IB Psychology
Social Influence
Part II
Student Workbook
Name
1
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Chapter 3 Unit Plan Social Influence Pt II
Topics
3.7 Schema Theory
Key Questions
 How does our mind
organize information?
Lessons
(a)
Schema Theory: An
Introduction
(b)
Schematic Processing
(c)
Confirmation Bias
(d)
Information Processing and
Comprehension
Studies



3.8 Reconstructive
Memory
 Can we trust our
memory?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Rationalization
Leading Questions
The Misinformation Effect
Confabulation (False
Memories)


3.9 Bystanderism
 Why don’t people
help those in need?
(a)
(b)
The Smoky Room Study
Diffusion of Responsibility


3.10
Prosocial
Behaviour
3.11
Promoting
Prosocial
Behaviour
 Why are some people
more likely to help than
others?
 How can we
encourage people to
help others?
(a)
Culture and Prosocial
Behaviour
(b)
The Empathy-Altruism
Hypothesis
(a) Obedience
(b) Compliance





Stereotypes and confirmation bias occupations (Cohen, 1981)
Stereotypes and confirmation bias –
racial stereotypes (Stone et al.
2010)
Schema and comprehension
(Bransford and Johnson, 1972)
Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts (1932)
Leading questions and the
misinformation effect (Loftus and
Palmer, 1974)
The Smoky Room Study (Darley and
Latane, 1968)
Cross-cultural differences in helping
(Levine et al. 2001)
Cross-cultural differences in helping
(Levine et al. 2001)
Empathy and altruism – helping
Elaine (Batson et al. 1981)
Effects of jigsaw classroom
(Bridgeman, 1981)
Authority and compliance (Bickman,
1974 and Bushman, 1988)
Compliance in hotels (Cialdini et al.
2008)
Terms
Schema, schema theory,
schematic processing,
confirmation bias,
comprehension, schema
activation, information
processing.
Reconstructive memory,
rationalization, leading
questions, misinformation
effect, confabulation, false
memory, eye-witness
testimony.
Bystanderism, informational
social influence, diffusion of
responsibility, population
density.
Prosocial behaviour, sensory
overload, economic
productivity, cultural values,
altruism, empathy.
Perspective taking, obedience,
authority, consensus,
descriptive social norms,
compliance.
2
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3
Date:
IB Psychology Curriculum
Approach
Topic
Content
Examples
(and concept)
(Specific topic)
(from this unit)
Biological
Not covered
Cognitive
Cognitive Processing

Models of Memory

N/A: See PTSD
A range of variables can
influence our cognitive
processing.

Schema Theory


Thinking and decision
making
Reconstructive memory

Schema, stereotypes,
confirmation bias and
comprehension
N/A: See Criminology

Bias in thinking and
decision making

Eye-witness testimony and
the misinformation effect
Confirmation bias


N/A: See PTSD

The influence of emotion
on other cognitive
processes
Social Identity Theory

N/A: See Part I

Social Cognitive Theory

N/A: See Part I

Stereotypes


Culture


Cultural Dimension

Confirmation bias is an
effect of stereotypes.
Cultural influences on
prosocial behaviour.
N/A: See Part I

Enculturation

N/A: See Part I

Acculturation

N/A: See Part I

Reliability of Cognitive
Processing
Our cognitive processes
might not be reliable.
Emotion and Cognition
Emotion can influence
cognition.
Sociocultural
The Individual and the
Group
Social variables can
influence behaviour.
Cultural Origins of
Behaviour Cultural factors
can influence behaviour.
Cultural Influences on
Behaviours
Cultural factors can
influence behaviour.
Option
Psychology
of Human
Relationships
Topic
Content
Examples
(and concept)
(Specific topic)
(from this unit)
Personal Relationships
Not covered
Group Dynamics
Not covered
Social
Responsibility
Ethics &
Research
Methods


By-standerism


Prosocial behaviour


Promoting prosocial behaviour

Information social influence
and cultural influences
Cultural influences on
prosocial behaviour
Using compliance techniques
to promote prosocial
behaviour
For all topics and areas of study in the three approaches you need to be aware of how and
why research methodology (e.g. natural experiment, case study, etc.) and ethical
considerations (e.g. informed consent, anonymity) are related to those particular areas of
study.
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KEY TERMS TRAFFIC LIGHTS
Use coloured pencils or highlighters. Colour the boxes below based on how well you know the key term.



