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Mind, Body, and Soul: How Children Develop Emotions and Cognition Through Music
Katie A. Morris
Department of Music Education, University of West Georgia
MUSC 6083: Research and Methods
Dr. Elizabeth Kramer
February 25, 2022
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Mind, Body, and Soul: How Children Develop Emotions and Cognition Through Music
I am studying children’s social-emotional and cognitive learning through music because I
want to find out how music physically, psychologically, and scientifically affects their brain and
heart in order to help my readers understand what elements of music and roles of music
organizations can help students connect with music and with society. Music plays a very
important role in people’s lives, and it all starts in their early childhood. Elements of music, such
as rhythm, beat, pitch, tempo, dynamics and fine arts performances are all taught inside of a
classroom. However, students have also been exposed to other music influences, like genres on
the radio, soundtracks for movies and games, diverse cultures, and concerts. Some primary
factors that apply to students’ emotional development and thinking skills include traditional
music classroom methods (Orff-Shulwerk, Kodaly, Dalcroze), scientific research of musical
impact on the brain, heart, and body, and informal experiences that contribute to their learning.
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Mind, Body, and Soul: How Children Develop Emotions and Cognition Through Music:
Annotated Bibliography
Andasun, M. (2015, March 3). Transforming teaching and learning with music technology.
Early Arts.
https://earlyarts.co.uk/blog/transforming-teaching-and-learning-with-music-technology
There are many ways to integrate music and life skills in the elementary classroom, and
Andasun (2015) explains how music technology is no different when it comes to
instruction and students’ social environments. In this blog, Andasun (2015) demonstrates
sounds of certain technology, such as microphones and synthesizers, and connects them
to children’s aural skills and critical thinking. A student may comment, “That microphone
sounds like a waterfall!”, and this shows how students apply their visual and auditory
skills to connect with software in the real world.
Arbib, M.A. (Ed.). (2013). Language, music and the brain: A mysterious relationship. The MIT
Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262018104.001.0001
In this book, Arbib (2013) covers a number of ways that music can be a bridge between
language, behavior, culture, and evolution. Chapters include how music links students to
different themes, such as dance, cultural languages relating to songs, film soundtrack, and
song structure.
Arslan, A. (2009). Orff-Schulwerk elementary music applications in interdisciplinary education
in chair of primary school education. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1),
2546-2551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.449
The Orff-Schulwerk method is one of the more modern approaches in primary music
education (Arslan, 2009). Arslan (2009) combines general information about students
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who are being taught instrumental performance and creative literacy, as well as evaluates
primary music teachers with their knowledge and application. The results show higher
numbers in teachers who have used the Orff-Schulwerk method and use it to encourage
students’ teamwork, communication, instrumental performances, and creation of
awareness.
Austin, J. R. (1990). The relationship of music self-esteem to degree of participation in school
and out-of-school music activities among upper elementary students. Contributions to
Music Education, 17, 20–31. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24127467.
In this article, Austin (1990) determined if partaking in music organizations influences
upper grade students’ self-esteem and peer relationships by applying the Stel-Esteem of
Musical Ability (SEMA) test. Researchers and music educators considered the following
components: Gender, self-esteem scores, and grade levels. In the questionnaire, students
documented “agree or disagree” answers on musical activity participation.
Austin, M. (Ed.). (2016). Music video games: Performance, politics, and play. Bloomsbury
Academic & Professional.
Music can be interpreted outside of the classroom, and Austin (2016) discussed how
music-related video games and video game soundtracks are beneficial to cognitive and
performance skills. In a timeline from the history of game companies to modern day
musical games, Austin (2016) used examples like Guitar Hero, Rhythm Heaven
(Nintendo), and SIMON. In general, video games teach hand-eye coordination and focus,
but music-related video games include soundtrack for ear training, early instrument
knowledge, and rhythmic abilities applicable for the classroom.
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Brown, A. (2013). Let’s start the music: Programming for primary grades. American Library
Association.
