associated each item with things in house as you walk in <img src=""paste-c19c7093334b07e7b0d3e681984d04327484ece0.jpg"">" what are peg words?"a memory technique in which you connect words to numbers and create an association to improve retention techniques used to memorize numbered lists ex) trying to remember  <img src=""Pegword-method.jpg"">" what are intrusion errors?"people think their memory is right but wrong info intrudes and makes you think of wrong info the substitution of wrong info is intrusion errors because memory systems are subject to error, researhcers theorize that memory is a reconstructive process- each time a memory is retireved, the memory trace is strengtehned but also potentially altered ex) on slide <img src=""paste-658f183c676d28f9764b5656b60a098443bead20.jpg"">" walk through the act of forgetting"scenario: forgetting someones name right after they told you <img src=""paste-80ce558da6e8f5af0f9c0c832d565763e443c95f.jpg""> <ul><li>name did get in to sensory mem- you heard it</li><li>encoding? yes you were paying attention </li><li>short term mem?yes did get in </li><li>long term mem? no becuase did not consolidation</li></ul>THUS: decay intrusion errors displacement occured and fell out of short term memory remember*: forgetting can occur in any of 3 stores" In forgetting, difference between decay intrusion errors displacement and decay interference retrieval failure"if you forget in short term memory because you didnt rehersal: called decay intrusion error displacement if you forgot something in long term memory called decay interference retrieval failure <img src=""paste-80ce558da6e8f5af0f9c0c832d565763e443c95f.jpg"">" what is proactive interference?"PRoactive= PRior interferes prior learning interferes with new learning ex) old phone number makes it hard to remember new one <img src=""paste-733efd220494ee53f023804c22560200945c6b27.jpg"">" what is retroactive interference"REtroactive = REcent interferes recent learning interferes with old learning ex) when a student remembers better what he learned at the end of the school year than what he learned at beginning <img src=""paste-11f229deae9749e231bf70757164630006545f6d.jpg""> " what types of memory improve with age?"semantic memory emotional intelligence <img src=""paste-5ae536ed553694c4bd7b90df55acd4bebead7275.jpg"">" what types of memory stays stable throughout life?"implicit memory crystallized intelligence <img src=""paste-5ae536ed553694c4bd7b90df55acd4bebead7275.jpg"">" what types of memory decline as you get older?"<ul><li>episodic memory</li><li>source memory</li><li>divided attention (multitasking)</li><li>operational span on working memory</li><li>processing speed</li></ul><img src=""paste-5ae536ed553694c4bd7b90df55acd4bebead7275.jpg""> " what are the 6 memory errors?"<ol><li>source monitoring errors</li><li>false memories</li><li>misinformation effect</li><li>anterograde amnesia</li><li>retrograde amnesia</li><li>korsakoff's syndrome</li></ol><img src=""paste-f75496262628d6b9d53c32ce3aec5106c411eaef.jpg""> " what are source monitoring errors?"messing up the origin of our knowledge; people arent good at remembering where we remember ex) did i hear that from tv or TikTok? <img src=""paste-f75496262628d6b9d53c32ce3aec5106c411eaef.jpg"">" what are false memories?"a memory error when you remember something that didnt actually happen ex) remembering bringing mask up from the car but didnt  ex) remember calling mom but didnt <img src=""paste-f75496262628d6b9d53c32ce3aec5106c411eaef.jpg"">" which memory error interferes with eye-witness testomonies?false memories what is misinformation effect?"a memory error when episodic memories become less accurate because post event infomation works back words in time to distort through retroactive interference  <img src=""paste-711375e002276b6198b20c9da8c3bfcfdc58a7b6.jpg"">" what is anterograde amnesia"a memory error a loss of the ability to create new (anterograde) memories after truama event ex) 50 first dates <img src=""paste-e658b720282f15cfba8730a758039c3dad48d48a.jpg"">" what is