Geographical enquiry process
Students need to complete a geography fieldwork experience where
they will access both primary and secondary data. The final
assessment is a written 1 hour exam where students will answer
questions based on their geography enquiry.
The stages of geographical fieldwork enquiry
Stage 1: Introduction and planning

Title

Aims stated

Hypothesis devised

Selection of suitable location

Risk Assessment
Stage 2: Fieldwork techniques and methods

Primary data collection

Secondary research

Risk management
Stage 3: Data Processing and presenting

Data Presentation
Stage 4: Analysing and Interpreting data

Data Analysis

Data Interpretation
Stage 5: Conclusions/Evaluation

Hypothesis (accepted or rejected)

Geographical conclusion

Evaluation
Planning
Planning an enquiry:
1. Identify questions or issues for investigation.
2. Develop one aim.
3. Develop a minimum of two appropriate hypotheses.
1. Identifying questions or issues for investigation.
The first stage is to identify a topic. The issue or questions should
relate directly to something covered in Unit 1 or 2.
Unit 1: Physical geography Unit 2: Human geography
Examples Rivers
Population change
Coasts
Migration
Weather
Land use
Rocks
Changes to the inner city
Urbanisation
Development
Managing our resources
Tourism
A popular topic for investigation is Rivers.
Potential title: A study of how river features change downstream.
2. Develop one aim
The aim is the overall goal or target that a piece of fieldwork will
reach.
Aim: To test the changes that happens within a river from the
upper to lower course in the river.
3. Develop a minimum of two appropriate hypotheses
A hypothesis is a statement that will be tested through the
fieldwork investigation. It should be linked to geography theory.
Hyp 1: The cross-sectional area of the Glenarm River decreases as
you move upstream.
Hyp 2: The bedload size and shape will increase as you move
upstream.
Primary and secondary sources

Primary sources - data collected first hand.

Secondary sources - data from other sources such as maps, texts
or census.
Information collected in the field for the rivers fieldwork will
be primary information.
Maps used to plot the different sites along the course of the river
where the measurement of the results would be taking place will
be secondary information.
Risk assessment
A risk assessment is required to identify potential risks involved in
fieldwork and how they can be reduced.
Rivers can be very dangerous. Before entering the water you should
check that the water levels and velocities are safe.
Fieldwork on the Glenarm River
Safety equipment for crossing a river:
1. Waders - long boots that keep your feet and legs dry and
provide stability in the water.
2. Ranging poles - useful for keeping you steady as you move in
the river.
3. Safety rope - a rope tied about 1m above the surface of the
water to give you something to hold onto as you cross the river.
Other equipment:
1. First Aid kit
2. Emergency whistle - can be blown to attract attention in an
emergency.
3. Bivvy bag - useful to carry an injured person or to act as a
shelter in extreme weather.
4. Mobile phone - useful for contacting the emergency services.
Fieldwork techniques and methods
There are many different techniques that can be used in geography
fieldwork.
Select appropriate data collection methods that will be clearly
linked to the specific aims and hypotheses stated.
Identify the equipment that would ensure results are
both accurate and reliable.
Recording sheets are used to make note of a range of measurements
and observations at a number of locations.
Hyp 1: The cross-sectional area of the Glenarm River decreases
as you move upstream
In order to investigate the cross-sectional area of a river you must
visit 5 different sites from the Upper course, Middle and Lower
course.
Equipment: Metre ruler, long tape measure
Measuring the cross section: measure the width of the channel and
the depth of the channel.

Channel Width (m): Stretch the tape measure from one river
bank to the far river bank, ensuring that the tape is at least 1m
above the surface of the water. Measure the width of the river
from the inside river bank edge to the far bank edge.

Channel Depth (m): Keep the tape measure stretched across the
width of the river. Use the metre ruler to record the depth of water
from the river bed to the surface of the water. Start from one river
bank and move at 30cm intervals across the river.