In this book, Brown (2013) applies different programs, interactive activities, and literacy
to help create a social atmosphere for primary grade students, as well as encourage other
music educators to include similar techniques. The eight intelligences include linguistic,
logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
and naturalistic (Brown, 2013). Using these intelligences in the music classroom, students
from an early age group are more likely to interpret social values through their literacy,
and apply self-awareness to their movements and instrument performance.
Chand O’Neal, I. (2017). The cognitive and attitudinal effects of arts integrated instruction on
4th and 5th grade elementary school students. (Publication No. 10615154). [Doctoral
dissertation, The Claremont Graduate University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
Global.
In this dissertation, 4th and 5th grade students who have arts integrated lessons are more
likely to achieve higher academic success and improve social behaviors, as opposed to
students who are not as involved. Arts integrated lessons help students build life skills,
community involvement, and emotion management. Performed at both district and full
board level, a large group of 4th and 5th grade students participated in a test to see if their
academics and standardized testing improved through arts integration.
Cho, E. (2018). The relationship between small ensemble experiences, empathy, and emotional
self-regulation skills in music students. (Publication No. 11016216). [Master’s thesis,
University of Southern California]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
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Cho (2018) informs readers about how ensembles for upper elementary up to college
students form communication skills and healthy social environments. The research covers
some chapters that show how emotional regulation starts at childhood, and that
participating in a music ensemble fosters healthy communication skills and coordination
up to adulthood. At the bottom of the study, charts show results of how many students
benefited in their academic focus from instrumental performance and genre preferences,
and classical music had the highest number of participants.
Deasy, R.J. (Ed). (2002). Critical links: Learning in the arts and student academic and social
development. Arts Education Partnership. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED466413
From this monograph, Deasy (2002) states that in both primary and elementary grades,
students have demonstrated how fine arts improve academic performance. Some of the
academics included how well students improve literacy from reading skills, understand
sound waves in science, and connect history to modern times. In summary, researchers
and educators used this study, and then they created and applied new strategies for how
core subjects intertwine with fine arts.
Debussy, C. (Composer). (n.d.). Claire de lune. Suite bergamasque. Paris: E. Fromont. (Original
work published in 1905). Retrieved February 16, 2022, from
https://imslp.org/wiki/Suite_bergamasque_(Debussy,_Claude)
Claire de Lune was composed by Claude Debussy during the Impressionist Period, which
was a time when instrumental music created pictures or impressions. This is the third
movement of Suite Bergamasque, and is a very popular piece to teach to elementary
students when it comes to reflective listening and imagery. When students listen to this
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movement, they interpret the music’s mood, express emotions based on the timbre and
texture, and discuss their listening with their classmates.
Deutsch, D., Gabrielsson, A., Sloboda, J., Cross, I., Drake, C., Parncutt, R., McAdams, S.,
Clarke, E., Trehub, S., O’Neill, S., Hargreaves, D., Kemp, A., North, A., & Zatorre, R.
(2001). Psychology of music. In Grove Music Online. Retrieved from
https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/97815615926
30.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000042574.
In this Grove Music Online article, Deutsch et al.(2001) summarize the psychological
side of music. From a historical perspective, the philosopher Pythagoras researched how
music connects with the anatomy of the ear and its sound process. This has influenced
neurology studies in terms of what physically happens when an individual plays a note
and it travels through the ear and reaches the brain. From there, people have contributed
to their ear training ability at an early age, and therefore improving their aural skills and
in their years of music education.
Elliot, D.J. (1989). Key concepts in multicultural music education. International Journal of
Music Education, 13(1), 11-18. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F025576148901300102
There are other cultures that combine with their own unique branches of music, and
students who are being taught multicultural music lessons may consider this and grow
closer to their classmates when learning new songs from other countries. Elliot (1989)
claimed in this article that music is not considered a “universal language” when it comes
to combining various countries.The bottom of the article presents a detailed multicultural
music curriculum, where the lessons broaden from Western-European classical and
secular perspectives, as well as styles of Jamaican and Japanese concepts in music.
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Fiske, H. & Heller, J. (2014). Music psychology. In Grove Music Online. Retrieved from
https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/97815615926
30.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-1002267271.
