lOMoARcPSD|10146889 Final Anatomy and Physiology II Sec5on 1 1- Organs with secondary endocrine func5on Thymus: Is a lymphoid organ that produces func7onal T cells. Secrets hormones involved in s7mula7ng and coordina7ng the immune response. Produces several hormones that are important to the developmental of func7onal T cells, and thus to the maintenance of normal immunological defenses. Thymosin: is the name originally given to an extract from the thymus that promotes the development and matura7on of lymphocytes. 2- Hormones of the posterior pituitary lobe Oxytocin: s7mulates smooth muscle contrac7on in the wall of the uterus, promo7ng labor and delivery. ADer delivery, promotes the ejec7on of milk. It is known that circula7ng concentra7ons of OXT rise during sexual arousal and peak at orgasm in both sexes. Posi7ve feedback 3- Organs with secondary endocrine func5on Heart: Secrets hormones involved in regula7ng blood volume. Atrial natriure5c pep5de (ANP): When Blood pressure and volume increase, the cardiac muscle cells release ANP, increased Na+ loss in urine, increased water loss in urine, inhibi7on of ADH, aldosterone, epinephrine and norepinephrine release. 4- Hormones of the anterior pituitary lobe FSH (follicle s5mula5ng hormone): promotes ovarian follicle development in females and promotes the physical matura7on of developing sperm. 5- Hormone ClassiEca5on Steroid hormones: are released by the reproduc7ve organs (androgens by the testes in males, estrogens and progesterone by the ovaries in females), by the cortex of the adrenal glands (cor7costeroids), and by the kidneys (calcitriol). -cor7sol (the main glucocor7coid), aldosterone (the main mineral cor7costeroid) and androgens (testosterone, estrogens and progesterone). 6- Pancrea5c Hormones Glucagon: produced by alpha cells. Raises blood glucose levels. Insulin: produced by beta cells. Lowers blood glucose levels. 7- Pineal Gland Melatonin: is secreted by pineal gland and set circadian rhythms. 8- Hormones of the anterior pituitary lobe Growth Hormone (GH): s7mulates cell growth and reproduc7on. Skeletal muscle cells are par7cularly sensi7ve to GH. -Gigan7sm: results from an overproduc7on of GH before puberty. -DwarYsm: inadequate produc7on of GH, children can be treated with synthe7c human GH. -Acromegaly: if GH levels rise abnormally during adulthood 9- Adrenal Cortex Adrenal Cortex Hormones -Cor5sol: is an steroid hormone and is the main glucocor7coid. PASTELES -Aldosterone: is the main mineralocor7coid. CROQUETAS Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|10146889 -Androgens: testosterone SEX Sec5on 2 10- Plasma Proteins Fibrinogen: func7ons in clo`ng, is converted to Ybrin and closes the blood vessel that are damage. 11- Granulocytes Neutrophils: phagocy7c cells, bacterial infec7on, the most abundant, increase amount of neutrophil is suspected infec7on for bacteria, FIGHT IT 12- Plasma Proteins Gamma globulins: An7bodies, also called immunoglobulins, aback foreign proteins and pathogens. Fight infec7ons 13- EPO Erythropoiesis: Is the process of forma7on of the red blood cells. Occurs only in the red bone marrow. The process is s7mulated by erythropoie7n, is produce by the kidneys, especially when they are exposed to low oxygen concentra7ons. Erythropoie7n is released: - During anemia - When blood cow to the kidneys decreases (ex: car accident, hemorrhage) 14- Blood Types Universal Donor: O15- EPO Hypoxia: the state of low 7ssue oxygen levels. 16- Blood Types Compa5bility (A+) A+, A-, O+, O(A-) A-, O(B+) B+, B-, O+, O(B-) B-, 0(AB+) A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O- UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT (AB-) A-, B-, AB-, O(0+) O+, O(O-) O- UNIVERSAL DONOR 17- Agranulocytes Monocytes: agranulocytes, are phagocy7c cells at 7ssue level, they are monocytes in blood stream. 18- Hemostasis Hemostasis phases 1ra vascular phase: vasoconstric7on or vascular spasm 2da platelets phase: platelet plug, platelet aggrega7on. 3ra coagula7on: conver7on of Ybrinogen into Ybrin Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|10146889 19- Anemia Pernicious Anemia: a deYciency in Vitamin B12 prevents normal stem cell divisions in the bone marrow. Fewer red blood cells are produced, and those that are produced are abnormally large and may develop bizarre shapes. Pernicious anemia can also result from a lack of intrinsic factor, a mucoprotein secreted by the stomach that is necessary for adequate vitamin B12 absorp7on. Sec5on 3 20- Heart Sounds Normal Heart Sounds S1- Closing av valves (ventricles contrac7on, atria relax) S2- closing semilunar valve (atria contrac7on, ventricles relax) 21- Cardiac Cycle Ventricular Systole/Diastole ventricles and atria contrac7on: systole ventricles and atria relaxa7on: diastole 22- Cardiac Output CO Compensa5on: is regulated by adjustments in heart rate and stroke volume CO= HR x SV When HR increase, SV decrease; when HR decrease, SV increase HR increase: - High body temperature - Exercise - Sympathe7c s7mula7on (FIGHT OR FLY) 23- Pulmonary Circuit Pulmonary Veins The right atrium receives blood from the systemic circuit and passes it to the right ventricle, which pumps blood through the pulmonary trunk into the pulmonary circuit. The le\ atrium collects blood from the pulmonary circuit through the pulmonary veins, and emp7es it into the le\ ventricle, which pumps blood into the systemic circuit. 