Trademarks
• Intellectual property: is any property resulting from intellectual and creative
processes.”‫اﻟﻣﻠﻛﯾﮫ اﻟﻔﻛرﯾﺔ‬
• Trademark• Distinctive word, symbol, sound, or design that identifies the
manufacturer as the source of particular goods and distinguishes its products from
those made or sold by others
Statutory Protection of Trademarks
Trademark Dilution
• Trademark Dilution Revision Act (TRDA) of 2006
1. Plaintiff owns distinctive famous mark
2. Defendant uses mark allegedly diluting famous mark
3. Association between the marks
4. Association is likely to impair distinctiveness
‫ﺗﺧﻔﯾف اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ •ﻗﺎﻧون ﻣراﺟﻌﺔ ﺗﺧﻔﯾف‬
) ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‬TRDA) ‫ ﯾﻣﺗﻠك‬.1 2006 ‫ﻟﻌﺎم‬
‫ ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ‬.2 ‫اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﻣﺷﮭورة ﻣﻣﯾزة‬
.3 ‫ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﻣزﻋوﻣﺔ ﺗﻣﯾﯾﻊ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺷﮭﯾرة‬
‫ اﻟﺟﻣﻌﯾﺔ ﻣن اﻟﻣﺣﺗﻣل أن‬.4 ‫اﻟراﺑطﺔ ﺑﯾن اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت‬
‫ﺗﺿﻌف اﻟﺗﻣﯾز‬
Statutory Protection of rademarks
• The Marks Need Not Be Identical: A famous mark may be diluted by the use of a
similar mark.
• A mark can be registered if in use or mark will beused within 6 months.
• Trademark Infringement :When a trademark is copied to a substantial degree or
used in its entirety by another, intentionally or unintentionally, it has been
infringed or used without authorization.
Distinctiveness of the Mark
• Strong Marks: Fanciful and arbitrary trademarks receive automatic protection.
Suggestive trademarks indicate a product’s nature, quality, or characteristics
without describing the product directly.
• Secondary Meaning: Certain terms and personal names are not inherently
distinctive. They receive protection only when they acquiree secondary meaning.
• Generic Terms: Generic terms that refer to an entire class of products receive no
protection, even if they acquire secondary meanings
‫ﯾﺟب أﻻ ﺗﻛون اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت ﻣﺗطﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪ :‬ﯾﻣﻛن ﺗﺧﻔﯾف اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺷﮭﯾرة ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧدام ﻋﻼﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻣﺎﺛﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﯾﻣﻛن ﺗﺳﺟﯾل اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ إذا ﻛﺎﻧت ﻗﯾد اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام أو ﺳﯾﺗم اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻏﺿون ‪ 6‬أﺷﮭر‪ .‬اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‪ :‬ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﺗم ﻧﺳﺦ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺣد ﻛﺑﯾر أو اﺳﺗﺧداﻣﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻛﺎﻣل ﻣن ﻗﺑل ﺷﺧص آﺧر ‪ ،‬ﻋن ﻗﺻد أو ﻋن ﻏﯾر ﻗﺻد ‪،‬‬
‫ﯾﻛون ﻗد ﺗم اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﯾﮭﺎ أو اﺳﺗﺧداﻣﮭﺎ دون إذن‪ .‬اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﻘوﯾﺔ‪ :‬ﺗﺣظﻰ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﯾﺎﻟﯾﺔ واﻟﺗﻌﺳﻔﯾﺔ ﺑﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋﯾﺔ‪ .‬ﺗﺷﯾر اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﻣوﺣﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ‬
‫طﺑﯾﻌﺔ اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ أو ﺟودﺗﮫ أو ﺧﺻﺎﺋﺻﮫ دون وﺻف اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﻣﺑﺎﺷرة ً‪ .‬اﻟﻣﻌﻧﻰ اﻟﺛﺎﻧوي‪:‬‬
‫ﺑﻌض اﻟﻣﺻطﻠﺣﺎت واﻷﺳﻣﺎء اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ ﻟﯾﺳت ﻣﻣﯾزة ﺑطﺑﯾﻌﺗﮭﺎ‪ .‬إﻧﮭم ﯾﺗﻠﻘون اﻟﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻘط ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﻛﺗﺳﺑون ﻣﻌﻧﻰ ﺛﺎﻧوﯾًﺎ‪ .‬اﻟﻣﺻطﻠﺣﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪ :‬ﻻ ﺗﺣظﻰ اﻟﻣﺻطﻠﺣﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺷﯾر إﻟﻰ ﻓﺋﺔ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣن اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت ﺑﺄي ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺗﻰ ﻟو اﻛﺗﺳﺑت ﻣﻌﺎﻧﻲ‬
‫ﺛﺎﻧوﯾﺔ‬
Service mark: A trademark that is used to
distinguish the services (rather than the
products) of one person or company from those
of another.