Fiske and Heller (2014) examine the human culture of how music affects people
emotionally. This encyclopedia entry references back to the 4th century BCE, where
Aristotle and Plato stated that music delivers emotions and that certain modes or types of
music cross over with Greek values. While many psychologists and philosophers agreed
that acoustics and culture were the basic branches of musical experience, they also
pointed out technology that visualizes sound waves of the music and determined what
happens when sound reaches the neurons in the brain.
Gersema, E. (2016). Children’s brains develop faster with music training. USC News.
https://news.usc.edu/102681/childrens-brains-develop-faster-with-music-training/
Gersema (2016) analyzed how children who participate in music programs develop
quicker brain activity and responses, as opposed to children who do not. In this news
article, the violin was used as an instrumental example to demonstrate music instruction
and how sounds and amplitude send neurosignals up the stem of the brain, through the
thalamus, and into the auditory/temporal lobes of the brain. Neuroscientists found that
children who participated in groups, like youth orchestras, were more likely to perform
tasks that required a quick response, like identifying pitch.
Hammel, A.M. & Hourigan, R.M. (2013). Teaching music to students with autism. Oxford City
Press.
From this book, Hammel and Hourigan (2013) entail full descriptions of the autism
spectrum in specific details and ways that music, as well as social-emotional concepts,
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works differently with students who have autism. An Individualized Education Program
(IEP) is a plan to encourage relationships with the faculty and behavioral studies through
music activities and social settings. This resource is very impactful for elementary music
teachers if they have students with autism and aim for new ways to moderate lessons that
fit specific student needs to perform and socialize with their peers.
Harper, L.J. (2016). Preschool through primary grades: Using picture books to promote
social-emotional literacy. YC Young Children, 71(3), 80-86. Retrieved from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/ycyoungchildren.71.3.80.
Harper (2016) shows how literacy enhances learning through play and emotional
response. This article displays a multitude of picture books, classroom activities that help
children identify feelings and results from critical thinking skills, and lessons for younger
students to understand peer relationships. Not only would the strategies be useful for
building these students’ reading skills and song composition, but for multitasking and
growing empathy in their relationships.
Haydn, F. J. (Composer). (2021). Allegro di molto. Symphony no. 94 in g major. Leipzig:
Breitkopf and Hartel. (Original work published in 1855). Retrieved February 18, 2022,
from https://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.94_in_G_major,_Hob.I:94_(Haydn,_Joseph)
Allegro di molto, known as Surprise Symphony, is the fourth and final movement of
Symphony no. 94 in G Major by Franz Joseph Haydn. With this piece taking place in the
Classical Period, it helps students understand history, melody, and song form. In a
listening activity, a teacher may play it on a software while the students respond to the
big “surprise” and process a spooked emotion and refer back to the repeated melody.
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Hewitt, D. (2018). Constructing informal experiences in the elementary general music
Classroom. Music Educators Journal, 104(3), 46–53.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0027432117745361
As much as young students learn by traditional music lessons in the classrooms, students
also use informal experiences outside of the classroom and are still able to learn similar
concepts. One of the main theories that was introduced was “constructivism”, or how
students become active in their learning environments (Hewitt 2018). As an end result,
students showed that they added more to their music class by implementing daily tasks,
such as using a speaking/singing voice and problem solving, into a formal lesson plan.
Hewitt, M.P. (2011). The impact of self-evaluation instruction on student self-evaluation, music
performance, and self evaluation accuracy. Journal of Research in Music Education,
59(1), 6-20. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23019434.
Hewitt (2011) demonstrated how self-evaluation instruction has an impact on
performance and self-evaluation. 5th-8th grade students from a private school were tested
in this study to prove how self-evaluation in music performances strengthen their core
subjects, like math, science, and reading. Over a five week period and during class,
students were given an evaluation on three different pieces that included articulation and
melody, and all groups improved on their performance based on self-evaluation.
Hodges, D.A. & Wilkins, R.W. (2015). How and why does music move us? Answers from
psychology and neuroscience. Music Educators Journal, 101(4), 41-47.
https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/D_Hodges_How_2015.pdf
In this journal article, Hodges and Wilkins (2015) provide scientific, psychological, and
visual information about how music affects thoughts and feelings within the brain.