Green = you know it and could explain it to someone else
Yellow = you think you know it, but you’re not 100% confident
Red = you don’t know it
Term
Before we begin
End of unit
End of course
Altruism
Bystanderism
Compliance
Confabulation
Confirmation bias
Diffusion of
responsibility
Empathy
Information
processing
Informational social
influence
Leading questions
Misinformation
effect
Population density
Prosocial behaviour
Rationalization
Reconstructive
memory
Schema
Schema theory
Schematic
processing
Use this space to create a key if you’re using different colours.
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How does our mind organize information?
Lesson a. Schema Theory: An Introduction
Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…



What is a schema?
How might social schema save our cognitive energy?
How can concepts related to schema be applied to written
communication?
GQ: How might social schema save our cognitive energy?
The core claim of schema
theory is that we have
these schemas, these
categories of knowledge
that make it easy to
process information.
Stereotypes are an example
of a social schema.
Critical Thinking Extension: Schema Applications
Can you think of ways this textbook uses ideas from schema theory?
Reflect: Goal Setting
This code (link) will take you
to a blog post that
summarizes schema theory.
This will be helpful for exam
revision.
What are two measurable and observable things you’re going to do in this unit to become a
better psychologist?
1.
2.
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Date:
Schema Theory Notes
Use this space to keep notes on important aspects of schema theory that you’ll learn over
the next few lessons. By the end of this topic this table should be complete.
What is a schema? (Definition)
What are some different types of schema?
What are some characteristics and functions of schema?
How can schema influence our cognition and/or behaviour? (Applications)
What studies support aspects of schema theory? (Evidence)
Are there limitations to schema theory and/or the studies?
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Date:
Lesson b. Schematic Processing
Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…




What is schematic processing?
What were the methods and results of Cohen’s (1981)
waitress/librarian study?
How might schematic processing reinforce stereotypes?
What are some other ways schematic processing might affect
memory?
Definitions:

Stereotype:
o Example

Stereotypes you have about groups of
people can influence your thinking
about people who belong to those
groups.
Schematic processing:
o Example:
GQ: How might schematic processing reinforce stereotypes?
You might be able to answer this question in only one sentence.
Add Evidence
How can the above explanation be supported by a study? (Cohen 1981).
This code (link) will
take you to a blog
post that gives a
schema theory
explanation of why
stereotypes form.
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8
Date:
Lesson c. Confirmation Bias
Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…



What is confirmation bias?
How does Stone et al.’s (2010) basketball player study
demonstrate the effects of confirmation bias?
How do Stone et al.’s and Cohen’s studies support schema
theory?
Key Study Notes: Stone et al. (2010)
Stereotypes and Confirmation Bias
Write notes of the methodology and results in this space.
Our interpretation of someone's abilities
as a basketball player could be influenced
by our racial stereotypes. This could be
explained by the concept of confirmation
bias.
GQ: How does Stone et al.’s (2010) basketball player study demonstrate the
effects of conformation bias?
Critical Thinking Extension: Evaluating Schema Theory
Add notes to your table on page 4. Can you think of any limitations of schema theory and/or
the supporting studies?
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Date:
Lesson d. Information Processing and Comprehension
Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…



