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Topics:
 Global, Multinational and Transnational Company
 Evolution of International Business
 Nature of International Business
 Influences and Goals of International Business
 Problems of International Business
Objectives:
After studying this chapter, you should:
 Know how the concept of international business evolved
 State the nature of international business
 Describe the influences and goals of international business
 Identify the problems of international business
International business is all commercial transactions private and governmental between two or
more countries. Private companies undertake such transactions for profits; governments may or may not
do the same in their transactions. These transactions include sales, investments and transportation.
Study of international business has become important because (i) It comprises a large and growing
portion of the world’s total business. (ii) All companies are affected by global events and competition,
whether large or small, since most sell output to and secure raw materials and supplies from foreign
countries. Many companies also compete against products and services that come from outside India.
The company’s external environment conditions such as physical, societal and competitive affect
the way business functions such as marketing, manufacturing and supply chain management are carried
out. When a company operates internationally, foreign conditions are added to domestic ones making
the external environment more diverse and complex.
EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
The analytical framework of international business is built around the activities of Multinational
Enterprises (MNEs) enunciated by the process of internationalization. The FDI on the part of an MNE
attempts to overcome the obstructions to trade in foreign countries. The strategies relating to the
functional areas, such as production, marketing, finance and price policies, are adopted by the MNEs in
such a manner that an amicable relationship between home and host nations is created.
Foreign direct investment can be distinguished from the other forms of international business, such as
exporting, licensing, joint ventures and management contracts. Basically, it reacts to the restrictions in
foreign trade, licensing, etc. and its growth at the global level has taken place mainly due to the
imperfections in the world markets and protective trade policies pursued by different countries for the
sake of protecting their economies.
The ways in which the MNEs have provided challenges to the imperfections and restraints in the
world markets from an important part of the conceptual methods underlying the expanding role of
international business.
The fast growth of international business has also been conducive to foster close international
economic relations among different countries of the world. Now, the world economy is not only
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interdependent but also inter-linked, and any kind of R&D taking place in any part of the world has its
impact on the entire global economy.
The business across the borders of the countries had been carried on since times immemorial. But the
business had been limited to the international trade until the recent past. The post-World War II period
witnessed an unexpected expansion of national companies into international or multinational companies.
The post 1990's period has given greater fillip to international business.
International Trade to International Marketing: Originally, the producers used to export their products
to the nearby countries and gradually extended the exports to far-off countries. Gradually, the companies
extended the operations beyond trade.
International Marketing to International Business: The multinational companies which were producing
the products in their home countries and marketing them in various foreign countries before 1980s,
started locating their plants and other manufacturing facilities in foreign/host countries. Later, they
started producing in one foreign country and marketing in other foreign countries.
GLOBAL, MULTINATIONAL AND TRANSNATIONAL COMPANY
▪
Multinational companies have investment in other
countries, but do not have coordinated product offerings in
each country. More focused on adapting their products and
service to each individual local market. A Multinational
Corporation (MNC) or Multinational Enterprise (MNE) is a
corporation enterprise that manages production or delivers
services in more than one country. It can also be referred to
as an international corporation. They play an important role
in globalization.
▪
Global companies have invested and are present in
many countries. They market their products through
the use of the same coordinated image/brand in all
markets. Generally, one corporate office that is
responsible for global strategy. Emphasis on volume,
cost management and efficiency.
▪
Transnational companies are much
more complex organizations. They
have invested in foreign operations,
have a central corporate facility but
give decision-making, R&D and
marketing powers to each individual
foreign market.
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Major causes of MNCS Development
1. Corporate structure of organization with its infinite life and legal organization as a separate entity;
2. Extensive improvement in communication and transportation which have accelerated
international business;
3. The growth of excess financial resources in industrial countries;
4. The rapid expansion of markets in many countries; and
5. The formation of larger regional markets through common market and free trade agreements.
Contribution of MNCS
Meshing of market strategies
throughout the free world
economy
Ready transfer of technology
Recruitement, training, and
development of local
management talents
Introduction of new products
Mobility of production
Achievement of economies of
scale
NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
▪
International Restrictions
In international business, there is a fear of the
restrictions which are imposed by the government of the
different countries. Many country’s governments don’t
allow international businesses in their country. They have
trade blocks, tariff barriers, foreign exchange restrictions,
etc. These things are harmful to international business.