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Neuroscientists have developed a network and photographic evidence that shows what
happens to the brain when music is processed. The results highlight physical parts of the
brain that are affected by music, such as the temporal lobes of the brain (the temporal
lobe is where music and audio signals coexist).
Houlahan, M. & Tacka, P. (2015). Kodaly today: A cognitive approach to elementary music
education. Kodaly today handbook series (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Elementary music curricula incorporate the Kodaly method, which is a traditional method
that reinforces activities such as singing by rote, fingerplay, creative movement,
improvisation, and partner games. In one chapter, Houlahan and Tacka (2015) inform
their readers of basic activities and standards, such as circle/partner games, singing on the
correct pitch (solfege), and free movements, for each grade level. Another chapter
explains more complex standards, like composition, harmony, memorization, and reading
more difficult notation.
Montgomery, B. (2021). Social-emotional learning in the elementary school music classroom.
The Graduate Review, 6(12).
https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1197&context=grad_rev
Montgomery (2021) analyzes details of how social-emotional learning (SEL), classroom
content, and experiences of both students and teachers go hand in hand. The article
documented the history of when social-emotional learning first began and how historical
movements connect with culture. Theorists like Vygotsky and Bandura, who researched
student’s learning styles, influenced teachers who plan to obtain a positive outcome
from including SEL elements.
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Nusseck, M., & Wanderly, M.M. (2009). Music and motion-how music-related ancillary body
movements contribute to the experience of music. Music Perception, 26(4), 335-353.
https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2009.26.4.335
One of the biggest learning styles of music standards is kinesthetic learning and ancillary
body movements are the biggest factor of expression and creativity (Nusseck and
Wanderly, 2009). When students are performing a creative movement lesson and are
listening to certain music, specific body parts connect to specific emotions and
movements display their perception. A set of charts are presented to evaluate clarinet
players and how their performance and fluency of the sound affect their body movements
in the arms and torso.
Rickard, N. S. & Mcferran, K. (2011). Lifelong engagement with music: Benefits for mental
health and well-being. Nova Science Publishers.
Rickard and Mcferran (2011) discuss in this book how music is beneficial to the
neurological process and health. Listening skills begin during an infant’s prenatal stages
and from there, infant children respond to pitch and progress through expression and fine
motor skills. When children reach elementary through adolescent ages, that is when they
start to develop more memory, think in abstract forms, and become aware of health due to
musical activity.
Varadi, J. (2022). A review of literature on the relationship of music education to the
development of socio-emotional learning. SAGE Open, 12(1).
https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211068501
Literature, social-emotional learning, and the Kodaly approach all combine to enhance
students’ ability to manage emotions and build positive relationships (Varadi, 2022).
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Varadi (2022) stated that starting with pitch, folk songs, and singing games, students built
vocal performance and auditory training. These techniques shaped their personality and
self-esteem.
Yanko, M. & Yap, P. (2020). A symbiotic link between music, movement, and social emotional
learning: Mindful learning in early learners. Learning Landscapes, 13(1), 249-264.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1261329
Young learners in elementary grades engage in their learning through imagination and
response, and Yanko and Yap (2020) exemplify how students connect their abilities
through composition, movement to abstract pieces, and reflection. Twenty-two first grade
students illustrate movements and reflect on the music literature over the course of six
months. Inside the lesson, there were five different sections that had the students imagine
the setting of the story, the timbres, the movements, perception of objects and characters,
and empathy towards the story and peers in their class.
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References
Andasun, M. (2015, March 3). Transforming teaching and learning with music technology. Early
Arts.
https://earlyarts.co.uk/blog/transforming-teaching-and-learning-with-music-technology
Arbib, M.A. (Ed.). (2013). Language, music and the brain: A mysterious relationship. The MIT
Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262018104.001.0001
Arslan, A. (2009). Orff-Schulwerk elementary music applications in interdisciplinary education
in chair of primary school education. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, (1)1,
2546-2551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.449
Austin, J. R. (1990). The relationship of music self-esteem to degree of participation in school
and out-of-school music activities among upper-elementary students. Contributions to
Music Education, 17, 20–31. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/24127467.