Cross sectional area (CSA) (m2) This is a simple calculation to
measure the amount of water at each site (the cross sectional area
of the water).
CSA(m2) = width(m) x average depth (m)
Fieldwork on the Glenarm River
Example of recording sheet for Width and Depth measurements
Near
River Channel
Bank 30cm 60cm 90cm 1.2m 1.50m 1.80m 2.10m
Site Width
(0cm)
Site
1
Site
2
Site
3
River
2.40m 2.70m 3.00m 3.30m 3.60m 3.90m 4.20m 4.50m 4.80m
Site
Site
1
Site
2
River
2.40m 2.70m 3.00m 3.30m 3.60m 3.90m 4.20m 4.50m 4.80m
Site
Site
3
River
5.10m 5.40m 5.70m 6.00m 6.30m 6.60m 6.90m 7.20m 7.50m
Site
Site
1
Site
2
Site
3
Hyp 2: The bedload size and shape will increase as you move
upstream
In order to investigate the changing bedload size and shape in the
river you must visit 5 different sites from the Upper course, Middle
and Lower course.
Equipment: Metre ruler or callipers, copy of Powers Index of
Roundness.
Fieldwork on the Glenarm River
The aim of this is to measure the size and shape of a sample of
stones from each site visited in the river.

At each site along the river move across the river and select 20
different stones found at the river bed. You should use a random
method of collection – put the metre ruler into the water and pick
up whatever stone it is touching.

Use the ruler or callipers to measure the long axes of each stone
(the longest two points on the stone) – this should be recorded in
cm.

Use the Powers Index of Roundness to observe and compare the
shape of the stone and record this.
Example of recording sheet for bedload size and shape
Stone Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Long Axis Length
Shape of stone
Stone Number
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Long Axis Length
Shape of stone
Secondary source - map of the Glenarm river area map to help
locate the different sites
Processing and presenting data
Once fieldwork data has been collected, the information must be
processed and presented.
Presentation methods include:
Graph types
Maps
Photos and diagrams
Bar graph
Sketch map
Sketch/diagram
Histogram
OS map (annotated)
Photograph (annotated)
Line graph
Choropleth map
Scatter graph
Pie chart
Cross-section
Hyp 1: The cross-sectional area of the Glenarm River decreases
as you move upstream
Data could be displayed in a number of ways.

Draw a series of cross-sections.

Present data using bar charts.
The difference in the cross sectional area can be shown using a
range of graphs for each site to show the depths measured across
the width of the river.
Graph 2: The cross section area for Site 1 at the Glenarm River
Hyp 2: The bedload size and shape will increase as you move
upstream
Data can be displayed in a number of ways.

Bar chart to illustrate the average bedload shape or average size
of stone at each site.

Scatter graph to measure the size and shape of the bedload.
Graph 3: Bar graph showing the average bedload shape for the
Glenarm River
Graph 4: Scatter graph to show the relationship between bedload
size and bedload shape for Site 2 in the Glenarm
Presentation methods:
A histogram is usually used to display continuous data (e.g. over
time) and will have the blocks touching each other.
Bar graphs are usually used to display discrete or non-continuous
data and each block will be separated with a space.
Scatter graphs usually involve two different variables and can be
used to test the strength of the relationship (or correlation) between
the two variables.
Once the graph has been drawn, the strength of the relationship
can be tested using a line of best fit/trend line. This enables
geographers to look for a positive, negative or no correlation
between the two set of variables.
Analysing and interpreting data
Analysing fieldwork data
Analysis involves describing results in each graph or resource.

Describe what data was used to help create the graph.

Quote figures. What are the highest result/ lowest results?

Describe any patterns or trends.

What are the relationships that the graph presents?
Interpreting fieldwork data using knowledge of relevant theory
and/or case studies
Data interpretation involves explaining the different reasons for the
results/graphs that have been presented.
Explain the patterns and trends in the information and:

Go back to the hypothesis that is being tested.

Explain the results that help to either support, prove or disprove
the stated hypothesis.

Refer to particular geographical theory and specifically note the
role that the theory might have played in linking with the
hypothesis.
Identifying anomalies in the fieldwork data
Describe and explain the potential reasons for any unusual results.
Hyp 1: The cross-sectional area of the Glenarm River decreases
as you move upstream
Data Analysis

Graph 1 shows the average channel depth as you move
downstream.

The graph clearly shows that the average channel depth actually
decreases as you move further upstream.

Site 4 is found high up in the upper course of the river and has an
average depth of 0.21m whereas the deepest part of the river is
found at Site 1, in the lower course where the depth is 0.62m on
average.
Data Interpretation

Graph 1 shows that part of the depth measurements that help
make up the cross-sectional area of the river are decreasing as we
move upstream.

