KALIKA HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL (KALIKANAGAR BUWAL-12 RUPANDEHI)
ary
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Sumit
Sharma student of XII science Roll no
48 worked on project titled- “The preparation of
soap” held in Kalika Higher Secondary School
during the academic year 2021-2022.
He worked sincerely under the guidance
of faculties and prepared this
dissertation.
External Teacher
Subject Teacher
Principal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I am immensely indebted to almighty god for
his blessings and grace without which I could not have
undertaken this task and my efforts would never have
been a success.
I humbly consider a privilege and honor to
express my heartiest and profound gratitude to Mr.,
principal KMSS, Butwal. For his appropriate direction,
valuable suggestion, under judging assistance so generously
extended to me.
I wish to express my deepest feelings of gratitude to Mr.
Tejnarayan Chapgain chemistry department, KMSS Butwal.
For his erudite involvement and sustained guidance which has
been pivotal in my project work. His minute observation,
precious insights, critical comments have indeed greatly
helped to shape my ideas.
This guidance and support received from my
entire classmates who contributed and who are
contributing to this project, is vital for the success of this
project. I am grateful for their constant support and help.
I also owe sense of gratitude to my parents for encouragement
and support throughout the project.
- Author
ABSTRACT
Soaps are the sodium salts or potassium salts of stearic acids or
any other fatty acids. They are prepared by the saponification
process, which is, reacting the oil which contain triglycerides
with caustic soda (NaOH) to give the soap. However different
oils have different composition of fatty acids which are
responsible for different properties of soaps made out of them.
In the present work 5 different types of oils are taken. They are
blended in various ratios to prepare 14 different samples of
soap. Different properties of these samples were analyzed to
see which soap is the best one. The cleansing and lathering
properties of all samples were compared. The blend of coconut
oil and castor oil at 3:1 ratio is found out to be the best with
76.8% of TFM and 89.46% of yield. The best blend is analyzed
for various properties and they were compared with that given
in the literature. The saponification values, iodine values of
coconut oil and castor oil were found out and these values
were also found for the blend. It was found that the blend was
having SAP value of 230.4 and iodine value of 40 which are
higher than the individual values. Thus, soap prepared using
blend of both these oils has better properties than the soaps
prepared by individual oils.
Contents.
Page
Sr.
no
Title
no
1.
Introduction
1
2.
Micelle
2
3.
4.
History
3
4.
5.
6.
The making of soap.
Properties
The universe of
.
7
9
soaps.
7.
Biodegradable& non- biodegradable soaps.
12
8.
Difference between soap and detergents.
14
9.
Experiment.
16
10.
Conclusion.
18
11.
Bibliography.
19
Introduction.
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soap is
mainly used as surfactants for washing, bathing,
cleaning. A soap molecule has a long hydrocarbon
chain with a carboxylic acid group on one end, which
has ionic bond with metal ion, usually sodium or
potassium. The hydrocarbon end is non polar which
is highly soluble in non-polar substances and the
ionic end is soluble in water.
Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three
molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single
molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is
often called lye, brings about a chemical reaction as
saponification.
They have a polar end which is hydrophilic (water
loving) and a long non-polar chain which is
hydrophobic (water hating). As a consequence, they can
form emulsion by suspending oil in water.
Fatty end of water-soluble end
CH3-(CH2)n-COONa
Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap
molecules have both a hydrophilic end, which
dissolve in water, as well as a hydrophobic end,
which is able to dissolve non-polar grease molecules.
MICELLE.
Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant
molecule dispersed in a liquid colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules
n
having polar or charged group and
non-polar regions
(amphiphilic molecules) form aggregate
c
called micelle. In a micelle, polar or
ionic heads form
an outer shell in contact with water, while non-polar
tails are sequestered in the interior.
Hence, the core of micelle, being formed of long non-polar
tails, resembles an oil or gasoline
drop. The number of amphiphilic molecules forming the
aggregate is called aggregation
number; it is a way to describe the size of the micelle.
History of cleaning
soap.
Early History
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soaplike materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient
Babylon. A formula for soap consisting of water, alkali,
and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet
around 2200 BC.
The Ebbers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates
the ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and combined
animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create
a soap-like substance. Egyptian documents mention a
soap-like substance was used in the preparation of
wool for weaving.
In the reign of Nab nidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for soap
consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame
[seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls".
Ancient Rome
The word soap, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny the
elder’s historia naturalis, which discusses the
manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes, but the
only use, is it is as pomade for hair.
A popular belief claims soap takes its name from a
supposed Mount Sapo, where animal sacrifices
where supposed to have taken place.
The making of soap.