Austin, M. (Ed.). (2016). Music video games: Performance, politics, and play. Bloomsbury
Academic & Professional.
Brown, A. (2013). Let’s start the music: Programming for primary grades. American Library
Association.
Chand O’Neal, I. (2017). The cognitive and attitudinal effects of arts integrated instruction on
4th and 5th grade elementary school students. (Publication No. 10615154). [Doctoral
dissertation, The Claremont Graduate University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
Global.
Cho, E. (2018). The relationship between small ensemble experiences, empathy, and emotional
self-regulation skills in music students. (Publication No. 11016216). [Master’s thesis,
University of Southern California]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
15
Deasy, R.J. (Ed). (2002). Critical links: Learning in the arts and student academic and social
development. Arts Education Partnership. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED466413
Debussy, C. (Composer). (n.d.). Claire de lune. Suite bergamasque. Paris: E. Fromont. (Original
work published in 1905). Retrieved February 16, 2022, from
https://imslp.org/wiki/Suite_bergamasque_(Debussy,_Claude)
Deutsch, D., Gabrielsson, A., Sloboda, J., Cross, I., Drake, C., Parncutt, R., McAdams, S.,
Clarke, E., Trehub, S., O’Neill, S., Hargreaves, D., Kemp, A., North, A., & Zatorre, R.
(2001). Psychology of music. In Grove Music Online. Retrieved from
https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/97815615926
30.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000042574.
Elliot, D.J. (1989). Key concepts in multicultural music education. International Journal of
Music Education, 13(1), 11-18. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F025576148901300102
Fiske, H. & Heller, J. (2014). Music psychology. In Grove Music Online. Retrieved from
https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/97815615926
30.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-1002267271.
Gersema, E. (2016). Children’s brains develop faster with music training. USC News.
https://news.usc.edu/102681/childrens-brains-develop-faster-with-music-training/
Hammel, A.M. & Hourigan, R.M. (2013). Teaching music to students with autism. Oxford City
Press.
Harper, L.J. (2016). Preschool through primary grades: Using picture books to promote
social-emotional literacy. YC Young Children, 71(3), 80-86. Retrieved from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/ycyoungchildren.71.3.80.
16
Haydn, F. J. (Composer). (2021). Allegro di molto. Symphony no. 94 in g major. Leipzig:
Breitkopf and Hartel. (Original work published in 1855). Retrieved February 18, 2022,
from https://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.94_in_G_major,_Hob.I:94_(Haydn,_Joseph)
Hewitt, D. (2018). Constructing informal experiences in the elementary general music
Classroom. Music Educators Journal, 104(3), 46–53. Retrieved from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/26588637.
Hewitt, M.P. (2011). The impact of self-evaluation instruction on student self-evaluation, music
performance, and self evaluation accuracy. Journal of Research in Music Education,
59(1), 6-20. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23019434.
Hodges, D.A. & Wlkins, R.W. (2015). How and why does music move us? Answers from
psychology and neuroscience. Music Educators Journal, 101(4), 41-47.
https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/D_Hodges_How_2015.pdf
Houlahan, M. & Tacka, P. (2015). Kodaly today: A cognitive approach to elementary music
education. Kodaly today handbook series (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Montgomery, B. (2021). Social-emotional learning in the elementary school music classroom.
The Graduate Review, 6(12).
https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1197&context=grad_rev
Nusseck, M., & Wanderly, M.M. (2009). Music and motion-how music-related ancillary body
movements contribute to the experience of music. Music Perception, 26(4), 335-353.
https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2009.26.4.335
Rickard, N. S. & Mcferran, K. (2011). Lifelong engagement with music: Benefits for mental
health and well-being. Nova Science Publishers..
17
Varadi, J. (2022). A review of literature on the relationship of music education to the
development of socio-emotional learning. SAGE Open, 12(1),
https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211068501
Yanko, M. & Yap, P. (2020). A symbiotic link between music, movement, and social emotional
learning: Mindful learning in early learners. Learning Landscapes, 13(1).
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1261329