What were the methods and results of Bransford and Johnson’s (1972)
study on schema activation?
How might schematic processing influence comprehension of new
information?
Can you apply what you’ve learned about schema theory to help you
write better exam answers?
Spot the Mistakes
There are ten mistakes in the passage below. How many can you find?
Cross out any obvious errors and write the correct information in its
place.
Schema theory’s central claim is that our knowledge of the world is organized and categorized,
which can influence our cognition and behaviour. Bartlett came up with the idea of schema.
A schema is a cluster of knowledge or memory that is stored in the brain. They’re also called
“biological frameworks” as they are a system for categorizing and organizing information and
memory.
Along with the existence of schema, another central claim of schema theory is that their function
is to help us make sense of the complex world of information that we live in. They also enable us
to make generalizations about situations, people and places. Stereotypes are an example of a
script schema and how we can generalize about groups of people to save our physical energy.
One way schemas can influence cognition is that they can affect our ability to comprehend new
information. When we’re exposed to new information we relate it to our existing knowledge (our
schemas) and this can reduce our comprehension of that information (as seen in Bransford and
Johnson’s study).
This process of relating new information to existing schema can also influence our processing of
new information and can lead to stereotypes. If we have an existing stereotype (social schema)
about a group of people, we use this schema when we’re processing new information and we
might tend to focus only on details that are consistent with our schema, since this is cognitively
easier. This means that we might focus on and remember details of someone that are
inconsistent with our existing stereotype, which is how stereotypes might be eliminated. This is
seen in Stone et al.’s study using the waitress/librarian paradigm.
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GQ: How might schematic processing influence comprehension of new
information?
Critical Thinking Extension: Applications
Can you think of ways you can use your new understanding of
schema? How might it help you communicate better, especially in
your writing?
You can use this code (link)
to check your answers to
the "Spot the Mistakes"
activity as it has a detail
summary of schema theory.
Before you move on, can you do these things?




Define “schema.”
Summarize at least two claims of schema theory.
Explain how schema can influence our thinking and
our behaviour.
Explain how claims of schema theory can be shown
in studies.
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Can we trust our memory?
Lesson a. Rationalization
Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…



What is rationalization?
How can schema influence rationalization?
What is at least one reason why we can’t use the word “prove”
when talking about Bartlett’s study?
Definitions:

Schema:

Rationalization:
Because it did not follow a typical story
structure, the War of the Ghosts story
was adapted to be more consistent with
the schema of a typical Western story by
Bartlett's participants.
GQ: How can schema influence rationalization?
Critical Thinking Extension: “Prove”
What is one reason why we can’t use the word “prove” when explaining
Bartlett’s study?
This code (link) will
take you to an
explanation of some of
the reasons why we
rarely use the word
"prove" when writing
about psychological
studies.
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Lesson b. Leading Questions
Key Q’s

By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…


What were the methods and results of Loftus and Palmer’s first
(1974) experiment on leading questions and speed estimates?
How might leading questions influence memory?
How could Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) experiment be questioned
based on population validity?
Key Study Notes: Leading Questions and the Misinformation Effect (Loftus
and Palmer, 1974)
Write notes of the methodology and results in this space. Make sure you include how the experiment
shows that leading questions can cause the misinformation effect.
GQ: How might leading questions influence memory?
Tip: This is explained in the
textbook. If you can explain this
study, you could use it to in
relation to reconstructive
memory and schema theory.
Critical Thinking Extension: Population Validity
What factor/s could affect the applications of this based on population validity?
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Lesson c. The Misinformation Effect
Key Q’s