The amount of water in the river increases closer to the mouth of
the river (site 1).

Geographical theory: Attrition, Hydraulic Action, Corrasion and
Solution all work to different levels to increase the width and
depth of the river channel.

There is a lot more water in the river by the lower course (site 1).
There will be more potential for abrasion and hydraulic action
which will continue to increase the cross-sectional area at this
point.

At site 4 in the upper course, there is much less water so the
erosion will usually only be eroding down and not across.
Drawing conclusions and evaluating
Drawing evidenced conclusions:

Return to the stated hypotheses.

Write a statement about what evidence supports how strongly the
hypothesis is found to be true or false.

Note which element of geographical theory is linked to the
fieldwork.

Any unusual results should be acknowledged and explained.
Evaluating the fieldwork
An evaluation involves:

Describing data collection methods, including any equipment
used.

Identifying problems with data collection method.

Identifying limitations of the data collected.

Suggesting other data that might be useful.

Evaluating conclusions.

Suggesting how to extend the scope of the study.
The final evaluation should explain any problems encountered
when collecting data:

Was the right equipment used?

Could the data collection have been improved?

Is there other equipment available that might have made data
collection more efficient or accurate?

Should more data have been collected?

Should more sites have been visited?

Were the right sites visited?

Are there any other measurements that might have been useful?
Evaluating conclusions:

Were the conclusions a fitting reflection to the aims and
hypotheses stated in the coursework?

Did the study help to answer questions on this?

Was this a good title/ aim in the first place?

Were the hypotheses specific enough to be able to be assessed
easily?

Was the location for the study appropriate?

If you were to repeat this study again – how could you have
improved the accuracy of the results?
Preparing the fieldwork statement and table of data
The fieldwork statement must include:

a title

a statement of the aim and hypotheses that the candidate is
testing

details of the location of the study (including a map, if
appropriate)
The table of data must include:

primary data essential for investigating the aim of the study
(include secondary data, if relevant)

data collected for all variables relevant to the aim

quantitative data (numerical scores) to allow for graphical
representation

normal conventions, such as a title, and all variables clearly
stated, along with their precise units of measurement
BAR Charts in Geography
WHAT IS A BAR CHART?
Bar charts are one of the simplest forms of displaying data.
Each bar is the same width, but the height depends on the data
being plotted. The bars should be drawn an equal distance apart.
WHEN IS USING A BAR CHART APPROPRIATE?
Bar charts are ideal for presenting discrete data. Discrete data is a
special kind of data because each value is separate and different.
For example, the results of a traffic count should be presented on
a bar graph because each value is different e.g. cars, buses,
motorbikes etc.
CREATING A BAR CHART
Creating a bar chart is relatively simple. In this example, we are
going to produce a bar chart to show the results of a traffic count.
Students have collected raw data that shows the type and number
of vehicles that pass them within 15 minutes:
 buses – 2
 cars- 24
 lorries – 3
 motorbikes – 6
 bicycles- 2
Step 1 – Decide on the scale of the X-axis
Decide on an appropriate scale on the X-axis for the bars. The bars
should be the same width, as should the space between the bars.
Step 2 – Decide on the scale of the Y-axis
Decide on a suitable scale for the Y-axis for the number of vehicles.
The scale should be spaced evenly and allow for the highest number
in the data set to be included.
Step 3 – Create the bar chart
Accurately draw the bars for each piece of data. As the data is
discrete, each bar should be shaded in a different colour.
Step 4 – Finish your graph
Include a title and label each axis.
READING A BAR CHART
To read a bar chart, read along the x-axis (bottom) to find
the bar you want. Go to the top of the bar and read across to the
scale on the y-axis to work out the value. Using a ruler can help
with this.
CREATE YOUR OWN BAR CHART
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows the results of a fauna (animal) survey in a
woodland ecosystem. Create a bar chart to present the data.
Bird = 23
Squirrel = 3
Foxes = 1
Hedgehog = 1
Mouse = 2
Histograms in Geography
WHAT IS A HISTOGRAM?
A histogram appears similar to a bar chart. However, there are key
differences between the two. Histograms are used to present
continuous data (a bar chart is used to present discrete data).
WHEN IS USING A HISTOGRAM APPROPRIATE?
Histograms are ideal for presenting continuous data. Continuous
data is data that falls in a continuous sequence e.g. time, distance
and temperature. An example of this would be after counting
pedestrians at 15-minute intervals over 2 hours, a histogram could
be used to present the results.
CREATING A HISTOGRAM
Creating a histogram is relatively simple. In this example, we are
going to produce a histogram to show the results of a pedestrian
count completed at 15-minute intervals over a continuous period of
time. Students have collected raw data that shows the number of
pedestrians that passed them during 15-minute intervals over two
hours.
8-8.15 am – 120
 8.15-8.30 am – 156
 8.30-8.45 am – 176
 8.45-9 am – 167
 9-9.15 am – 101
 9.15-9.30 am – 134
 9.30-9.45 am – 123
 9.45-10 am – 132
Step 1 – Decide on the scale of the X-axis