▪
Benefits to Participating Countries
International
Restrictions
Benefits to
Participating
Countries
Large Scale
Operations
Market
Segmentation
It gives benefits to the countries which are
participating in the international business. The richer or
developed countries grow their business to the global level
and they get maximum benefits. The developing countries get the latest technology, foreign capital,
employment opportunities, rapid industrial development, etc.
▪
Large Scale Operations
International business contains a large number of operations at a time because it is conducted on a
large scale globally. Production of the goods at a large scale, they have to fulfill the demand at a global
level. Marketing of the product is also conducted at a large scale to make them aware of the product.
First, they fulfill the domestic demand and then they export the surplus in the foreign markets.
▪
Market Segmentation
International business is based on market segmentation on the basis of the geographic segmentation
of the consumers. The market is divided into different groups according to the demand of the consumers
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in different countries. It produces goods according to the demand of the consumers of the different
market segmentations.
INFLUENCES AND GOALS OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
Companies engage in international business to:
1. Expand Sales - Companies’ sales are dependent on
a. the consumers’ interest in their products or
service and
b. the consumers’ willingness and ability to buy
Minimize
Acquire
them. The number of people and the extent of Expand Sales
Risk
Resources
their purchasing powers are higher for the world
as a whole than for a single country. Hence
companies increase the potential market for
their sales by pursuing global markets. Thus,
higher sales mean higher profits because of economies of scale. So, increased sales are a major
motive for a company’s expansion into international business.
2. Acquire Resources - Manufacturers and distributors also look for foreign capital, technologies and
information that they can use at home, to reduce their costs. Sometimes, a company operates abroad to
acquire something not readily available in the home country so as to improve its product quality and
differentiate itself from competitors, potentially increasing market share and profits.
3. Minimize Risk - Companies seek out foreign markets to minimize swings in sales and profits arising out
of business cycle recessions and expansions which occur differently in different countries.
PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
What makes international business strategy different from the domestic are the differences in the
marketing environment. The important special problems in international marketing are given below:
1. Political and Legal Differences - The political and legal environment of foreign markets is different
from that of the domestic. The complexity generally increases as the number of countries in which
a company does business increases. It should also be noted that the political and legal
environment is not the same in all provinces of many home markets.
2. Cultural Differences - The cultural differences, is one of the most difficult problems in international
marketing. Many domestic markets, however, are also not free from cultural diversity.
3. Economic Differences - The economic environment may vary from country to country.
4. Differences in the Currency Unit - The currency unit varies from nation to nation. This may
sometimes cause problems of currency convertibility, besides the problems of exchange rate
fluctuations. The monetary system and regulations may also vary.
5. Differences in the Language - An international marketer often encounters problems arising out of
the differences in the language. Even when the same language is used in different countries, the
same words of terms may have different meanings. The language problem, however, is not
something peculiar to the international marketing.
6. Differences in the Marketing Infrastructure - The availability and nature of the marketing facilities
available in different countries may vary widely. For example, an advertising medium very
effective in one market may not be available or may be underdeveloped in another market.
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7. Trade Restrictions - A trade restriction, particularly import controls, is a very important problem,
which an international marketer face.
8. High Costs of Distance - When the markets are far removed by distance, the transport cost
becomes high and the time required for affecting the delivery tends to become longer. Distance
tends to increase certain other costs also.
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
Though society and culture do not appear to be a part of business situations, yet they are actually
key elements in showing how business activities will be conducted, what goods will be produced, and
through what means they will be sold to establishing industrial and management patterns and
determining the success or failure of a local subsidiary or affiliate.
The main elements of culture are:
1. Attitudes and Beliefs: The set of attitudes and beliefs of a culture will influence nearly all aspects
of human behavior, providing guidelines and organization to a society and its individuals.
In contrast to American individualism, Japanese are group-oriented. Japanese do not like to be alone or to do
things differently from others. They stick together: eating, working, or traveling in a group. Following others and
being part of a group gives them a kind of care freeness and joy. Why are Japanese group-oriented? The reasons
originate from their geography, history, and culture.