There are three main ingredients in plain soap, they are
oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other ingredients may be
added to give the soap a pleasant odor or color, or to
improve its skin-softening qualities. Some soap is better
made using soft water, and for these it is a necessary to
either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water.
Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on the skin
and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If drunk, they can be
fatal. Care is needed while handling lyes and ‘green’ (uncured) soap.
There are two types of soap: - Soft & Hard soap.
Soft soap can be made using either a cold process or a
hot process, but hard soap can only be made using hot
process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the lye, mix
it with the fat or oil, and stir the mixture until
saponification takes place.
The cold process may require several days or even
months, depending upon the strength and purity of the
ingredients, whereas hot process takes place within
few minutes to few hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully outdoors, do
not put them in the drain.
several things may cause problem with the normal action
of soap molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over starting materials.
Extra fat will make the soap feel greasy.
Positively-charged ions tend to bond with negative end of
the soap molecules, either precipitin the molecules
completely, or interfering with the ion-dipole interactions
between the soap molecules and the water.
Did you know?
o
1.4 million deaths can be prevented each year by handwashing with soap
Children under 5 who wash with soap can reduce their risk of pneumonia
o
by 46%
•
1/3 of the worlds soap is used by the U.S
•
10 Billion pounds of soap are produced each year
•
The average person encounters 100 chemicals before breakfast
o
The largest soap bubble was created on October 9th, 2005 and measured
105.4 cubic feet. If you could fill it with baseballs it would hold 13.627 of
them.
•
October 15th is Global Handwashing Day
Properties.
To prepare a sample of soap and
to examine its properties
Equipment’s:
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250ml beaker.
Sodium hydroxide (20% solution)
100ml beaker
Ethanol
Wire gauge
Saturated solution of sodium chloride
Laboratory burner
Calcium chloride (5% solution)
Glass stirring rod
Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution)
Filter flask and Buchner funnel
Kerosene and filter paper
Phenolphthalein indicator solution
Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames
Procedure:
I.
Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker.
Add 20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium
hydroxide solution. Stir the mixture in the beaker.
j. Place the beaker on wire gauze on a ring stand and
heat gently.
Heat this solution gently, keep the flame away from the top of the beaker to
prevent the alcohol from catching on fire.
ii. Heat until the odor disappears.
iii. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool
down.
IV.
Move it safely to bench top.
V.
Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your
soap preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly.
VI.
It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol,
and any excess sodium hydroxide present.
VII.
VIII.
Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration
apparatus and wash once with ice water.
Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
Properties:
Washing properties.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your hands
with it. It should lather rather easily if soft water or use
deionized water.
Record your observations.
Emulsification.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing
10ml water and shake to mix. Emulsion or suspension
of tiny oil droplets in water will be formed. Let this
stand for a few minutes
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients
and also add a small portion (1/2g or so) of your soap.
Shake to mix. Compare the relative stability of the two
emulsions.
Hard water reaction.
Take 1g of your soap and warm it with 150ml of water
in a 100ml beaker.
When you have obtained a reasonably clear solution,
pour about 15ml into each of three test tubes.
Test one of the three tubes with 10 drops of 5% CaCl2
solution, one with 10 drops of 5% MgCl2 solution and
one with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your observations.
Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to
skin, silk, or wool.
It’s test
Dissolve a small piece of your soap in 15ml of ethanol
and then add two drops of phenolphthalein. It the
indicators turn red; the presence of free alkali is
indicated.
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Fats and oils are hydrolyzed(split) with a high
pressure to yield crude fatty acids and glycerol.
The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and
neutralized with an alkali to produce soap and
water (neat soap in a liquid form).
Fatty acid + NaOH > glycerol + sodium soap.
Sodium soaps are “hard” soap.
The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable oils
such as coconut oil), the harder the soap.
Fatty acid + KOH > glycerol + potassium soap
Potassium soap are softer and are found in
some liquid hand soap and shaving cream.
The universe of
different types of
soap.
Kitchen soaps
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and detergents.
Cleansers
Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are
formulated to eliminate heavy oil or solid particles and hard-toremove stains. The cleansers come in many different types
depending on the type of abrasives they contain.
Detergents
Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and release the
solid dirt particles in the foam that is produced
by the detergent. There are two types of dish detergents:
machine dishwasher detergents and hand dishwashing
detergents.
Laundry soaps
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid
particles and organic compounds from clothes. They can be
found in liquid, powder and gel forms.
Cleaning soaps
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and
soil. The difference between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that
cleaning soaps don't contain harsh abrasives.
Personal soaps
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special
formulations for specific personal hygiene needs. One type
of the personal soap is the antibacterial soap that is made
to prevent bacteria and viruses from spreading. There are
also body and hair soaps that have a mix of ingredients that
cleans both the skin and hair.