Service, Certification, and
Collective Marks
‫ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﺗﺳﺗﺧدم ﻟﺗﻣﯾﯾز ﺧدﻣﺎت )ﺑدﻻً ﻣن‬:‫ﻋﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺧدﻣﺔ‬
• .‫اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت( ﻟﺷﺧص واﺣد أو ﺷرﻛﺔ ﻣن ﺗﻠك اﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺂﺧر‬
، ‫ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﯾﺳﺗﺧدﻣﮭﺎ واﺣد أو أﻛﺛر اﻷﺷﺧﺎص‬:‫ﻋﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺻدﯾق‬
‫ اﻟﻣواد أو طرﯾﻘﺔ‬، ‫ ﻟﻠﺗﺻدﯾق ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﻧطﻘﺔ‬، ‫ﺑﺧﻼف اﻟﻣﺎﻟك‬
‫اﻟﺗﺻﻧﯾﻊ أو اﻟﺟودة أو ﻏﯾر ذﻟك ﺳﻣﺔ ﻣن ﺳﻣﺎت ﺳﻠﻊ أو ﺧدﻣﺎت‬
‫ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﺳﺗﺧدﻣﮭﺎ أﻋﺿﺎء أ‬:‫ •اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﯾﺔ‬.‫ﻣﻌﯾﻧﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎوﻧﯾﺔ أو ﺟﻣﻌﯾﺔ أو اﺗﺣﺎد أو ﻣﻧظﻣﺔ أﺧرى ل اﻟﺗﺻدﯾق ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ أو ﺧﺻﺎﺋص أﺧرى‬، ‫ اﻟﺟودة‬، ‫اﻟﻣﻧطﻘﺔ واﻟﻣواد وطرﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺗﺻﻧﯾﻊ‬
.‫ﻟﺳﻠﻊ ﻣﻌﯾﻧﺔ أو ﺧدﻣﺎت‬
Certification mark: A mark used by one or more
persons, other than the owner, to certify the
region, materials, mode of manufacture, quality,
or other characteristic of specific goods or
services.
Collective mark: A mark used by members of a
cooperative, association, union, or other
organization to certify the region, materials,
mode of manufacture, quality, or other
characteristic of specific goods or services.
• Trade dress: The image and overall appearance of a product.
It is a broad concept that can include all or part of the total image or overall
impression created by a product and its packaging.
‫ إﻧﮫ ﻣﻔﮭوم واﺳﻊ ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﺷﻣل ﻛل أو ﺟزء ﻣن اﻟﺻورة اﻹﺟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ أو اﻻﻧطﺑﺎع اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟذي ﺗم إﻧﺷﺎؤه ﺑواﺳطﺔ اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ‬.‫ اﻟﺻورة واﻟﻣظﮭر اﻟﻌﺎم ﻣن اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ‬:‫اﻟﻠﺑﺎس اﻟﺗﺟﺎري‬
.‫وﺗﻌﺑﺋﺗﮫ‬
Trade name: A name that a business uses to identify itself and its brand. A trade
name is directly related to a business’s
reputation and goodwill and is protected under trademark law.
• .‫ اﻻﺳم اﻟذي ﺗﺳﺗﺧدﻣﮫ اﻟﺷرﻛﺔ اﻟﺗﻌرﯾف ﻋن ﻧﻔﺳﮭﺎ وﻋﻼﻣﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‬:‫اﻻﺳم اﻟﺗﺟﺎري‬
‫ﯾرﺗﺑط اﻻﺳم اﻟﺗﺟﺎري ﻣﺑﺎﺷرة ﺑﺎﻷﻋﻣﺎل اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺳﻣﻌﺔ واﻟﻧواﯾﺎ اﻟﺣﺳﻧﺔ واﻟﻣﺣﻣﯾﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻣوﺟب ﻗﺎﻧون اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‬
License: Agreement that permits use of trademark, copyright, patent, or trade secret for limited
purposes.
• The owner is the licensor, the user is the licensee.
• The terms of use are delineated in the license agreement.