retrograde amnesia "a memory error that loss of access to retrograde OLD memories before disorder/accident <img src=""paste-e658b720282f15cfba8730a758039c3dad48d48a.jpg"">" "what is korsakoff's syndrome ""chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) most commonly caused by alcohol misuse chronic memory disorder <img src=""paste-e658b720282f15cfba8730a758039c3dad48d48a.jpg"">" "what is Baddeley's model of working memory""<img src=""paste-0821c1c59387daacdf1c772199be7657dc40eaeb.jpg"">" What are the 4 therapeutic methods and their linked therapy"<img src=""paste-6eab3edd2c1bd65ca6cfa818bfc109a99d646f98.jpg"">" what is the dopamine reward pathway"a natural pathway to feeling reward and pleasure pleasureable behaviors produce activity in our dopamine circuits within our brain stem; most noteably in our nucleus accumbens which is the pleasure center of the brain many addictive drugs stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens which reinforces drug use <img src=""paste-709adf1dedafd9c607f31a18597221aa68236e5d.jpg""> " what are the 4 different reinforcement schedules"<ol><li>variable ratio</li><li>fixed ratio</li><li>variable interval</li><li>fixed interval</li></ol> <img src=""paste-b8353c0cfdc4b1ff5a03a559860d451808801509.jpg""> <img src=""paste-fc5bb64381cae617945e01496f9af361c477c614.jpg""> " what is variable ratio reinforcement? example?"provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of behaviors  ex) gambling slowest rate of extinction!  <img src=""paste-dd57d673c975ac5a0966aa94b738ab0da23b61e8.jpg""> <img src=""paste-fc5bb64381cae617945e01496f9af361c477c614.jpg"">" what is fixed ratio reinforcement? example?"provides reinforcement after a set number of behaviors ex) reward cards- after 9 wawa hoggies get one free <img src=""paste-dd57d673c975ac5a0966aa94b738ab0da23b61e8.jpg""> <img src=""paste-4a6524e5741d835b7ae397e7de9a7b7bae754821.jpg"">" what is variable interval? example?"provides reinforcement after an inconsistent period of time ex) fishing <img src=""paste-6e5cbea914fcfba8bcc0d458795b45a87555c2a2.jpg""> <img src=""paste-4a6524e5741d835b7ae397e7de9a7b7bae754821.jpg"">" what is fixed interval"provides reinforement after a consistent period of time ex) paycheck every two weeks <img src=""paste-6e5cbea914fcfba8bcc0d458795b45a87555c2a2.jpg""> <img src=""paste-a1d265e224960d26f97c2b3c3b4088976d2e0b39.jpg"">" what field of vision hits the back right of the retina? where is the right field of vision processed?"left field hits back right of retina righ field of vision is processed in left hemshpere <img src=""paste-1964d75cd9fb4495be4c937f91313ca3732bac1e.jpg""> " where is the sounds that come in the left ear processed?"processed in the right hemisphere <img src=""paste-43249d2b4d7c4d691c7baad06b73dbc3e6f50246.jpg"">" what are the steps to smelling a scent? "<img src=""paste-ca8d5e5da93665ec23c48570b31701f6a6ccf1e1.jpg"">" what is the gustatory stimuli? where is it processed?"taste! processed in the gustatory cortex- same place where disgust is processed <img src=""paste-7270f19cb7633a061fe57e39c35f83c2a03732e9.jpg"">" what is kinethesis?"body awareness! <img src=""paste-925b432089302c165c980608d9ee2f856edcd1a8.jpg"">" what are mechanoreceptors?"detect mechanical disturbances like pressure or distortion <img src=""paste-925b432089302c165c980608d9ee2f856edcd1a8.jpg""> " what are the 3 types of proprioceptors?"<ol><li>the muscle spindle</li><li>golgi tendon organs</li><li>joint capsule receptors</li></ol><img src=""paste-925b432089302c165c980608d9ee2f856edcd1a8.jpg""> " what are thermoreceptors?"communicate info about heat <img src=""paste-925b432089302c165c980608d9ee2f856edcd1a8.jpg"">" what are nociceptors?"communicate info about heat and pain <img src=""paste-925b432089302c165c980608d9ee2f856edcd1a8.jpg"">" what characteristics of the left side of the brain? right side?"left = logic right= art/EQ <img src=""paste-b0be617adeb22adac7a7eddddf8ddd2023ee7e31.jpg"">" how do the two brain hemisphere communicate?"corpus callosum <img src=""paste-0a7314db728e4f930b9a000a95cfaf775daeb0d8.jpg"">" what is agnosia?"inability to process specfic sensory information - visual and speech agnosia - ex) someone with face agnosia- might have trouble telling faces apart- not blind they can see but struggle processing just faces <img src=""paste-da9ebbf624e745f712b8d56351639040a3790358.jpg"">" what are the lobes associated with?"