Novelty soaps
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and
include the soaps in the shapes of various items, such as a
rubber
ducky or the soap-on-the-rope. There are made not only to
clean dirt and grime, but for amusement and enjoyment as
well.
Perfumed soaps
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few
additional ingredients and perfume.
Guest soaps
Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped
into attractive shapes and they are basically designed for the
use by guests either in the main bathroom or separate guest
bathroom. Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers,
sea shells and rounds
Beauty soaps
Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances,
and ingredients for a variety of skin types. They can feature
glycerin, or special oil blends.
Medicated soaps
Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike
original soap, medicated soap has the addition
of antiseptics and disinfectants.
Glycerin soaps
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap
production. Soaps which include glycerin in them
tend to make your skin feel moister.
Transparent soap
Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and
usually some form of alcohol to alter the process
which is also conducted at higher temperatures. Not all
transparent soaps are glycerin soaps.
Liquid soaps
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many
of the commercial liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.
Did you know?
2.6 million bars of soap are discarded daily by the
hotel industry in the U.S. alone
Lack of access to WASH contributes to two of the
three leading killers of children under the age of five
in the world – pneumonia, which can be prevented by
good handwashing and better hygiene; and diarrhea,
which comes from drinking unsafe water and lack of
sanitation. With good quality water, sanitation, and
hygiene, children’s lives can be saved.
Handwashing by birth attendants before delivery
reduces mortality rates by 19%.
Liquid soap was patented by the American William Sheppard in
1865.
Biodegradable
&
non-biodegradable
soap.
Biodegradable soap:
A biodegradable soap is a cleaning agent that can decompose
naturally over time. These soaps can help reduce environmental
impact when hikers, backpackers, and campers need to bathe
or clean their belongings.
Depending on the formulation of soap that is purchased, it can
be used on the body, face, hair, hands and objects such as
dishes and clothes.
Non-toxic soaps can be made with organic oils so as to remain
environmentally friendly. Oils can be used in soap formulations
not
only to provide a nice fragrance, but also as part of a therapeutic
bathing experience. For example, lavender and peppermint oils
can
help relax a tense hiker. Tree oil, eucalyptus and pumice
ingredients can help soothe aching feet. Jojoba, castor and
almond oils are other common oils used in soap formulations.
It is important for individuals to realize that using a
biodegradable soap does not necessarily mean that the soap is
safe to use around all water sources. These soaps degrade over
time, but they require contact with soil to do so. If it isn't used at
least 200 feet (60.96 m) from water sources, it can pollute them
and make them unsuitable for other uses.
Non -- biodegradable soap: Non-biodegradable soaps are cleaning agents which cannot
decompose naturally over time. This kind of soaps can be a
threat to earth, it can cause soil, water and other type of
pollutions.
This kind of soap feels good while using but they can cause some
kind of side effects to the applied
surface(skin). Normally professional and instant beauty soap are
made with toxic(non-biodegradable) material.
Its formulation depends upon the kind of area in which they are
going to be used. Soaps with strong
smell and constant exposure to
it can even cause nervous breakdown, asthma and migraines.
The three harmful ingredients present in
this toxic soaps are parabeans, sulfates and triclosan.
Let me explain what triclosan/triclocarban can do with us. The
chemicals react with chlorine in tap water to produce dioxins.
Dioxins are neurotoxins that can cause cancer, nerve disorders,
and immune system disorders. The chemicals are endocrine
disrupters, blocking thyroid hormone metabolism and attaching
to hormone receptors to block hormones. According to the EPA,
the
chemicals can cause developmental and reproductive toxicity.
They are carcinogens. They contribute to antibiotic resistance in
bacteria that causes infection in humans.
According to the Natural Resources Defense Council (NDRC),
in surveys of the American population between the ages of 6
and 65, 75 percent have residues of triclosan in their systems.
Difference between soap and
detergent.
Soap: There are a variety of soaps. A soap is the metal salt of a fatty
acid.
The metal may be an alkali metal such sodium (Na) or potassium
(K). These metals are found in the first column of the periodic
table of the elements. Or, the metal can be an alkaline earth
metal, such as calcium (Ca) or magnesium (Mg). These metals are
found in the second column of the periodic table of the elements.
A fatty acid is an organic compound most often of animal or plant
origin. A fatty acid contains a long-chain aliphatic carbon
skeleton (with or without branches) with a carboxylic acid group
(-COOH) at its end.
An example of a soap is potassium palmitate:
CH₃(CH₂)₁₄-COO⁻ K⁺
Detergent: Detergents have some similarities. But are often of synthetic
origin. They are not made insoluble by mineralized (or hard)
water. Also, instead of a carboxylic acid group, a detergent
contains a more highly ionic group. It may have a sulfate or a
sulfonate group (-OS(O)₂-OH).