24- Pericardium Cardiac Tamponade: cuid accumula7on in the pericardial cavity can cause cardiac tamponade. 25- Coronary Artery Disease Coronary Ischemia: cardiac muscle cells need a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, so any reduc7on in blood cow to the heart muscle produces a corresponding reduc7on in cardiac performance. Such reduced circulatory supply, known as coronary ischemia. If we have an obstruc7on in the coronary artery, we have a reduc7on of the blood oxygen, we are not being able to perform cellular respira7on, and we going to develop coronary ischemia. 26- Factors a]ec5ng the heart rate Parasympathe5c e]ect: parasympathe7c s7mula7on decreases HR (REST AND DIGEST) 27- Pulmonary Circula5on Pulmonary Trunk (see 23) Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|10146889 28- Conduc5ng System: is a network of specialized cardiac cells, that ini7ate and distribute this s7mulus to contract. Conduc5ng System Components Sinoatrial (SA) node Internodal pathways Atrioventricular (AV) node Atrioventricular (AV) bundle Bundle branches Purkinje Ybers 29- Heart Valves Heart Valves func5ons: prevent back cow -Tricuspid: between the right atrial and right ventricle -Bicuspid or Mitral: between the leD atrial and leD ventricle -Semilunar: between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk -Aor7c valve: between leD ventricle and aor7c artery. Sec5on 4 30- Blood Vessels Types of Capillaries -Con5nuous: no pores, no opening (formed the blood brain barrier, central nervous system and in the thymus). -Fenestrated: lible pores for Yltra7on (located along absorp7ve areas of the intes7nal tract and at Yltra7on sites in the kidneys). -Sinusoidal: big openings. (Liver, bone marrow, spleen, and many endocrine organs, including the pituitary and adrenal gland). 31- Blood Pressure Blood Pressure Regula5on TO INCREASE BLOOD PRESSURE AND VOLUME -Short term e]ect: E and NE s7mulate the heart and blood vessels increasing cardiac output and peripheral vasoconstric7on, resul7ng in increased blood pressure and blood volume. -Long term e]ects: Kidneys release EPO increases red blood cell forma7on resul7ng in increased blood pressure and blood volume. Kidneys release Renin leads to Angiotensin II ac7va7on (ADH is released, aldosterone secreted) resul7ng in increased blood pressure and blood volume. TO DECREASE BLOOD PRESSURE AND VOLUME Heart release ANP, kidneys and blood vessels respond increasing sodium loss in urine, water loss in urine. Occur inhibi7on of ADH, aldosterone, epinephrine and norepinephrine. Vasodila7on 32- Blood Vessels Arteries: carry blood away from the heart. Emerent vessels EXIT 33- Blood Vessels Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|10146889 Capillaries: Interconnect the smallest arteries and the smallest veins. Capillaries are called exchange vessels because their thin walls allow the exchange of nutrients, dissolved gases, and wastes between blood and the surrounding inters77al cuid. 34- Blood Vessel Blood Vessel Wall tunica in7ma (epithelium) tunica media (smooth muscle) tunica externa (connec7ve 7ssue) 35- Systemic Circula5on Aor5c Arch Branches 1ra brachiocephalic trunk -Right subclavian artery supplies right upper limb -Right common caro7d artery supplies right head 2da le\ common caro5d artery- supplies the leD side of the head and neck 3ra le\ subclavian artery supplies leD upper limb Sec5on 5 36- Lympha5c Organs Lympha5c Organs ClassiEca5on -Primary lymphoid 7ssues and organs: are sites where lymphocytes are formed and mature. They include the red bone marrow and the thymus -Secondary lymphoid 7ssues and organs: are where lymphocytes are ac7vated and cloned. These structures include the lymph nodes, tonsils, mucosa-associated lymphoid 5ssue (MALTA), appendix and spleen. 37- Lympha5c Collec5ng Ducts Right lympha5c duct: is collec7ng the lymph from the right por7on of the head, right neck, right thorax, and right upper limb Thoracic duct: the leD por7on of the head, leD neck, leD thorax, leD upper limb and all the inferior por7on of the body. 38- Lympha5c System Lympha5c System Components -Lymph nodes, Lympha7c vessels, 7ssues and organs. 39- Lymphocytes B Lymphocytes: They mature in the bone marrow, as they mature enter the bloodstream and become an7bodies. 