2. Attitudes towards Time: Everywhere in the world people use time to communicate with each
other. In international business, attitudes towards time are displayed in behavior regarding
punctuality, responses to business communication, responses to deadlines, and the amount of
time that is spent waiting in an outer office for an appointment.
An interesting phenomenon related to the Spanish people's attitude toward time is something that we have
come to dub "The Manana Complex" (Manana meaning 'tomorrow' in the Spanish language). "Why do
something now when it can be done tomorrow?" Or "What's the rush? Things will be completed eventually"
seems to be the philosophy and way of life for many Spanish people.
3. Attitude towards Work and Leisure: People’s attitudes towards work and leisure are indicative of
their views towards wealth and material gains. These attitudes affect the types, qualities and
numbers of individuals who pursue entrepreneurial and management careers as well.
Time spent in the home and with other household members (Kelly, 1997, p.132), and research has uncovered
both the familial and personal importance of leisure in daily life.
4. Attitude towards Achievement: In some cultures, particularly those with high stratified and
hierarchical societies, there is a tendency to avoid personal responsibility and to work according
to precise instructions received from supervisors that are followed by the latter. In many industrial
societies, personal responsibility and the ability to take risks for potential gain are considered
valuable instruments in achieving higher goals.
McCoach and Siegle (2001) compared 122 gifted achievers with 56 gifted underachievers in 28 different high
schools. The results of an analysis suggested that gifted underachievers differed from achievers on four factors:
attitudes toward teachers, attitudes toward school, goal valuation, and motivation/self-regulation.
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5. Attitudes towards Change: The international manager must understand what aspects of a culture
will resist change and how the areas of resistance differ among cultures, how the process of
change takes place in different cultures and how long it will take to implement change.
Perlman and Takacs (1990) argued that there is a big similarity between the stages that an individual goes
through dealing with death described by KublerRoss (1969) and the stages they identified that individuals go
through when they experience organizational change. More specifically, they noted that there are many
emotional states that a person can experience during change processes, which are equilibrium, denial, danger,
bargaining, chaos, depression, resignation, openness, readiness and re-emergence.
6. Attitude towards Job: The type of job that is considered most desirable or prestigious varies greatly
according to different cultures. Thus, while medical and legal professions are considered
extremely prestigious in the United States, civil service is considered the most prestigious
occupation in several developing countries including Philippines.
Gardner & Korth (1998) sought to understand if attitudes toward group work varied according to individual
learning style preference. They found that there were a large number of statistically significant differences; in
other words, student attitudes about group work and preferred instructional methods seemed to vary
systematically with their individual learning style.
Marketing in Cross-cultural Context
Though all people have much in common as human is, there still are many differences in cultures
as we move from nation to nation. Culture is adaptive, and marketing strategies based on the values of
society must also be adaptive. When cultural changes occur, trends develop and provide marketing
opportunities to those who spot the changes before their competitors do. As culture evolves, marketers
may associate product or brand benefits with new values, or they may have to change the product if that
value is \no longer gratifying in society.
Cross-cultural analysis helps marketers
determine to what extent the consumers of
two or more nations are similar or different.
The greater the similarity between consumers,
the more feasible it is to use relatively similar
strategies in each country. In case the crosscultural analysis reveals that there are wide
cultural
differences,
then
a
highly
individualized marketing strategy may be
indicated for each country.
Cultural Variations
Cross-cultural influences
are norms and values of
consumers
in
foreign
markets that influence
strategies of multinational
organizations
marketing
their products and services
abroad.
Concern differences in
values among different
groups within a country
that distinguish them
from society as a whole.
Technological Environment
1. Internet - A technology with important implications for business in the
Internet sometimes referred to as “the information superhighway.” The
Internet is a global web of more than 25,000 computer networks. It provides
a quick, inexpensive means of global communication (i.e. with strategic
alliance partners) and access to information.
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GE engineers often use the Internet to communicate with their counterparts when doing
development work for other companies. The Internet provides access to experts on such topics as
chemical engineering and semi-conductor manufacturing, to the library of Congress, and even to
satellite photographs.
2. Modems - Modems are important for connecting personal computers to phone lines that help
gain access to the Internet. The technology in the manufacture of modems has advanced rapidly.
Their speed may only be curtailed by the limits of conventional phone lines. Encyclopedia
Britannica Inc. is using the Internet to revive its business.