Decide on an appropriate scale on the X-axis for the bars. The bars
should be the same width and there should be no gaps between the
bars.
Step 2 – Decide on the scale of the Y-axis
Decide on a suitable scale for the Y-axis for the number of
pedestrians. The scale should be spaced evenly and allow for the
highest number in the data set to be included.
Step 3 – Create the histogram
Accurately draw the bars for each piece of data. As the data is
continuous, each bar should be shaded in the same colour
Step 4 – Finish your graph
Include a title and label each axis.
READING A HISTOGRAM
To read a bar chart, read along the x-axis (bottom) to find
the bar you want to read. Go to the top of the bar and read across
to the scale on the y-axis to work out the value. Using a ruler can
help with this.
CREATE YOUR OWN HISTOGRAM
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows equal class intervals of vehicle flow for a
continuous timescale. Present the data as a histogram.
3-3.30pm
3.30-4pm
4-4.30pm
4.30-5pm
5-5.30pm
5.30-6pm
6-6.30pm
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
123
160
134
206
280
305
245
Divided bar charts in geography
WHAT IS A DIVIDED BAR CHART?
In divided bar charts, the columns are subdivided based on the
information being displayed. Divided bar charts are used to show
the frequency in several categories, like ordinary bar charts. It is a
type of compound bar chart. But unlike ordinary bar charts, each
category is subdivided.
WHEN IS USING A DIVIDED BAR CHART APPROPRIATE?
Divided bar charts are ideal when you want to compare data that is
subdivided.
CREATING A DIVIDED BAR CHART
Creating a divided bar chart is relatively simple. In this example we
are going to produce a divided bar chart to show the breakdown of
GDP by economic sector of 5 countires. GDP measures the total
value of all of the goods made, and services provided, during a
specific period of time. The data below shows the GDP for five
countries divded by economic sector:
 UK – Primary = 0.7% Secondary = 20.2% Tertiary = 79.2%
 China – Primary = 7.9% Secondary = 40.5% Tertiary = 51.6%
 India – Primary = 15.4% Secondary = 23% Tertiary = 61.5%
 Nigeria – Primary = 21.1% Secondary = 22.5% Tertiary =
56.4%
 Niger – Primary = 41.6% Secondary = 19.5% Tertiary = 38.7%
Step 1 – Decide on the scale of the X-axis
Decide on an appropriate scale on the X-axis for the bars.
Step 2 – Decide on the scale of the Y-axis
Decide on a suitable scale for the Y-axis. As the data is expressed in
percentages then the y-axis must be between 0 and 100%.
Step 3 – Create the bar chart
Accurately draw the bars for each piece of data. Shade the different
categories in the same colour and add a key.
Step 4 – Finish your graph
Include a title and label each axis.
READING A DIVIDED BAR CHART
To read a divided bar chart, read along the x-axis (bottom) to find
the bar you want. Then identify the category you want to measure
and use the y-axis scale to extract the information.
CREATE YOUR OWN DIVIDED BAR CHART
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows the raw data from a traffic count. Present the
data using a divided bar chart.
8.30-9am – Cars = 34, Buses = 9, Heavy Goods Vehicles = 3,
Motorbikes = 5, Bikes = 14
9-9.30am – Cars = 46, Buses = 5, Heavy Goods Vehicles = 11,
Motorbikes = 8, Bikes = 11
9.30-10am – Cars = 67, Buses = 4, Heavy Goods Vehicles = 15,
Motorbikes = 2, Bikes = 9
10-10.30 – Cars = 34, Buses = 4, Heavy Goods Vehicles = 3,
Motorbikes = 1, Bikes = 7
Pie Charts in Geography
WHAT IS A PIE CHART?
A pie chart or divided circle is a basic graphical technique for
presenting a quantity that can be divided into parts. Pie charts
show amounts or percentages. Pie charts can also be drawn as
proportional circles.
WHEN IS USING A PIE CHART APPROPRIATE?
Pie charts are best to use when you are trying to compare parts of a
whole. They do not show changes over time.
CREATING A PIE CHART
Creating a pie chart is relatively simple. In this example, we are
going to produce a pie chart to show the different land use in a
town centre in the UK. Students have collected raw data that shows
the total number of different land uses in the town centre. This is
shown below:






residential (houses) – 2
commercial (shops) – 24
business and financial services (e.g. banks) – 3
leisure and recreation (including restaurants) – 6
industry – 2
transport – 1
Step 1 – Calculate percentages
The first step is to calculate the percentage of each land use based
on the total number. There are a total of 38 different buildings. We
need to calculate the proportion of these that are residential,
commercial etc. To do this we need to divide each land use by the
total. So, in the case of commercial 24 is divided by 38 then
multiplied by 100 to calculate the percentage. The percentage of
buildings used for commercial reasons is 63.2%.
This process needs to be repeated for all the other land uses. The
calculations are:
residential (houses) – 5.3%
 commercial (shops) – 63.2%
 business and financial services (e.g. banks) – 7.9%
 leisure and recreation (including restaurants) – 15.8%
 industry – 5.3%
 transport – 2.6%
Step 2 – Calculate degrees

The next step is to draw a circle. This can be done using a compass.
As a circle is 360°, 1% is equal to 3.6°. Next, you need to calculate
the number of degrees each percentage will be by multiplying each
by 3.6. The calculations have been completed below:
residential (houses) – 19.1°
 commercial (shops) – 227.5°
 business and financial services (e.g. banks) – 28.4°
 leisure and recreation (including restaurants) – 56.9°
 industry – 19.1°
 transport – 9.4°
Step 3 – Create the pie chart