<img src=""paste-8ec740178fab85079e054bc0f51ba8538c6b1342.jpg"">" what is webers law?"the size of the just noticeable difference is a  constant proportion of the original stimulus value ex) light intensity **weber law- has to be greater than the JND to notice; if = to then 50% of the time people will notice <img src=""paste-4816a4807e50fb19d850eaa86eec47653e7c5ade.jpg"">" what is signal detection theory?"a method for quantifying ability to detect if a  given stimulus is present or not <img src=""paste-a4904ee38c1d889494263535f1252dcd0c69352a.jpg""> <img src=""paste-bce2c991e7d37bd08f7e52b055d28cfc8f98adb7.jpg"">" what are ROC curves?"a graphical plot that tracks hit rate vs false alarm rate to represent a persons accuracy at a given task shows if conservative or liberal/aggressive <img src=""paste-f6b648854010e778d3d5774f378a6b12cc006a46.jpg""> <img src=""paste-ba3e3d0dc3dcac895c04666aea46242ebf08f67c.jpg"">" what are the 4 stimulus properties that need to be communicated to the central nervous system via receptors?"<ol><li>Modality- type of stimulus being detected; communicated via what type of receptor is firing</li><li>Intensity- how strong is stimulus; rate of firing action potentials </li><li>Location- communicated by the receptive field of the stimulus</li><li>Duration- how long stimulus present </li></ol>tonic receptors: generate action potentials  as long as the stimulus is present <img src=""paste-3e7defef116f0c60b818e87a93b6ae9b5294b95c.jpg""> " what is the feature detection theory?"explains the certain parts of the brain are activated for specific visual stimuli feature detection neurons respond only to specfic features ie shape, angle, motion <img src=""paste-544b0e21d2bbe6555d296383f87681147eb0d794.jpg"">" what is parallel processing?"occurs so that many aspects of a visual stimuli are processed simultaneously <img src=""paste-ce0bd7798b07b1773273425e9d3a52c4911cb7fd.jpg"">" what are the 3 stages of perception?"<ol><li>Stimulus</li><li>Electrochemical processes</li><li>Experience and action</li></ol>each has 3 parts 1. Stimulus       a.) environmental stimulus produced       b.) attended stimulus- pay attention to it       c.) stimulus on receptors- sensory receptors are activated 2.Electrochemical processes       a.) transduction- stimulus--> electrical activity       b.) transmission: move from one neuron to neuron       c.) processing- high level interaction with it 3. Experience and Action       a.) perception: actually sees/ hear/ taste the stimulus       b.) recognition: if familiar- put it in cateogory       c.) action: possible activate fight or flight <img src=""paste-69747a2b968705b8c4f7e9e280a9cc0411289689.jpg""> " bottom up processing vs top down processing"bottom up- start with details and end with final product in mind         (slower but very accurate)       Ex) letter B below top down processing- starts with larger conecpt and works down     (faster but less accurate)     ex) can still read a letter when smired b/c context clues <img src=""paste-2063788d180a0085d0570d5fcef95eae8b7a19f3.jpg"">" successful multitasking depends upon:"<ul><li>task similarity - want the tasks as different as possible</li><li>task difficulty- want both easy</li><li>task practice- want well practiced</li></ul><img src=""paste-1078f84f47a21bc7f9dcd50704119ed8642cce5f.jpg""> " what are schemas"mental categories we use to understand and organize stimuli we must constantly assimilate new experiences- new info is interpreted based on current schemas as we interact with world we also accomodate our schema to incoporate new info and experiences ex) kid has schema for animals - they have 4 legs and walks on them; he then goes to the zoo He sees wolves & cheetas--> can