Lesson Element
Piliavin et al (1969) Subway Samaritan
Instructions and answers for teachers
These instructions cover the student activity section which begins on page 16 and which consists of
six activity sheets. This lesson element supports OCR A Level Psychology.
When distributing the activity section to the students either as a printed copy or as a Word
file you will need to remove the teacher instructions section.
Mapping to the specification

Define key terminology

Describe the background to the study

Describe and evaluate the research conducted by Piliavin et al
General teacher guidance
Introduction
Previous research had demonstrated that ‘diffusion of responsibility’ could be the reason why people
choose not to help in an emergency situation - a theory proposed by Darley and Latané in an effort
to explain the murder of Kitty Genovese. However, this research had been conducted in a laboratory
setting, therefore Piliavin et al. aimed to investigate what factors affect helping in a real-life, natural
environment.
Piliavin et al. designed a field experiment, using covert observation to test several variables and
their effect on helping behaviour. These included the responsibility of the victim (drunk/cane,) race of
the victim, effect of modelling and effect of group size. They conducted the study on the New York
subway, over several months, staging an accident in which a passenger (actor) collapsed. Results
did not find evidence for diffusion of responsibility, but rather that people were making a rational
decision to help based on the cost vs. reward heuristic.
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There are seven possible student activities suggested in this lesson element, each with worksheets.
The worksheets are designed to be used after the teacher has given some background and outlined
Piliavin et al. (1969) study. Each worksheet contains an activity to reinforce and check learning.
Teacher preparation
Students should be given an introduction to the topic, by considering the background to the Piliavin
et al. study.
Students should then be introduced to Piliavin et al’s Arousal: Cost vs. Reward model. You will need
access to an OCR text book and/or OCR’s Guide to Core Studies 2 (pages 3-7) to demonstrate
helping behaviour in the study and the concluding Arousal: Cost vs. Reward model.
Students can then work in pairs/small groups to complete the activities on the study; procedure,
results and evaluation.
Task instructions
A copy of all six worksheets should be printed for each student.
For reference, the teacher should have a textbook/presentation/original articles/core study guide
when students are completing these activities.
Task 1: Background
The specification states that learners must know how each core study relates to the area of
psychology it is placed within. In this case, the Piliavin et al. core study relates to Social Psychology.
The below activities aim to provide students with an understanding to the background of Piliavin et
al.’s study.
Worksheet 1 is to be accompanied with the NewYorker article. Ask students to read the article and
watch the rolling show about Kitty Genovese and answer questions regarding the incident:
http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/03/10/a-call-for-help
1. What makes someone help/choose not to?
2. What reasons might they have?
3. How would you react in this situation? Why?
To follow, students could then watch the following clip which gives clear explanation of bystander
apathy, and diffusion of responsibility, this will help them to understand the background to the study.
Students can additionally use the information from the text book on Darley and Latané (1968), in
order to add further detail to their mind map below.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4S1LLrSzVE
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Then model the information that students should have
Piliavin et al. note in their study that social
psychologists became particularly interested
in the behaviour of bystanders following the
case of the brutal murder of Kitty Genovese
in New York in 1964. The murder attracted
interest from psychologists because
according the the press, not one person out
of the 40 people who witnessed the attack
lasting over half an hour, tried to help or
contacted the police.
Previous research had been
conducted in the laboratory, and
therefore cannot generalise to
real life lack ecological validity
and external validity.
The early laboratory experiments into bystander
apathy consisted of candid camera/trigger happy
style scenarious where people were placed in
situations such as a smoke filled room to
invesitgate if people would sound the alarm or
not. (e.g. Latane and Darley 1968).
Why did Piliavin et al conduct this
research - what reasons can you find?
The therefore planned to
investigate helping behaviour
using a field experiment where
they could observe behaviour as
it is in the real world.
Piliavin et al believed that it was the situation
that determined behavious, whereas
previous research believe dit wasa person's
personality that decides whether someone
helps or not
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Piliavin et al wanted
to see if altruism
exists...
Task 2: Aims of the study
Worksheet 2 requires students to apply their knowledge of the aims within Piliavin et al study. The
below table provides the four aims which the study had and the activity is for the students to
summarise the prediction/s for each aim. Students should be given 5-10 minutes to complete this
activity.
Key terminology
Aim
Information and predictions
Responsibility of
the victim
The researchers predicted that a person who was drink (and therefore
responsible for their condition) would receive less help than someone who was
ill, (and therefore not responsible for their need for help.) It was suggested that
this would be due to the possible cost of helping someone whose behaviour
was unpredictable.
Race of the victim
The race of the victim was predicted to affect the rate of helping. It was
predicted that more help would be given to a person of the same race as the
bystander: same race helping. This prediction was based on previous findings
concerning similarity and liking.
Effect of
modelling
Previous research had suggested that seeing another person help would lead
others in that situation to behave in a similar way.
Effect of size of
group
Examined the relationship between group size and helping response,
specifically to test the diffusion of responsibility found in earlier studies: the
idea that the more people, the less help given.
Task 3: Features of the study
Worksheet 3 follows on to activities which focus on the description of the study. Students should
use the structured work sheets to collect information on the method, procedure and results.
Additionally, students should use information from the text book to assist with these activities.
Independent Variables:
The Participants:
The Emergency
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Dependent Variables:
Piliavin et al.
Methodology
The Location:
The Confederates:
Victim and Model Conditions:
4
Information which could be used to complete this activity:

The study was carried out on the A and D trains of the 8 Avenue IND in New York City.
These were selected because they make no stops- so for 7.5 minutes there was a captive
audience.

In total, 103 trials of the experiment were conducted.

The participants were approx. 4450 men and women who used these trains on weekdays
between 11am and 3pm, between the 15 April and 26 June, 1968.

They were unsolicited participants.

Racial composition of the train was 45% black and 55% white.

Mean number of people in each carriage was 43.

Mean number of people in the critical area was 8.

On each trial a team of 4 confederates, 2 males and 2 females, acted out an emergency.

There were 4 teams of 4.

The female confederates always observed and recorded data, while the males played the
roles of model and victim.

The victims were all male, aged between 26-35yrs. Three were white and one was black.

All were identically dressed in jackets, old trousers and no tie.

The four models were aged between 24 and 29. They wore informal clothes and were not
dressed identically.

As the train passed the first station, approximately 70 seconds after departing, the victim
staggered forward and collapsed. He lay on the floor looking at the ceiling until he received
help.

If he received no help by the time the train slowed to a stop- the model helped him to his feet.

At the stop, the team got off and waited separately until all passengers had left the platformthey then processed to another platform to wait for the train heading in the opposite direction,
to repeat the experiment.

When the model provided assistance, he raised the victim to a sitting position and stayed
with him for the remainder of the trial. An equal number of no-model conditions were
randomly assigned to each team.

Drunk victim condition: on 38 trials the victims smelt of alcohol and carried a black cane
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
Cane victim condition: on 65 trials the victim appeared sober and carried a black cane.

The dependent variable was helping, of which various measures were taken:

Time taken for the first passenger to offer help.

The total number of passengers who helped.

The gender, race and location of every helper.

The time taken for the first passenger to offer help after the model had assisted.

Several other measures were also taken:

Movement of any passengers out of the critical area.

The gender, race and location of every passenger in the critical area.

Spontaneous comments made by passengers.

Critical area - early: the model would stand in the critical area and wait until passing the
fourth station before he helped the victim (approximately 70 seconds after the collapse).

Critical area - late: the model would stand in the critical area and wait until passing the sixth
station before he helped the victim (approximately 150 seconds after the collapse).

Adjacent area - early: the model would stand in the adjacent area and waited until passing
the fourth station before he helped the victim.

Adjacent area - late: the model would stand in the adjacent area and waited until passing the
sixth station before he helped the victim.