The firms now offer a free search engine with sites screened by its editors. As Encyclopedia
Britannica’s actions demonstrate, the Internet can allow a firm to be both flexible and innovative
with its product introductions.
3. High Speed Digital Stream - To obtain technology to deliver a high-speed digital stream that can
be viewed as movies, Web sites or advertising on televisions with its equipment.
4. Satellite Imaging - Another new technology that is gaining rapid popularity is satellite imaging.
Several aerospace companies have invested up to $1 billion in corporate earth imaging systems.
Space Imaging, Inc., a joint venture for Lockheed Martin, E-systems, Mitsubishi Corporation, and
Eastman Kodak Company, is a $500 million venture that provides from an advanced satellite.
Many expect this technology to compete in the global information trade industry and some
anticipate that it will create a revolution.
Economic Environment
Perhaps the most important characteristic of the international market
environment is the economic dimension. With money, all things are possible.
Without money, many things are impossible for the marketer. Luxury products, for
example, cannot be sold to low-income consumers. Hypermarkets for food,
furniture, or durables require a large base of consumers with the ability to make
large purchases of goods and the ability to drive away with those purchases.
1. Market Allocation
A market allocation system is one that relies on consumers to allocate
resources. Consumers “write” the economic plan by deciding what will be produced by whom. The role
of the state in a market economy is to promote competition and ensure consumer protection.
The United States, most Western European countries, and Japan – the triad countries that account
for three quarters of gross world product – are predominantly market economy.
2. Command Allocation
In a command allocation system, the state has broad powers to serve the public interest. These
include deciding which products to make and how to make them. Consumers are free to spend their
money on what is available, but state planners make decisions about what is produced and, therefore,
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what is available. Because demand exceeds supply, the elements of the marketing mix are not used as
strategic variables.
3. Mixed System
Income and Purchasing Power Parity around the Globe
When a company charts a plan for global market expansion, it often finds that, for most products,
income is the single most valuable economic variable. After all, a market can be defined as a group of
people willing and able to buy a particular product.
Ideally, GNP and other measures of national income converted to U.S. dollars should be calculated
on the basis of purchasing power parities (i.e. what the currency will buy in the country of issue) or
through direct comparisons of actual prices for a given product. This would provide an actual comparison
of the standards of living in the countries of the world.
Did u know? The top 10 nations ranked as per purchasing parity are: (In Order) USA, China, India,
Japan, Germany, Russia, Brazil, UK, France and Italy.
Key Economic Issues that Influence International Business
The key economic issues that influence international business are discussed below:
Inflation
Debt
Income
Distribution
Poverty
Unemployment
1. Inflation
Inflation is the pervasive and sustained rise in the aggregate level of prices measured by an index of
the cost of various goods and services. Inflation results when aggregate demand grows faster than
aggregate supply- essentially, too many people are trying to buy too few goods, thereby creating demand
that pushes prices up faster than incomes grow. Consider the impact of inflation on the cost of living.
Rising prices make it more difficult for consumers to buy products unless their incomes rise at the same
or faster pace. Sometimes it is practically impossible. Either alone or together, these measures slow or
stop economic growth.
2. Unemployment
The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed workers divided by the total civilian labor
force, which includes both the unemployed and those with jobs. In practice, measuring the number of
unemployed workers actually seeking work in various countries is difficult given the lack of a standard
measurement method. Generally, people out of work and unable to find jobs depress economic growth,
create social pressure, and provoke political uncertainty.
3. Debt
Debt, the sum total of government’s financial obligations, measures the state’s borrowing from its
population, from foreign organizations, from foreign governments, and from international institutions.
More recently, many countries have borrowed from international lenders to finance their movement to
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freer markets, a process of economic transition. Many countries that began with this ambition but that
eventually failed then increasingly had to rely on foreign debt.
4. Income Distribution
GNI or PPP, even weighted by the size of the population, can misestimate the relative wealth of a
nation’s citizens. Uneven income distribution is not a problem of poorer nations. There is a strong
relationship between skewed income distributions and the split between those who live in urban settings
versus those who live in rural areas.
5. Poverty
A related but separate issue concerns poverty- the state of having little or no money, few or no
material possessions, and little or no resources to enjoy a reasonable standard of life. In many parts of
the world, workers and consumers struggle for food, shelter, clothing, and clean water, health services,
to say nothing of safety, security, and education. Failure results in suffering, malnutrition, mental illness,
death epidemics, famine, and war.