By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…


What were the methods and results of Loftus and Palmer’s
“broken glass” version of the leading questions experiment?
How does the misinformation effect demonstrate the
reconstructive nature of memory?
What are the limitations of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974)
experiment/s?
Recap Quiz
How many of these questions can you answer?
1. What is a question that is phrased in a way so it guides the responder towards a
particular answer?
2. What researcher was one of the first to study schema and he used a Native
American story in some of his studies?
3. What were the five verbs in Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) experiment?
4. What is the name of the cognitive bias of focusing and remember information that is
consistent with existing schema?
5. Stereotypes are a type of what kind of schema?
6. According to schema theory, what are two functions of schema?
7. What is one way schema could influence behaviour?
8. What is one way stereotypes could influence behaviour?
9. What study shows that schemas help us comprehend new information because they
allow us to relate new information to existing schema?
10. What is it called when you alter information during recall so that it is consistent with
your existing schema?
TED Talk: Studies Mentioned in Loftus’ Talk
During and after watching Elizabeth Loftus’s TED Talk, “How reliable is your memory?” write down
some of the studies that she describes in this talk that show how memory might not be reliable.
This code (link) will take you to
Loftus's TED Talk.
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Date:
GQ: How does Loftus and Palmer’s second experiment demonstrate the
misinformation effect?
GQ: How does the misinformation effect demonstrate the reconstructive
nature of memory?
Critical Thinking Extension: Evaluation
When you’re evaluating a psychological study you need
Tip: There are explanations of
internal and external validity in
to explain strengths and limitations. For experimental
the introduction in the textbook
research, like Loftus and Palmer’s experiment I
and in the quantitative methods
recommend focusing on internal validity for strengths
chapter.
and external validity for limitations. Could Loftus and
Palmer’s experiment have generalizability issues due to the nature of the sample, the
environment and/or the procedures? Can you explain why?
Exam Tip: You are most likely going to be asked short answer questions that require you to
explain studies related to particular topics, like stereotypes, schema theory, reconstructive
memory, etc. Therefore, it is essential that you can explain how each study is relevant to a
particular topic. There’s an activity in the assessment workbook that will help and the next
lesson has an activity to help with this, too.
Lesson d. Confabulation: False Memories
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Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…



Date:
What is “confabulation?”
How might research on memory be applied to improve the
justice system?
Can you hypothesize factors that might affect an individual’s
vulnerability to confabulation?
Writing Excellent SARs and Essays
You are going to plan an answer to one SAR and one essay question. The SAR is “outline one
study related to…” and the essay is “discuss research related to…” The three topics are:



Schema theory
Reconstructive memory
Cognitive bias (one bias in thinking)
You need to plan an SAR, and then use that plan to add to it and create a plan for the essay
(i.e. you use the same study and argument for the SAR as you would for an essay, you just
add one or more counter-arguments). An example is included below that shows out this
could be done for the topic “cultural influences on behaviour” using Bond and Smith’s study
on conformity.
Example SAR and Essay Plans
Short Answer Response
Essay
Outline Explain one study related to cultural
influences on behaviour.
Intro – state CA + study
Discuss research related to cultural
influences on behaviour.
Intro – state CentA + study + CountA
CentA* - cultural dimensions can influence
conformity (individualism/collectivism),
which can be shown in research.
CentA* - cultural dimensions can influence
conformity (individualism/collectivism),
which can be shown in research.
Study – Bond and Smith’s meta-analysis
Study – Bond and Smith’s meta-analysis
Concl -
Study #2 – Berry’s Temne v. Inuit
*CentA = central argument
CountA #1 - Generalizability (mundane
realism)
CountA #2 - Generalizability (population
validity)
Concl -
You can find example answers to these
questions in the test prep’ materials.
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Short Answer Response
Date:
Essay
Outline Explain one study related to schema Discuss research related to schema theory.
theory.
Short Answer Response
Outline Explain one study related to
reconstructive memory
Short Answer Response
Outline Explain one study related to one
bias in thinking and/or decision making.
Essay
Discuss research related to reconstructive
memory.
Essay
Discuss research related to one or more
biases in thinking or decision making.
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Date:
Why don’t people help those in need?
Lesson a. The Smoky Room Study
Key Q’s

By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…


What were the methods and results of Darley and Latane’s
(1968) smoky room study?
How does the smoky room study demonstrate the effects of
informational social influence?
How could the results of this study be used to show the effects
of normative social influence?
Painting Picasso’s
This activity tries to get you thinking deeply about the
material by turning it into pictures. You are going to
work with a partner. One of you is going to draw the
answers to the questions in the left column and the
other is going to draw the answers to the questions in
the right column. You’ll then teach each other the
You don't have to be an artist to benefit
answers to these questions using your drawings. There’s from this activity.
space on the next page to draw. The information you need is in the textbook.
After you’ve both shared the information, you need to work together to figure out the
answer to the guiding question.
Key Terms