When the model intervened, he helped the victim to a sitting position and stayed with him for
the remainder of the trial.
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Now annotate the Subway diagram with the details of what happened in each condition area of the carriage:
What happens in the adjacent area?
What happens in the critical area?
Describe the observers…
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Describe the victim…
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Critical area - early: the model would stand in the critical area and wait until passing the fourth
station before he helped the victim (approximately 70 seconds after the collapse).
Critical area – late: the model would stand in the critical area and wait until passing the sixth station
before he helped the victim (approximately 150 seconds after the collapse).
Adjacent area – early: the model would stand in the adjacent area and wait until passing the fourth
station before he helped the victim.
Adjacent area – late: the model would stand in the adjacent area and wait until passing the sixth
station before he helped the victim.
When the model intervened, he helped the victim to a sitting position and stayed with him for the
remainder of the trial.
From: Piliavin, I.M., Rodin, J.A. & Piliavin, J. (1969) Good Samaritanism: An underground
phenomenon? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 289-99.
Task 4: Results
Worksheet 4 requires students to apply the results found in the study to each aim. A table of results
is provided to help students complete this activity.
Table 1 provides the percentage of trials in which help was given by race and condition of victim,
and total number of trials in each condition.
Table 1
Trials
White victims
Black victims
Cane
Drunk
Cane
Drunk
No model
100%
100%
11%
73%
Number of trials run
54
11
8
11
Model trials
100%
77%
-
67%
Number of trials run
3
13
0
3
Total number of trials
57
24
8
14
Percentage of trials in which help was given by race and condition of victim, and total number of trials in each
condition.
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Aim
Finding
Responsibility of the victim
An individual who appeared to be ill received
more help than one who appeared to be drunkeven when the immediate help needed was of
the same kind! Cane victim 95% spontaneous
help compared to 50% for the drunk victim! This
pattern was the same for black and white
victims.
Race of the victim
There was some tendency for same-race
helping, with it being more frequent; this was
increased when the victim was ‘ill’ in comparison
to being ‘drunk.’
Effect of modelling
The longer the emergency continued without
help being offered the less impact a model had
on the helping behaviour of observers, the more
likely it was that individuals left the immediate
area to avoid the situation, the more likely it was
that observers discussed the incident and its
implications for their behaviour.
Effect of size of group
No strong relationship between the number of
bystanders and speed of helping; the expected
increased diffusion of responsibility with a
greater number of bystanders was not obtained
for groups of these sizes.
Task 5: Findings and conclusions
Worksheet 5 will engage with the students and encourage them to make conclusions on the
findings from the Piliavin et al study. In the activity students will be given the findings from the study
and will be tasked to make as many conclusions as they can about the Arousal: Cost vs. Reward
model.
Results/Findings
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
Helping behaviour was very high and much higher than earlier laboratory studies.
Therefore, it was not possible to investigate the effects of the model’s helping because on
the majority of trials the victims were helped before the model acted.

The cane victim received spontaneous help on 62 out of the 65 trials, and the drunk
victim received spontaneous help on 19 out of 38 trials.
9

On 60% of the 81 trials where spontaneous help was given, more than one person
offered help. Once on person had started to help, there were no differences for different
victim conditions (black/white, cane/drunk) on the number of extra helpers that appeared.
The race of the victims made no significant different to helping behaviour, but there
was a slight tendency for same race helping in the drunken condition.

It was found that 90% of helpers were male. Although there were more men present, this
percentage was statistically significant.

It was also found that 64% of the helpers were white; this was what would be expected
based on the racial distribution of the carriage.

Diffusion of responsibility was not evident. The diffusion of responsibility hypothesis
predicts that helping behaviour would decrease as the number of bystanders increases. In
fact the field experiment found that the quickest help came from the largest groups.
However, in the earlier laboratory experiments there was only one participant and the other
bystanders were confederates.

Nobody left the carriage during the incident (mainly because the train was moving); on 21 of
the 103 trials a total of 34 people left the critical area, particularly when the victim appeared
to be drunk.

More comments were obtained on drunk than cane trials and most of these were
obtained when no one helped until after 70 seconds; this could be due to the discomfort
passengers felt in sitting inactive in the presence of the victim, perhaps hoping that others
would confirm that inaction was appropriate.

The following comments came from women passengers: “It’s for men to help him”; “I
wish I could help him – I’m not strong enough”; “I never saw this kind of thing before
– I don’t know where to look”; “You feel so bad that you don’t know what to do”.
Conclusions

Piliavin et al. developed a model to explain their results called the Arousal: Cost vs. Reward
model.

They argue that firstly, observation of an emergency situation creates an emotional arousal
in bystanders. This arousal may be perceived as fear, disgust or sympathy, depending on
aspects of the situation.

This state of arousal can be increased by a number of factors including:
1. empathy with the victim (i.e. whether you can perceive yourself in the victims situation)
2. being close to the emergency
3. the length of time the emergency continues for.
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
This state of arousal can be reduced by a number of factors including:
1. helping
2. seeking help from another source
3. leaving the scene
4. deciding the person doesn’t need or deserve help.

Therefore according to this model we are motivated to help people not by altruism (acting in
the interest of others) but as a way of reducing unpleasant feelings of arousal.