▪
The Balance of Payments
The Balance of Payments (BOP), officially known as the statement of International Transactions, records
a country’s international transactions that take place between companies, governments, or individuals.
Managers use the BOP as a comprehensive indicator of a country’s economic stability.
Political Environment
In order to appraise the political environment of a country, the knowledge of the form of
government of that country is essential. Basically, the government can be classified into two categories –
parliamentary (open) or absolutist (closed). In the parliamentary form of government, the citizens are
supposed to be consulted from time to time for learning about their opinions and preferences. In this type
of government, the policies are thus intended to reflect the desire of the majority segment of society.
Most of the industrialized nations and democratic countries can be classified as parliamentary.
At the international political level, the governments can be classified in a number of ways. However, the
best way to classify the government is through the political parties.
Classification
of Political
Parties
Two party
Multiple
party
Single party
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▪
In a two-party system, there are mainly two parties that control the
government, turn by turn, which-so-ever in a majority and the other
parties are also allowed to support any one of the two parties.
▪
In a multi-party system, there are a large number of parties, however, none
of them are strong enough to gain control of the government. There have
been cases when the larger parties, in spite of having a thin majority,
cannot control the government because it needs support from other
parties. The government, in this case, can only be formed through coalition
of likeminded parties each one of which would like to protect its own
interest.
▪
In a single party system, there may be a number of parties functioning
in a country, however, one party has so much of majority that there is
very little opportunity for others to elect representatives to govern the
country.
▪
In a dominated one-party system, the dominant party does not allow any
opposition resulting in no alternative for the people. In contrast, a single
party system does allow some opposition parties. The former Soviet Union,
Cuba and Libya are good examples of dominated one party system. Such a
system tends to easily transform itself into dictatorship. Democratic
political system is a pre requisite for political stability also. India, the largest democracy in the
world, possesses a sound political infrastructure and political institutions that have withstood
many crises over the years.
Political Risks Defined
Political risk, sometimes called “sovereign risk,” has several elements.
▪
▪
▪
It is found whenever a government prevents a private sector debtor from repaying its obligations.
It occurs when the foreign government is itself a debtor and defaults on its own obligations due
to its own volition.
Political risk is present when a government repossesses the assets of a private entity (sometimes
referred to as “confiscation,” or “expropriation”).
Other examples of political risks include imposition of new controls (such as trade restrictions, exchange
limitations or monetary controls), and war, revolution or insurrection.
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Political Risk Analysis
There are a number of political risks which are to be faced by international marketers. The risks, which
the marketers face from the host government, are:
Confiscation
Expropriation
The process of a
government’s
taking
ownership of a
property
without
compensation.
Expropriation differs from
confiscation in that there is
some
compensation
though not necessarily just
compensation. More often
than not, a company
whose property is being
expropriated agrees to sell
its operations – not by
choice but rather because
of some explicit or implied
coercion.
Nationalization
It
involves
government
ownership and it is
the government that
operates
the
business being taken
over.
Indicators of Political Instability
To assess a potential marketing environment, a company should identify and, evaluate the relevant
indicators of political difficulty. Potential sources of political complication include social unrest, the
attitudes of nationals, and the policies of the host government.
Social Unrest
Attitudes of Nationals
Policies of the Host
Government
Social disorder is caused by such
underlying conditions as economic
hardship, internal dissension and
insurgency, and ideological, religious,
racial, and cultural differences.
Nationals are often concerned with
foreigners’ intentions in regard to
exploitation and colonialism, and these
concerns are often linked to concerns
over foreign governments’ actions that
may
be seen
aschange
improper.
The mood
can
either with time or
change in leadership, and it can change
for either the better or the worse.
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Chapter 1 Activity 1
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter corresponding to the best answer.
1. Which among the following statements are TRUE about Multinational companies?
Statement A: Multinational Companies have investment in other countries, but do not have
coordinated product offerings in each country.