‫ اﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳﻣﺢ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ أو ﺣﻘوق اﻟﻧﺷر أو ﺑراءة‬:‫ﻟﺗرﺧﯾص‬
، ‫ •اﻟﻣﺎﻟك ھو اﻟﻣرﺧص‬.‫اﻻﺧﺗراع أو اﻷﺳرار اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﻟـ أﻏراض ﻣﺣدودة‬
.‫ •ﯾﺗم ﺗﺣدﯾد ﺷروط اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام ﻓﻲ اﻟﺗرﺧﯾص اﺗﻔﺎق‬.‫اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدم ھو اﻟﻣرﺧص ﻟﮫ‬
A patent is a property right granted by the federal government that gives a inventor
an exclusive right to make, use, sell, or offer to sell an invention in the United States
for a limited time.
‫ﺑراءة اﻻﺧﺗراع ھﻲ ﺣق ﻣﻠﻛﯾﺔ ﻣﻣﻧوح ﻣن ﻗﺑل اﻟﺣﻛوﻣﺔ اﻟﻔﯾدراﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻣﻧﺢ اﻟﻣﺧﺗرع اﻟﺣق اﻟﺣﺻري ﻓﻲ اﻟﺻﻧﻊ أو اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام أو اﻟﺑﯾﻊ أو اﻟﻌرض ﻟﻠﺑﯾﻊ اﺧﺗراع ﻓﻲ اﻟوﻻﯾﺎت‬
.‫اﻟﻣﺗﺣدة ﻟﻔﺗرة ﻣﺣدودة زﻣن‬
To be patentable, an invention must be novel, useful, and not obvious in light of current technology.
• Almost anything is patentable (excluding laws of nature, natural phenomena, abstract ideas).
The manufacture, use or sale of another’s product or design without permission (license) is
patent infringement.
• Patent Infringement Suits and High-Tech Companies
• High-companies are frequently involved in patent infringement lawsuits.
‫ •دﻋﺎوى اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑراءات اﻻﺧﺗراع‬.‫ﺗﺻﻧﯾﻊ أو اﺳﺗﺧدام أو ﺑﯾﻊ ﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت أﺧرى اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ أو اﻟﺗﺻﻣﯾم ﺑدون إذن )ﺗرﺧﯾص( ھو اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑراءات اﻻﺧﺗراع‬
‫واﻟﺗﻛﻧوﻟوﺟﯾﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﯾﺔ ﺷرﻛﺎت •ﻛﺛﯾرا ﻣﺎ ﺗﺷﺎرك اﻟﺷرﻛﺎت اﻟﻛﺑرى ﻓﻲ ﺑراءات اﻻﺧﺗراع دﻋﺎوى اﻟﺗﻌدي‬
If a patent is infringed, the patent holder can:
• Sue for relief
• Seek an injunction against the infringer
• Request damages for royalties and lost profits
• Seek reimbursement for attorney’s fees and costs
A copyright is an intangible property right
granted by federal statute to the author or
originator of certain literary or artistic
productions.
Generally, copyright owners are protected
against:
‫ أﺻﺣﺎب ﺣﻘوق‬، ‫ﺑﺷﻛل ﻋﺎم‬
1. Reproduction of the work
2. Development of derivative works ‫ اﺳﺗﻧﺳﺎخ‬.1 :‫اﻟﻧﺷر ﻣﺣﻣﯾﺔ ﺿد‬
‫ ﺗطوﯾر اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻔﺎت‬.2 ‫اﻟﻣﺻﻧف‬
3. Distribution of the work
.4 ‫ ﺗوزﯾﻊ اﻟﻌﻣل‬.3 ‫اﻟﻣﺷﺗﻘﺔ‬
4. Public display of the work
‫اﻟﻌرض اﻟﻌﺎم ﻟﻠﻌﻣل‬
What Is Protected
Expression?1/idea 2/page
naumbr
. An infringement of copyright occurs when form or expression is
copied. It does not have to be in its entirety.
• Remedies for Copyright Infringement: Actual damages,
statutory damages, or criminal penalties
Work must be original and fall into one of
these
categories:
1. Literary works
2. Musical works and accompanying words
3. Dramatic works and
Compilations of Facts: May be copyrightable if the
resulting compilation constitutes an original work of
authorship.