What is “bystanderism”?
What is “informational social
influence?”
How is informational social
influence different to normative
social influence?
Key Study: Smoky Room Study


What was the aim of the smoky
room study?
What were the methods and results
of the smoky room study?
Space for notes…
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Space for your work/s of art…
GQ: How does the smoky room study demonstrate the effects of
informational social influences?
Critical Thinking Extension: Alternative Explanation
Could the results of the study also be explained by the effects of
normative social influence?
Bystanderism is also
known as the bystander
effect. This code (link) will
take you to a short clip
from a documentary
about bystanderism.
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19
Date:
Lesson b. Diffusion of Responsibility
Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…



What is “diffusion of responsibility?”
How might diffusion of responsibility influence bystanderism?
Could the results of studies on diffusion of responsibility be
questioned on the grounds of generalizability?
Diffusion of responsibility:
Key Study Notes: Evidence for diffusion of responsibility
Write notes of any research that can provide evidence for diffusion of responsibility as being a factor
that could explain bystanderism.
GQ: How might diffusion of responsibility influence bystanderism?
Critical Thinking Extension: Ecological Validity
Could the ecological validity of the smoky room study be questioned?
A code (link) to a post about
ecological validity.
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Space for notes
If you want to do well on your exams, it’s important that you’re regularly reflecting on
how what you’re learning could be applied to the topics in the syllabus (see pg. 3). This
page could be a good place to write notes about each of those topics and which
arguments and evidence are best for each topic.
Topic
What is the
Key Terms and
central argument Studies
in the topic?
Schema theory
Our schema can improve
comprehension and
processing but can also
lead to confirmation bias
and stereotypes.
CounterArguments
L&P’s experiment in a
lab – lower levels of
emotion which could
affect generalizability to
real life situations.
Reconstructive
memory
Bystanderism
Informational social
influence:
Smoky room study
(Darley and Latane)
Diffusion of
responsibility:
Levine’s cross-cultural
study on helping others
Prosocial
behaviour
Diffusion of
responsibility and
economic explanations:
Levine’s cross-cultural
study on helping others
Promoting
prosocial
behaviour
Tip: Try to find overlaps, like
how one study could be used
in more than one topic.
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21
Date:
Why are some people more likely to help than others?
Lesson a. Culture and Prosocial Behaviour
Key Q’s

By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…


What were the methods and results of Levine et al.’s (2001)
cross-cultural study on helping behaviour?
How might socioeconomic factors influence prosocial behaviour?
Can you think of other explanations for correlations found in
cross-cultural research on prosocial behaviour?
TED Talk: Studies Mentioned about bystanderism by Ken Brown
During and after watching Ken Brown’s TED Talk, “The bystander effect is complicated – here’s why?”
write down some of the studies about bystanderism that he describes in this talk.
If we know why people don't help, it
could help us understand how we can
influence people to help.
Exam Preparation: One study, multiple topics
How is Levine et al.’s (2001) cross-cultural study related to these two topics?

Bystanderism:
Tip: Bystanderism is about explain
why some people don’t help,
prosocial behaviour is about
understand why some do. For every
study that shows some people not
helping, there are those that do
help.

Prosocial behaviour:
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22
Date:
Lesson b. The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Key Q’s

By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…


What were the methods and results of Batson et al.’s (1981)
study on empathy and altruism?
How do the results of this study support the empathy-altruism
hypothesis?
How might this study be questioned on the basis of construct
validity?
Key Study Notes: Helping Elaine and the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
(Batson et al. 1981)
Write a summary of the aims, methods and results of Batson’s study…
We're more likely to help someone if
we feel empathy for them, and we're
more likely to feel empathy for people
who are similar to us.
GQ: How do the results of this study support the empathy-altruism
hypothesis?
Critical Thinking Extension: Construct Validity
Do you think this study could be critiqued based on construct
validity?
What biological factors do
you think could be
influencing empathy,
bystanderism or prosocial
behaviour?
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23
Date:
Why are some people more likely to help than others?
Lesson a. Obedience
Key Q’s
By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…