Piliavin et al. go on to argue that the chosen response depends on a cost-reward analysis by
the individual.
These include:
1. costs of helping, such as effort, embarrassment and possible physical harm
2. cost of not helping, such as self-blame and perceived censure from others
3. rewards of helping, such as praise from self, onlookers and the victim
4. rewards of not helping, such as getting on with one’s own business and not incurring the
possible costs of helping.
Task 6: Evaluating the study
The specification states that students should now the methodological issues within the core studies.
Using the white board in the room get the class to identify as many methodological issues as they
can.
Whiteboards: Identify as many evaluation issues as you can.
Evaluation of Piliavin
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Worksheet 6 requires the students to evaluate the Piliavin et al study.
Point
Field Experiment
Explain (how and why this is
a strength/ limitation? Use
key terminology.)
Example (give a specific
example from the study that
relates to the point.)
A weakness of conducting a
Field experiment is the lack of
control over variables.
Field Experiment
A strength of conducting a field
experiment it takes place in a
natural environment.
Sample
A strength of the sample is that
it was fairly large This is a
strength as it means that the
study has external validity.
Sample
However, the study is
ethnocentric - This is a
limitation because it means that
we cannot generalise from the
sample due to cultural bias- the
sample is unrepresentative…
Ethics
No physical harm was actually
caused to anyone This is a
strength as it means that
individual rights and the BPS
code of ethics were upheld.
Lack of consent, or right to
withdraw.
Psychological distress to
participants.
Qualitative data
Rich in detail, helps to develop
insight into factors that cause
certain behaviours.
Subjective - open to
interpretation which can reduce
internal reliability and validity,
due to possibility of researcher
bias.
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Ethics
Point
Quantitative data
Explain (how and why this is
a strength/ limitation? Use
key terminology.)
Objective - minimal bias and
therefore high internal reliability
and validity. Easy to analyse
differences between different
groups.
A limitation of this type of data
is that it can be reductionist - it
tell us there is a difference, but
gives no insight into why.
Covert Observation
A strength is that it generates
research with high ecological
validity - as participants are
unaware they are being
observed, we tend to observe
natural behaviour.
However, this type of
observation is unethical, as it
does not gain informed
consent, removes the right to
withdraw and can involve
deception.
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Example (give a specific
example from the study that
relates to the point.)
Follow on questions (teacher answers)
Following on from the above activities here are some key questions for students to answer. Have
the students discuss their answers with their peers. Allow students 15 – 20 minutes to answer the
below questions.
1. Outline the aim of the study by Piliavin et al.
The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of several variables on helping behaviour
using express trains on the New York Eight Avenue Independent Subway as a ‘laboratory on
wheels’.
The factors they were interested included:
a)
b)
c)
d)
the type of victim (drunk or ill)
the race of the victim (black or white)
effect of modelling
effect of group size.
2. Identify the IV’s.
The independent variables in this study were:
a)
b)
c)
d)
the type of victim (drunk or ill)
the race of the victim (black or white)
effect of modelling
effect of group size.
3. Identify the DV’s in this study.
The dependent variable was helping, of which various measures were taken:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
time taken for the 1st passenger to offer help
the total number of passengers who helped
the gender, race and location of every helper
The time taken for the first passenger to offer help after the model had assisted.
Several other measures were also taken:
i.
movement of any passengers out of the critical area
ii.
the gender, race and location of every passenger in the critical area
iii.
spontaneous comments made by passengers.
4. Suggest one strength of the sample used in this study.
A strength of the sample is that it is fairly big and therefore would be representative of people
who used the subway in NYC, e.g. 4450 participants were estimated to have been involved.
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5. Outline one strength of gathering quantitative data.
Objective - minimal bias and therefore high internal reliability and validity. Easy to analyse
differences between different groups.
6. Outline one strength of a field experiment.
A strength of a field experiment is that the research is conducted in a natural environment and
therefore has high ecological validity, for example…..
7. Outline one weakness of a field experiment.
A weakness of a field experiment is that there is a lack of control over extraneous variables
due to the natural setting, which can cause a lack of internal reliability and internal validity. For
example….
8. Describe two ethical issues within this study.
One ethical issue is the lack of informed consent within this study - participants were not aware
that they were involved in an experiment.
Another ethical issue in Piliavin et al’s study is that the participants could not be debriefed at
the end of the experiment. Thus, not allowing the participants to know that they were involved
in an experiment and that all incidences that occurred on that Subway journey were controlled.
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work.OCR acknowledges the use of the following content: Piliavin, I. M., Rodin, J., and Piliavin, J. A. (1969), Good Samaritanism: An underground phenomenon? Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 13, (4) 289–299, Darley, J. M., and Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383.
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Student Activity
A Level Core Study: Piliavin et al (1970)
Area: Social Psychology
Key Theme: Helping behaviour
Worksheet 1 - Background
Read the article from the New Yorker Magazine on the murder of Kitty Genovese, and watch the
rolling show, and note down answers to the following questions:
http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/03/10/a-call-for-help
1. What makes someone help/ choose not to?
2. What reasons might they have?
3. How would you react in this situation? Why?
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Now using the information from the YouTube video you have just watched and the Darley and
Latané study try and complete the below mind map.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4S1LLrSzVE
Be able to describe the context of the study.
Why did Piliavin et al conduct this research
- what reasons can you find?
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Worksheet 2: Aims of the study
There were four aims to Pilivian et al’s study. What did they predict would happen for each aim?
Aim
Information and predictions
Responsibility of
the victim
Race of victim
Effect of modelling
Effect of size of
group
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Worksheet 3: Features of the study
Using the below table fill out the appropriate information for the Piliavin et al. study.
Independent Variables:
Dependent Variables:
The Participants:
The Location:
The Confederates:
Piliavin et al.
Methodology
The Emergency:
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Victim and Model Conditions:
19
Now annotate the Subway diagram with the details of what happened in each condition area of the carriage.
What happens in the adjacent area?
What happens in the critical area?
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Describe the observers…
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Describe the victim…
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Worksheet 4
Using the information from the findings table, try to summarise the results of the Piliavin et al. study.
Table 1
Trials
White victims
Black victims
Cane
Drunk
Cane
Drunk
No model
100%
100%
100%
73%
Number of trials run
54
11
8
11
Model trials
100%
77
-
67%
Number of trials run
3
13
0
3
Total number of trials
57
24
8
14
Percentage of trials in which help was given by race and condition of victim, and total number of trials in each
condition.
Aim/IV
Finding
Responsibility of the victim
Race of the victim
Effect of modelling
Effect of size of group
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Worksheet 5: Findings and conclusions
Using the findings/results below, make as many conclusions as you can about the Piliavin et al.
study.
Results/Findings