‫ ﻗد ﺗﻛون ﻣﺣﻣﯾﺔ ﺑﺣﻘوق اﻟﻧﺷر إذا اﻟﺗﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺞ‬:‫ﻣﺟﻣوﻋﺎت اﻟﺣﻘﺎﺋق‬
.‫ﯾﺷﻛل ﻧﺳﺧﺔ أﺻﻠﯾﺔ ﻋﻣل اﻟﺗﺄﻟﯾف‬
“Fair Use” Exception:
1. The purpose and character of the use
2. The nature of the copyrighted work
3. The amount and substantiality of the portion in relation to
the
copyrighted work as a whole
4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value
‫ ﻣﻘدار‬.3 ‫ طﺑﯾﻌﺔ اﻟﻌﻣل اﻟﻣﺣﻣﻲ ﺑﺣﻘوق اﻟﻣؤﻟف‬.2 ‫ اﻟﻐرض ﻣن اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام وطﺎﺑﻌﮫ‬.1 of
‫ ﺗﺄﺛﯾر اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام‬.4 ‫ وﺟوھر اﻟﺟزء اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻠق ﺑـ اﻟﻌﻣل اﻟﻣﺣﻣﻲ ﺑﺣﻘوق اﻟطﺑﻊ واﻟﻧﺷر ﻛﻛل‬the copyrighted work
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺳوق اﻟﻣﺣﺗﻣﻠﺔ أو ﻗﯾﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﻣل اﻟﻣﺣﻣﻲ ﺑﺣﻘوق اﻟطﺑﻊ واﻟﻧﺷر‬
‫ ﻻ ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون ﻓﻲ‬.‫•ﯾﺣدث اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣق اﻟﻣؤﻟف ﻋﻧد ﻧﺳﺦ اﻟﻧﻣوذج أو اﻟﺗﻌﺑﯾر‬
‫ اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻔﻌﻠﯾﺔ أو‬:‫ •ﺳﺑل اﻻﻧﺗﺻﺎف ﻣن اﻧﺗﮭﺎك ﺣﻘوق اﻟطﺑﻊ واﻟﻧﺷر‬.‫ﻣﺟﻣﻠﮫ‬
‫اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ أو اﻟﻌﻘوﺑﺎت اﻟﺟﻧﺎﺋﯾﺔ‬
What Is Fair Use?
• The courts determine whether a particular use is fair
on a case-by-case basis.
• Courts have often considered the fourth factor to be
the most important.
‫ھو اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻌﺎدل؟ •ﺗﺣدد اﻟﻣﺣﺎﻛم ﻣﺎ إذا ﻛﺎن اﺳﺗﺧدام ﻣﻌﯾن ﻋﺎدﻻً ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﺎس‬
‫ •ﻏﺎﻟﺑًﺎ ﻣﺎ اﻋﺗﺑرت اﻟﻣﺣﺎﻛم اﻟﻌﺎﻣل اﻟراﺑﻊ اﻷﻛﺛر أھﻣﯾﺔ‬.‫ﻛل ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣدة‬
A trade secret is a formula, device, idea,
process, or other information used in a
business that gives the owner a competitive
advantage in the marketplace.
• Protection of trade secrets extends both to
ideas and to their expression.
‫ أو ﻏﯾرھﺎ ﻣن اﻟﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺎت اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ‬، ‫ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺔ‬، ‫ ﻓﻛرة‬، ‫ ﺟﮭﺎز‬، ‫اﻟﺳر اﻟﺗﺟﺎري ھو ﺻﯾﻐﺔ‬
‫ •ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ اﻷﺳرار اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﯾﻣﺗد ﻋﻠﻰ‬.‫اﻷﻋﻣﺎل اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻣﻧﺢ اﻟﻣﺎﻟك أ ﻣﯾزة ﺗﻧﺎﻓﺳﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺳوق‬
.‫ﺣد ﺳواء إﻟﻰ اﻷﻓﻛﺎر واﻟﺗﻌﺑﯾر ﻋﻧﮭﺎ‬
Trade Secrets in Cyberspace
Employees can easily email information to
competitors.
• They can also appropriate trade secrets by
misusing their company’s social media accounts.
‫ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﻣوظﻔﯾن ﺑﺳﮭوﻟﺔ إرﺳﺎل اﻟﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﺑرﯾد اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ إﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺿﺎ ﺗﺧﺻﯾص اﻷﺳرار اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﻋن طرﯾق‬
ً ‫ •ﯾﻣﻛﻧﮭم أﯾ‬.‫اﻟﻣﻧﺎﻓﺳﯾن‬
.‫إﺳﺎءة اﺳﺗﺧدام ﺣﺳﺎﺑﺎت وﺳﺎﺋل اﻟﺗواﺻل اﻻﺟﺗﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﺷرﻛﺗﮭم‬
The First Sale Doctrine
• The owner of a particular item that is copyrighted can,
without the authority of the copyright owner, sell or otherwise
dispose of it.