assimilate them into existing frameowrk and doesnt have to adjust schema becuase have 4 legs and walks around He then sees kangaroo--->  has to accomidate schema becuase only has 2 legs and hops around; has to accomidate the new info and change schema <img src=""paste-7430f791ca09aaf2d41fa52979fd705fef7025af.jpg"">" what are Piagets Stages? what do they deal with?"attention and cognition <ul><li>sensorimotor</li><li>preoperational</li><li>concrete operational</li><li>formal operational</li></ul> <img src=""paste-1c5e154b428d05081bf05cb1aabe783c12843747.jpg""> " what is a heuristic?"a mental rule of thumb, shortcut or guideline quicker but correct answer not gaurnteed ex) no words in english lang start with wv so wont start with that <img src=""paste-3eeddb675f295d200327b2b57ec24e1b2aabcad6.jpg"">" what is confirmation bias?"accept evidence that confirms beliefs & rejects evidence that contradicts it <img src=""paste-bc1a7d501b20222f5654f4d7b0690219497779e9.jpg"">" what is functional fixedness?"think an object can only be used for one thing <img src=""paste-8a2ea3c9c18f396338d63a6b454f8af68f643e23.jpg"">" what is mental set?"fixed frame of mind we use to approach problems because theyve worked for us in the past ex) old Drs have this issue- and new Drs bring in the new tehcniques <img src=""paste-8a2ea3c9c18f396338d63a6b454f8af68f643e23.jpg"">" what is the availability heuristic?"when we rely on examples that are quick to come to mind when trying to make a judegment  ex) just watched a movie with a plane crash--> never want to fly again BUT not scared of cars even though cars kill more people <img src=""paste-893dfed958352455bd4e552be3fc85cfbca8696a.jpg"">" what is representativeness heuristic?"occurs when we are estimating probability of event by comparing to an existing prototype/steriotype in our heads. a mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes. <img src=""paste-68f29059ab04f5b3909ae0cb8350fe797d8cc14f.jpg"">" what are the 2 types of intelligence"<ol><li>fluid intelligence: reason abstractly, increased processing speed</li><li>crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge and verbal skills</li></ol><img src=""paste-691ae5bbc5963ec1a99dce804a2316fd0210a4b3.jpg""> " what are the 3 theories of language development"<ol><li>BF Skinner Behaviorist theory </li><li>Noam Chomsky Nativist theory</li><li>Lev Vygotsky Interactionist Theory</li></ol><img src=""paste-6c2fa383a9cb4e4971797e5572cd832dd9b97968.jpg""> " what did the behaviorist theory of language development say?"language is  learned by conditioning & reinforcement - BF Skinner <img src=""paste-6c2fa383a9cb4e4971797e5572cd832dd9b97968.jpg"">" "what did chomsky's Nativist theory of language development say?""born with innate ability to use language there is a language acquisition device in brain capable of understanding universal language all people innately able to learn language when exposed to it during the critical period before puberty <img src=""paste-6c2fa383a9cb4e4971797e5572cd832dd9b97968.jpg"">" "what did Vygotsky's Interactionist theory of language development say?""admits some innate ability but emphasizes social interactions and cognitive develoment as most important factors  the middle man theory <img src=""paste-6c2fa383a9cb4e4971797e5572cd832dd9b97968.jpg"">" "broca's and wernicke's areas and the problems if damaged""broca's area: broduce speech; non-fluent aphasia wernicke's area: understand speech; fluent aphsia <img src=""paste-b7283bb4165feb159372f04cd4fb90c1e8732555.jpg"">" linguistic relativity Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis"idea that language encodes cultural and cognitive properties that affect the way that people think such that speakers of different languages will tend to think and behave differently depending on the language they use assumes that we think in words so if we dont have words in our vocab then we wont have the thought ex) rice - see below <img src=""paste-e6f699215b1c0f9f06b69916a0e94baae6d9d51e.jpg"">"

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