40- Lymph Nodes E]erent Vessel: carry the lymph toward the venous circula7on. 41- Lymphocytes Lymphocytes Func5ons: are the primary cells of the lympha7c system. These cells respond to the presence of invading pathogens (bacteria or viruses), abnormal body cells (virus-infected or cancer cells) and foreign proteins (toxins released by some bacteria). They circulate within the blood and lymph. Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|10146889 42- Lymph Circula5on Edema: Blocked or obstruc7on of the lympha7c drainage. Is a condi7on in which inters77al cuids accumulate and the amected area gradually becomes swollen and grossly distended. 43- Lymphoid Tissue Tonsil: are large lymphoid nodules in the walls of the pharynx. Associated with the opening of the respiratory and diges7ve tract. 44- Lymphoid Tissue Peyer’s Patches: lymphoid nodules, are found in the small intes7ne. 45- Lymphoid Organs Primary Lymphoid Organs: bone marrow and thymus 46- Lympha5c System Organs Bone Marrow: the lymphocytes mature or become competent in the bone marrow. 47- Adap5ve Immunity ClassiEca5on Vaccine: Ac7ve and Ar7Ycial, we are receiving the an7gen ar7Ycially. 48- Adap5ve Immunity ClassiEca5on Passive Immunity: Natural (the mother gives an7bodies to the baby through the placenta and through breast feeding) and Ar7Ycial (serum: is a blood component containing gamma globulins) 49- T lymphocytes Types of T Lymphocytes: they mature in the thymus, as they mature enter the bloodstream and are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. 50- Innate Immunity Interferon: is a protein that interfere with viral replica7on. 51- Innate Immunity Second Line of Defense: we born with it 52- Innate Immunity Innate Immunity Components 1st line: skin and mucous membrane OUTSIDE 2nd line: fever, incamma7on (pain, redness), phagocytosis, interferon, complement, NKc INSIDE 3rd line: Adap7ve immunity ESPECIFIC 53- Innate Immunity NKCs: They mature in the bone marrow, as they mature enter the bloodstream in search of abnormal cells (immune surveillance). Sec5on 10 54- Urinary Bladder Urinary Bladder Epithelium: transi7onal epithelium 55- Kidneys Renal Faey: the faby 7ssue keeps de kidneys in place. 56- Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidneys Nephron: the func7onal unit of the kidneys 57- Renal Corpuscle Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|10146889 Renal Corpuscle components: consis7ng of the glomerular capsule and the glomerulus. 58- Hormonal Control Angiotensin II: s7mulates the produc7on of aldosterone (retain sodium and release potassium) 59- Water Reabsorp5on ADH: retaining water and vasoconstric7on of the blood vessels, increase blood pressure, if ADH levels are low it can be a sign of diabetes insipidus Sec5on 11 60- Electrolyte Balance Na/Water balance Aldosterone: retains sodium and water, release potassium ANH/ANP: release sodio and water. 61- Water Balance Hormonal Regula5on: depends on sodium balance, and the two are regulated simultaneously. 62- Acid-Base Balance Blood pH Acidosis<7.35. 7.45> Alkalosis TOME FOTO DE ESTO 63- Acid base balance Respiratory acidosis: ver foto 64- Electrolyte balance Main electrolytes: potassium inside the cell, Sodium outside the cell 65- Acid base balance Respiratory alkalosis: ver foto 66- Electrolyte balance Ca balance: calcitonin decrease, parathyroid increase 67- Acid base balance Metabolic acidosis: ver foto Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|10146889 Sec5on 12 68- Uterus Uterine func5on: the site of embryonic and fetal development and of exchange between the maternal and embryonic/fetal bloodstream. The site of implanta7on of the embryo, and most of Yber contracts when deliver de baby. 69- Male external genitalia Cremaster and master muscle: when this muscle contracts during sexual arousal or in response to cool temperature, it tenses and pulls the testes closer to the body. 70- Glands of the male reproduc5ve system Seminal glands: most of the semen is produced in the seminal gland, and the sperm in the tes7s. 71- Regulatory hormones GnRH: when s7mulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases LH (ovula7on (aDer ovula7on the corpus luteum produces estrogen and progesterone) and s7mulates testosterone produc7on) and FSH (follicle matura7on and sperm produc7on) 72- Uterine tubes Uterine tubes func5on: is the place when fer7liza7on occur 73- Male Sexual Func5on Parasympathe5c s5mula5on: s7mulates the erec7on 74- Hormonal Regula5on of the female reproduc5ve cycle LH: LH (ovula7on (aDer ovula7on the corpus luteum produces estrogen and progesterone) and s7mulates testosterone produc7on 75- Duct System of the male Duct system components: epididymis, ductus deferent, ejaculatory duct, urethra Downloaded by julia browne (jlbsoccer32@gmail.com)