Helping behaviour was very high and much higher than earlier laboratory studies.
Therefore it was not possible to investigate the effects of the model’s helping because on the
majority of trials the victims were helped before the model acted.

The cane victim received spontaneous help on 62 out of the 65 trials, and the drunk
victim received spontaneous help on 19 out of 38 trials.

On 60% of the 81 trials where spontaneous help was given, more than one person
offered help. Once on person had started to help, there were no differences for different
victim conditions (black/white, cane/drunk) on the number of extra helpers that appeared.
The race of the victims made no significant different to helping behaviour, but there
was a slight tendency for same race helping in the drunken condition.

It was found that 90% of helpers were male. Although there were more men present, this
percentage was statistically significant.

It was also found that 64% of the helpers were white; this was what would be expected
based on the racial distribution of the carriage.

Diffusion of responsibility was not evident. The diffusion of responsibility hypothesis
predicts that helping behaviour would decrease as the number of bystanders increases. In
fact the field experiment found that the quickest help came from the largest groups.
However, in the earlier laboratory experiments there was only one participant and the other
bystanders were confederates.

Nobody left the carriage during the incident (mainly because the train was moving), on 21 of
the 103 trials a total of 34 people left the critical area, particularly when the victim appeared
to be drunk.

More comments were obtained on drunk than cane trials and most of these were
obtained when no one helped until after 70 seconds; this could be due to the discomfort
passengers felt in sitting inactive in the presence of the victim, perhaps hoping that others
would confirm that inaction was appropriate.

The following comments came from women passengers: “It’s for men to help him”; “I
wish I could help him – I’m not strong enough”; “I never saw this kind of thing before
– I don’t know where to look”; “You feel so bad that you don’t know what to do”.
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Conclusions
Worksheet 6: Evaluating the study
Point
Explain (how and why is this
a strength/ limitation? Use
key terminology.)
Field Experiment
Sample
Ethics
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Covert Observation
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Example (give a specific
example from the study that
relates to the point.)
Follow on questions (teacher answers)
Answer the below questions and discuss your answers with your peers.
1. Outline the aim of the study by Piliavin et al.
2. Identify the IV’s.
3. Identify the DV’s in this study.
4. Suggest one strength of the sample used in this study.
5. Outline one strength of gathering quantitative data.
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6. Outline one strength of a field experiment.
7. Outline one weakness of a field experiment.
8. Describe two ethical issues within this study.
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