What were the methods and results of studies that use authority
to influence prosocial behaviour?
How could obedience to authority be applied to encourage
prosocial behaviour?
How Milgram’s study on obedience to authority be used to
explain prejudice and/or discrimination?
Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience to Authority
How could this experiment provide a counter-argument for SIT’s
explanation of inter group conflict?
This code (link) will take
you to the explanation
and a replication of
Milgram's experiments.
Key Study Notes: Obedience to Authority and Helping Others
Write a summary of the studies that use obedience to authority for social good.
GQ: How could obedience to authority be applied to promote prosocial
behaviour?
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Date:
Lesson b. Compliance
Key Q’s

By the end of this
lesson you should be
able to answer these
questions…


What were the methods and results of Cialdini’s (2008) study on
social influence and hotel towel usage?
How might compliance techniques be used to promote prosocial
behaviour?
Can you think of other areas (beyond hotels) that compliance
techniques could be applied?
Make an Infographic
Using Piktochart.com or any other tool, you are to create a visual infographic that
represents Cialdini’s study on compliance and social influence in re-using hotel towels (pg.
199-200) of the textbook. When you have your infographic, make sure you attach it to this
workbook so you can have it for your notes.
GQ: How might compliance techniques be used to promote prosocial
behaviour?
Critical Thinking Extension: Applications
Can you think of other areas (beyond hotels) that
compliance techniques could be applied?
The dark side of compliance to
authority was exploited by one
extreme prank caller in the US. The
real-life story is depicted in the film,
Compliance.
Exam Tip: You are most likely going to be asked short answer questions that require you to
explain studies related to particular topics, like bystanderism, prosocial behaviour and
promoting prosocial behaviour. Therefore, it is essential that you can explain how each study
is relevant to a particular topic. Moreover, many of these studies could be applied to more
than one topic, so if you revise smart you can reduce your revision demands.
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Date:
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Date:
Unit Review: Traffic Lights and Exam Questions
Use coloured pencils or highlighters. Colour the boxes in the “rating” column based on how confident you
would be in answering that question.
 Green = you would love for that to be an exam question because you’d NAIL it.
 Yellow = you think you could answer it, but you’re not 100% confident
 Red = you’d be hoping that question doesn’t appear because you’d have no clue
Topic
Sample Exam Question
Rating
How confident would you be
in answering this question?
Remember: SAQs = describe, outline and explain, Essays = discuss, evaluate, contrast and to what extent.
Paper 1 (schema theory and reconstructive memory = SAQ or Essays), Paper 2 (social responsibility topics) =
only essays.
Schema Theory
Describe schema theory.
Outline one study related to schema
theory.
Evaluate schema theory.
Reconstructive
memory
Cognitive
processes
Reliability of
cognitive
processes
Bystanderism
Prosocial
behaviour
Promoting
prosocial
behaviour
Social
responsibility
Evaluate one study related to schema
theory.
Explain one study related to
reconstructive memory.
Discuss the reconstructive nature of
memory.
Evaluate one research method used to
study cognitive processes.
Discuss ethical considerations relevant
to the study of the reliability of
cognitive processes.
Discuss bystanderism.
Evaluate one or more studies related
to bystanderism.
Discuss prosocial behaviour.
Discuss research related to prosocial
behaviour.
Evaluate one or more strategies used
to promote prosocial behaviour.
Evaluate one or more studies related
to promoting prosocial behaviour.
Discuss research methods used to
study social responsibility.
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Space for notes
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Unit Evaluation
To be completed at the very end of the unit…
Rate your learning of this unit:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Nothing
7
9
Quite a bit
Rate your feeling about this unit:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Boring/Hated
8
It was OK/Meh
10
Heaps
8
9
10
Fascinating/Loved it!
Do you have any positive comments about the unit? E.g. interesting
topics, helpful activities, what you enjoyed, what worked, etc.
Do you have any comments for how the unit could be improved? E.g.
boring topics that could be changed, activities that didn’t help, what
you found boring or uninteresting, what didn’t, etc.
Free space for comments
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