The final step is to create your pie chart. This is shown below.
READING A PIE CHART
If you need to extract data from an existing pie chart, it is easy with
a bit of reverse engineering. To work out what % a segment is of the
whole, simply use a protractor to identify the number of degrees the
segment takes up. Then divide it by 3.6. You will then have a
percentage.
CREATE YOUR OWN PIE CHART
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows the ages of people who were recently
surveyed about hapinness in their local area. Create a pie chart to
show the proportion of respondents in each age group.
5-14 = 13
15-24 = 34
25-34 = 45
35-44 = 25
45-54 = 13
55-64 = 23
65+ = 34
Pyramid Charts in Geography
WHAT IS A PYRAMID CHART?
A pyramid chart is often referred to as a population pyramid as they
are typically used to present age-sex data for an area. They look like
two bar charts on their sides. They are usually presented as five or
ten year age groups with males on one side and female on the other.
Horizontal bars are drawn to present the number or proportion of
males and females in each age group.
WHEN IS USING A PYRAMID CHART APPROPRIATE?
A pyramid chart is appropriate for presenting population data to
show the age and gender breakdown of a country’s population.
Pyramid charts can be used when two sets of continuous data are
available, for example, a pedestrian count for a continuous
timescale showing people moving in two directions.
CREATING A PYRAMID CHART
There are two ways of presenting population pyramids. The first is
with the y-axis being plotted to the left (see below) and the data
expressed as percentages.
Population Pyramid for the UK
The second is with the y-axis being plotted between the bars (as
shown below), and in this case, the raw population data is shown.
A population pyramid for the UK in 2016
Step 1
Draw the horizontal and vertical axis for your pyramid chart. The
same scale should be either side of the horizontal (x) axis.
Step 2
Draw each of the bars to the correct value.
Step 3
The bars should be coloured the same because it is continuous
data.
READING A PYRAMID CHART
The shape of a pyramid chart provides an overview of the data. In
the case of population pyramids, if they have a wide base, it
indicates a high birth rate. If the pyramid has a quickly narrowing
top, death rates are high. You can extract data from individual bars
by using the x-axis to read the value.
CREATE YOUR OWN PYRAMID CHART
Instructions
Answer
Create a pyramid graph for the population structure of the USA in
2014 using the data below.
US Population Data for 2014
Line Graphs in Geography
WHAT IS A LINE GRAPH?
A line graph is a simple graphical technique to show changes over
time (continuous data). In all line graphs, you will find an
independent and dependent variable.
An independent variable is a variable that stands alone and isn’t
changed by the other variables you are trying to measure.
A dependent variable is a variable that is changed by other
variables.
An easy way to remember this is to insert the names of the two
variables you are using in the sentence below in the way that
makes the most sense. Then you can figure out which is the
independent variable and which is the dependent variable:
(independent variable) causes a change in (dependent variable), and
it isn’t possible that (dependent variable) could cause a change in
(independent variable).
If we take a traffic count that is completed over a period of time, the
sentence would only work like this:
Time causes a change in the number of vehicles, and it isn’t
possible that the number of vehicles could cause a change in time.
Therefore, time is our independent variable, and the number of
vehicles is the dependent variable.
Line graphs can show multiple sets of data over time.
WHEN IS USING A LINE GRAPH APPROPRIATE?
A line graph is appropriate for presenting continuous data.
CREATING A LINE GRAPH
Creating a line graph is relatively simple. In this example, we will
produce a line graph to show the results of a traffic count. Students
have collected raw data that shows the number of vehicles travelling
along High Street at hourly intervals. The data is shown below.
Line graph data
Step 1 – Plot your axis
Plot your axis. The independent variable should be plotted along the
horizontal x-axis. The dependent variable should be plotted on the
horizontal y-axis.
Step 2 – Plot your data
Using your raw data, make a mark (e.g. x) at the point where the
two values meet on the graph.
Step 3 – Join up the marks
Using a ruler, join the marks you have made with a line.
Your graph will look something like this:
Traffic count line graph
Line graphs can show multiple sets of data, as shown below.
A line graph showing multiple sets of data
READING A LINE GRAPH
To read a line graph, you need to read along the correct scale to find
the value you want. Then read along across or up to the line you
want, then read the value of the other scale.
CREATE YOUR OWN LINE GRAPH
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows the results of a series of traffic counts
outside of Eco School. Produce a line graph using the data.
Traffic count data
Compound Line Graphs in Geography
WHAT IS A COMPOUND LINE GRAPH?
A compound line graph is a development on the simple line graph.
They show layers of data and allow you to see the proportion that
makes the total.
On a compound line graph, the differences between the points on
adjacent lines give the actual values. To show this, the areas
between the lines are usually shaded or coloured and there is an
accompanying key. This is illustrated in the compound line graph
below.
WHEN IS USING A COMPOUND LINE GRAPH
APPROPRIATE?
If information can be subdivided into two (or more) types of data,
and contains continuous data, a compound line graph can be
drawn.
CREATING A COMPOUND LINE GRAPH
Step 1 – Draw the axis
The independent variable e.g. time, should be plotted along the xaxis (horizontal). The dependent variables, which can be
percentages or raw values should be plotted along the y-axis
(vertical). Make sure you decide on an appropriate scale.
Step 2 – Plot the data
Plot the data for the first entry. Join the points using a ruler. Then,
shade the area covered this entry. Remember to include a key.
Step 3 – Finish, shade and label
Add the next data entry. Remember to add the value on top of the
previous entry. Repeat this for all other data entries. Remember to
shade each entry a different colour and add it to the key. Complete
your graph by adding a title and labelling each axis.
READING A COMPOUND LINE GRAPH
The key to successfully reading a compound line graph is
remembering to only calculate the value of the shaded area you are
extracting data for.
CREATE YOUR OWN COMPOUND GRAPH
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows the results of traffic counts on Main Street
between 2 and 6pm. Produce a compound line graph to present the
results.
Scatter Graphs in Geography
WHAT IS A SCATTER GRAPH?
A scatter graph is used to investigate a relationship (link) between
two pieces of data. Once the data has been plotted the pattern of