In addition, detergents can include one or more
aromatic rings. Detergents offer added properties. They
can be used as surfactants and foaming agents.
There are even detergents that dissolve in solvents
other than water, such as gasoline. These often include
nitrogen in their formulation. The nitrogen compound
often includes a ring as part of its structure. Such
compounds are not only detergents, but dispersants.
An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate:
CH₃(CH₂)₁₂-OS(O)₂-O⁻ Na⁺
Soap and detergent properties in hard water.
The most important difference between a soap and
detergent is their behavior in water. A big drawback of
washing with soap is that it forms a scum in hard
water, which is not easy to clean and is known to turn
laundry into a hue.
Soaps form a scum in hard water, which is not easy to
rinse away and is known to turn laundry, a grayish hue.
The insoluble film that soap leaves can leave a residue
on the laundry same like as would see in a shower stall
where hard water is present. On the other hand,
detergents react less to minerals in water hence does not
leave this residue. In case you are living in an area,
where the water is soft, a soap will work satisfactorily,
but even then a gradual build-up of calcium and
magnesium ions (also called 'curd') will be left on the
fabric.
Another important difference between soaps and
detergents is the sensitivity of soaps to acidic
conditions. On putting a soap into an acidic (pH<4.5), it
protonates the carboxylate group.
Experiment.
Objective: To compare the foaming capacity of various soaps.
Requirements: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Five 100ml conical flasks
Five test tubes & stand
100ml measuring cylinder
Weighing machine and stop watch
Five different soap samples
Distilled water & tap water
Procedure: i.
Take five 100ml conical flasks and number
them 1,2,3,4 & 5. Put 16ml of water in each
flask and add 8g of soap.
ii. Warm the contents to get a solution.
iii. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap
solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution
in different test tube.
iv. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake
vigorously for a minute. Do the same for all
test tube and with equal force.
v.
Start the timer immediately and notice the
repeat of disappearance of 2mm of forth.
Observations: The following outcomes were noticed at the end of
the experiment.
Observation table
Test tube
Vol. of soap
Vol. of
Time taken for
disappearance
added.
of 2mm of forth
1. Dettol
8ml
16ml
11’42”
2. Lux
8ml
16ml
3’28”
Tetmo
3. sol
8ml
16ml
5’10”
4. Savlon
8ml
16ml
15’32”
Cintho
5. l
8ml
16ml
9’40”
Result: The cleaning capacity of the soap taken is in
the order:
Savlon > Dettol > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux
Savlon is the winner….
From this experiment, we can infer that Savlon
has the highest forming capacity, in other
words, highest cleaning capacity.
CONCLUSION.
Soap was prepared using all varieties of oils including that of all the
various blends of oils.
The soap was tested for various properties and compared with
detergents. One soap making oil in itself does not have all the
properties. Therefore, blends of oils are prepared taking 2 oils
together because it would be easier for analysis. All necessary
properties like Lathering power, Cleansing power, pH, Hardness,
Total Fatty Matter, Moisture, Yield were all studied to select the
best blend out of all the blends. The best blend was found out to be
coconut oil and castor oil (3:1). Its TFM value was found to be 76.8%
which lies in the range of toilet soaps. It had the maximum yield out
of all soaps with 89.46%. It had excellent lathering as well as
cleansing power. As coconut oil is a nut oil, therefore soap prepared
with this blend was very hard. Analysis of this blend confirms to that
given in the literature and the results of the above analysis.
Saponification number of this blend of oil was found to be 230.4
and the iodine number was found to be 40. Both high saponification
number and iodine number indicates this blend to be highly
preferred for soap making. The soap prepared is not affected by
high iodine number as the soap prepared is very hard. The acid
value found that is 1.3, was also acceptable according to the
literature. The unsaponifiable matter is also within the limits and oil
blend can be used without being refined.
In conclusion, soap is a substance, water soluble
sodium salts of fatty acid, that is used to remove dirt
and grimes from a surface. Its molecules have a long
hydrocarbon chain that has a negative charged head. Its
non-polar hydrocarbon chain doesn’t interact with water
molecules that form micelles. The soap micelles repeal
each other and stay dispersed in water. New micelles
form that having soiling molecules in the center. The
dirt gets attached to them and can be rinsed away.
From this project we concluded that, since soap is
started to consumed it has changed our lives drastically.
We should say thanks to soap’s…because without
soaps this world would literally would not be exist.
Bibliography.
This project would be nearly incomplete if
I have not used the information given in
the following websites.
My special thanks for the uploader of
information on these websites.
If considered, I have used everything that
google shows me……
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www.Answer.com
www.Meritnation.com
www.Wikipedia.com
www.Naturalconnection.co.za