Statement B: Multinational Companies are more focused on adapting their products and services to
each individual local market.
a. Both Statement are TRUE.
b. Only Statement A is TRUE
c. Only Statement B is TRUE
d. Both Statement are FALSE
2. What is MNC?
a. A multinational corporation (MNC) or worldwide enterprise is a corporate organization that owns
or controls production of goods or services in two or more countries ...
b. An enterprise operating in several country but managed from one home country
c. It is a corporation that manages production and deliver services in more than one country
d. All of the above
3. They market their products through the use of the same coordinated image/brand in all markets.
Commonly they have one corporate office that is responsible for global strategy.
a. Global Companies
b. Multinational Companies
c. Transnational Company
d. All of the above
4. The following are the major causes of MNCS Development EXCEPT:
a. Corporate structure of organization with its infinite life and legal organization as a separate entity
b. Extensive improvement in communication and transportation which have slowed international
business
c. The growth of excess financial resources in industrial countries
d. The rapid expansion of markets in many countries
5. It is considered as a nature of international business which are imposed by the government of the
different countries. Many country’s governments don’t allow international businesses in their country.
a. International Restrictions
b. Benefits to Participating Countries
c. Large Scale Operations
d. Market Segmentation
6. Companies engage in international business to __________________.
a. Expand Sales
b. Acquire Resources
c. Minimize Risk
d. All of the above
7. The following are key economic issues that influence international business EXCEPT:
a. Inflation
b. Debt
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c. Poverty
d. Employment
8. It is a sum total of government’s financial obligations, measures the state’s borrowing from its
population, from foreign organizations, from foreign governments, and from international institutions.
a. Debt
b. Inflation
c. Poverty
d. The Balance of Payments
9. It is officially known as the statement of International Transactions, records a country’s international
transactions that take place between companies, governments, or individuals.
a. The Balance of Payments
b. Debt
c. Inflation
d. Poverty
10.
Which among Political risks government’s taking ownership of a property without compensation?
a. Expropriation
b. Nationalization
c. Confiscation
d. None of the above
Chapter 1 Activity 2
Problems of International Business
According to https://www.trade.gov, an Official Website of the International Trade Administration of the
United States. Market Challenges that you have encountered when entering the market for the
Philippines are:
a. Graft and Corruption: Corruption, a constraint to trade and investment, is a pervasive and longstanding challenge in the Philippines. Although the Philippine Government has made major strides
in fighting graft and corruption, these were not enough as shown in the Philippines’ declining
ranking in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index. From 95 in 2015, 101 in
2016, 111 in 2017, 99 in 2018, 113 in 2019, the Philippines’ ranking was down to 115 out of 180
countries in 2020.
b. Regulatory System: Product registration, product standards, and environmental and labeling
requirements place restrictions on certain products. In addition, some products require special
licenses and permits prior to shipment. See the “Customs, Regulations and Standards” section for
additional information.
c. Infrastructure: The Philippines lags many of its neighbors in infrastructure development. Traffic
congestion in Metro Manila continues to be a major problem. Prior to the pandemic, overcapacity
in international airports across the country presents a significant impediment to development and
tourism. Port congestion is regularly raised as a constraint to business. In addition, the country
ranks as one of the lowest in the region for internet penetration, connectivity, and speed, but costs
are comparable to the American market. Cyber security remains a concern.
d. Philippine Government Procurement: There are procurement opportunities in the Philippine
Government, but a local partner is generally required. The law on government procurement
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(Republic Act No. 9184) calls for the lowest calculated and responsive bid and, has cumbersome
bureaucratic procedures and significant paperwork requirements. See the “Selling to the
Government” section for more information.
e. Highly Price-Sensitive Market: U.S. products are generally known for high quality but are also
more expensive. U.S. exporters should not expect to apply their U.S. pricing strategy in this market.
Distributors and customers will request payment terms.
Questions:
1. You are a CEO of an American Company and would like to expand your business in the Philippines and read
their published article on the website, will you pursue in expanding your business in the Philippines? Why and
why not?
2. Why do you think Graft and Corruption is considered as a challenge in putting up a business in one country?
3. Why Infrastructure affects the decision of the US businesses in entering the market of the Philippines? Justify
your answer by citing an example.
Chapter 1 Activity 3
Technological Environment
Compare and contrast the technological environment of the Third World Countries such as the
Philippines from the Highly Developed Countries such as Japan.
Philippines
Japan
Essay Writing Rubric
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