points describes the relationship between the two sets of data. A
line of best-fit should be drawn on the graph after the points have
been plotted. The line will indicate the correlation (strength of
relationship) between the two data sets (variables). Relationships
can be positive, negative or will have no correlation at all.
WHEN IS USING A SCATTER APPROPRIATE?
A scatter graph is appropriate when you are investigating whether
there is a relationship between two variables.
CREATING A SCATTER GRAPH
In this example, we will investigate whether there is a relationship
between the width and depth of a river as it moves from source (1)
to mouth (10). We will use the data below in this example.
River depth and width data
Step 1 – Identify the data types
identify the independent variable and the dependent variable. In
this case, there are no independent and dependent variables. If we
were plotting distance from the source by depth, the distance would
be the independent variable (and plotted on the x-axis) and the
depth would be dependent (plotted on the y-axis).
Step 2 – Draw your axis
come up with an appropriate scale on the x-axis for the width. Make
sure the scale allows the highest value to be plotted. Repeat this for
the depth of the river on the y-axis. Remember to label your axis.
Step 3 – Plot the measurements
Plot them measurements on the graph, labelling each site.
A scatter graph to show the relationship between river depth and
width
Step 4 – Line of best fit
Draw a line of best fit. This is a straight line through the middle of
the data points. From the line of best fit, you can identify the type of
correlation between the two sets of data. In this case, there is a
positive correlation between river depth and width.
Line of best fit
READING A SCATTER GRAPH
The line will indicate the correlation (strength of relationship)
between the two data sets (variables). Relationships can be positive,
negative or will have no correlation at all.
CREATE YOUR OWN SCATTER GRAPH
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows the depth of a stream with distance from the
source. Create a scatter graph with a line of best fit.
Distance vs depth data
Dispersion Graphs in Geography
WHAT IS A DISPERSION GRAPH?
A dispersion graph shows the range of a set of data and illustrates
whether data groups or is dispersed. It is a useful way of comparing
sets of data. Values are plotted on the vertical axis.
WHEN IS USING A DISPERSION GRAPH APPROPRIATE?
Dispersion graphs are ideal when you want to compare sets of data
and can be used to present where the UQ and LQ are, as well as the
mean, median, mode and extreme values and interquartile range.
CREATING A DISPERSION GRAPH
In this example, we will create a dispersion graph to show the size
of pebbles at three sites along a river. The data below will be plotted
on a dispersion graph. The pebbles have been measured in mm.
Dispersion graph data
Step 1 – Vertical axis
Review the data and decide upon a scale. In this case, the highest
value is 40 mm so the vertical scale will run from 0 to 45 at 5 mm
intervals. Plot the scale for the vertical axis.
Step 2 – Horizontal axis
The horizontal axis has three entries, one for each site. Add this to
your graph. Remember to label your axis.
Step 3 – Plot
Plot the data on your graph. Below is an example of how your
dispersion graph might look.
Dispersion graph for pebbles sampled at three sites
READING A DISPERSION GRAPH
Read the title to see what the graph is showing. Ensure you
understand what each axis represents. Identify outliers (anomalies
in the data). Investigate the patterns show on the graph. Complete
statistical analysis e.g. what is the mean (you could then plot this
in a different colour), what is the range?, What is the media? What
is the interquartile range? etc.
CREATE YOUR OWN DISPERSION GRAPH
Instructions
Answer
The data below shows pebble sizes (cm) recorded at 3 locations
along the beach at Flamborough. Using the data, create a
dispersion graph.
Data for pebble measurements at Flamborough
Pictograms in Geography
WHAT IS A PICTOGRAM?
A pictogram is a way of presenting data using appropriate diagrams
and symbols, drawn to scale.
WHEN IS USING A PICTOGRAM APPROPRIATE?
A pictogram is an appropriate method of presenting discrete data
when accuracy is not particularly important.
CREATING A PICTOGRAM
Follow the steps below to create a pictogram.
Step 1 – Decide on the symbols
Decide on an appropriate symbol to represent your data. In this
example, we will create a pictogram presenting the rainfall data
below:
Monday – 3 mm
Tuesday – 4 mm
Wednesday – 8 mm
Thursday – 1 mm
Friday – 2 mm
Saturday – 4 mm
Sunday – 2 mm
In this case, we can use the shape of a water droplet.
Step 2 – Scale
Decide on the scale you will use for the symbols. In this case, we
will use one droplet per 1 mm of rainfall.
Step 3 – Plotting your data
When creating a pictogram dates etc. do not have to be continuous.
Draw the symbols. Sometimes the symbols will not be full-size if
they represent a proportion of a unit. Remember to add a key, title
and label the axis.
READING A PICTOGRAM
Read the title so see what the pictogram shows. Next, you need to
look at the key to see what the symbols represent. Finally, read
each set of data, you could write the figure for each data entry next
to the symbols.
CREATE YOUR OWN PICTOGRAM
Instructions
Answer
Create a pictogram to show world population milestones.
1804 – 1 billion
1927 – 2 billion
1960 – 3 billion
1974 – 4 billion
1987 – 5 billion
1999 – 6 billion
2011 – 7 billion
Choropleth Maps in Geography
WHAT IS A CHOROPLETH MAP?
A choropleth map is a map that is shaded according to a range of
values presented in a key. Choropleth maps are popular thematic
maps used to represent statistical data through various shading
patterns or symbols on predetermined geographic areas (i.e.
countries).
WHEN IS USING A CHOROPLETH MAP APPROPRIATE?
A choropleth map is appropriate when presenting data for
geographical areas and regions. Common uses of choropleth maps
include presenting population density (e.g. the number of people
per km2), weather and climate data and development indicators
such as GDP and life expectancy. Choropleth maps are also
appropriate for indicating differences in land use, like the amount
of recreational land or type of forest cover.
The map below shows population density by country. It is common
for shades of one colour to be used, with the darkest representing
the highest value. The key represents population density, expressed
as the number of people divided by land area measured in square
kilometres.
WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF USING
CHOROPLETH MAPS?
Despite choropleth maps providing a good visual picture of changes
between areas, there are disadvantages of using them including:
distorting data by displaying abrupt changes at boundaries
between areas
 they can be difficult to read as it can be hard to distinguish
between different shades
 variations within areas and regions are disguised, for example,
population density within an area might vary significantly,
however, only the mean is shown.
CREATING A CHOROPLETH MAP

Creating a choropleth map is easy. Follow the step by step guide
below.
Step 1 – Gather your data
Gather the data you need present. Next, find the range of your
values and develop a shading scale. Between 4 and 8 shading
bands should be appropriate. Ensure the shading bands get darker
as values increase.
Step 2 – info
Source a base map of the area(s) or region(s) you are presenting
data for. Include the key and title on your map.
Step 3 – info
Shade the areas/regions according to where they fit on the scale.
You can also create choropleth maps in a range of software
including Google Sheets (see the Internet Geography tutorial),
Microsoft Excel and Arc GIS.
DESCRIBING A CHOROPLETH MAP
TEA is a great acronym to use when describing patterns on a
choropleth map. TEA stands for trend, example and anomaly.
Trend
What is the general pattern shown on the map?
Is there an even distribution (spread)?
 Is there an uneven distribution (spread)?
Examples

Discuss the pattern on the map including examples. You could
consider:
What continents/countries are most of the feature contained
in?
 Which have the least?
 Are these HICs or LICs?
 Are they near the equator or further away?
 Are they inland or coastal?
Anomalies

Are there any areas/regions that stand out as being extremes
(either at the top or the bottom of the scale).
The map below shows a choropleth map showing rainfall data for
the UK. Before we can describe it we need to establish exactly what
the map shows. From the information provided, we can see that the
map shows rainfall data for April 2020. It is clear that the map does
not show rainfall totals. Instead, it shows the amount of rainfall
that has occurred as a percentage of the 1961-1990 average. If the
map was shaded white (75-125%), it would mean that the amount
of rain that fell in April would be close to the average rainfall that
occurred between 1961 and 1990. However, it is clear from the map
that this is not the case. A large proportion of the map is shaded
brown. This means that much of the country experienced less
rainfall in April 2020, compared to the average for 1961-1990. Now
we have established what the map shows, we can now describe it.
An example is included below the map.
Rainfall amount April 2020 as % of average
The choropleth map shows that rainfall during April 2020,
compared to the average for 1961-1990 was uneven across the UK.
Large parts of the UK, particularly the north of England and
Scotland, the Midlands, the east of England and Wales experienced
below-average rainfall (<75%). However, in central-southern areas of
England rainfall levels were closer to the average for 1961-1990.
There are some clear anomalies in rainfall patterns. In the
northeast of England and Scotland rainfall levels were significantly
below average. In addition to this, some areas in southern England
experienced rainfall significantly above average.