‫ ﺑﯾﻌﮭﺎ أو‬، ‫ﻣﺑدأ اﻟﺑﯾﻊ اﻷول •ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻣﺎﻟك ﻋﻧﺻر ﻣﻌﯾن ﻣﺣﻣﻲ ﺑﺣﻘوق اﻟطﺑﻊ واﻟﻧﺷر‬
.‫اﻟﺗﺻرف ﻓﯾﮭﺎ ﺑﺄي ﺷﻛل ﻣن اﻷﺷﻛﺎل دون إذن ﻣن ﻣﺎﻟك ﺣﻘوق اﻟطﺑﻊ واﻟﻧﺷر‬
However, courts typically have not extended
copyright protection to the “look and feel” of the
computer programs.
‫ اﻟﻣﺣﺎﻛم ﻋﺎدة ﻟم ﺗﻣدد ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ ﺣﻘوق اﻟﻧﺷر ﻟـ "اﻟﺷﻛل واﻟﻣﺿﻣون" ﻟـ ﺑراﻣﺞ اﻟﺣﺎﺳوب‬، ‫وﻣﻊ ذﻟك‬
State and Federal Law on Trade Secrets
1. They discovered the secret by improper means.
2. Their disclosure or use constitutes a breach of a duty owed to theb
‫ ﯾﺷﻛل إﻓﺷﺎءھﺎ أو اﺳﺗﺧداﻣﮭﺎ إﺧﻼًﻻ ﺑواﺟب واﺟب ﺗﺟﺎه اﻟطرف‬.2 .‫ اﻛﺗﺷﻔوا اﻟﺳر ﺑوﺳﺎﺋل ﻏﯾر ﻻﺋﻘﺔ‬.1
other party.
‫اﻵﺧر‬
International Protections
The Berne Convention (1886)
The TRIPS Agreement (1994)
The Madrid Protocol (2003)
The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (2011)
• Spam is the unsolicited “junk e-mail” that
floods virtual mailboxes with advertisements,
solicitations, and similar communications.
Cybersquatting occurs when a party registers a
domain name that is the same as, or confusingly
similar to, the trademark of another and then
offers to sell the domain name back to the
trademark owner.
‫•اﻟﺑرﯾد اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ اﻟﻌﺷواﺋﻲ ھو "اﻟﺑرﯾد اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ ﻏﯾر اﻟﮭﺎم" ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣرﻏوب ﻓﯾﮫ‬
‫ واﻻﺗﺻﺎﻻت اﻟﻣﻣﺎﺛﻠﺔ‬، ‫ اﻟﺗﻣﺎس‬، ‫ﯾﻐﻣر ﻋﻠب اﻟﺑرﯾد اﻻﻓﺗراﺿﯾﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت‬
• Typosquatting: A form of cybersquatting that
relies on mistakes made by Internet users when
entering information into a Web browser.
• Typosquatters may fall beyond the reach of the ACPA if their
misspellings are significant.
‫ ﺷﻛل ﻣن أﺷﻛﺎل اﻟﺳطو اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ ﯾﻌﺗﻣد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﺧطﺎء اﻟﺗﻲ‬:‫•اﻟﺳطو اﻟﻣطﺑﻌﻲ‬
‫ •ﻗد ﯾﻘﻊ‬.‫ﯾرﺗﻛﺑﮭﺎ ﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣو اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ إدﺧﺎل اﻟﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺎت ﻓﻲ ﻣﺗﺻﻔﺢ اﻟوﯾب‬
Typosquatters ‫ﺑﻌﯾدًا ﻋن ﻣﺗﻧﺎول‬ACPA .‫إذا ﻛﺎﻧت اﻷﺧطﺎء اﻹﻣﻼﺋﯾﺔ ﻛﺑﯾرة‬
Applicability and Sanctions of the ACPA
• The ACPA applies to all domain name registrations of
trademarks.
• Successful plaintiffs can collect actual damages and profits, or
elect to receive statutory damages.
، ‫ﯾﺣدث اﻟﺳطو اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﺳﺟل اﻟطرف أ اﺳم اﻟﻣﺟﺎل اﻟذي ھو ﻧﻔﺳﮫ‬
‫أو ﻣرﺑًﻛﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏرار اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﻵﺧر ﺛم ﯾﻌرض ﺑﯾﻊ اﺳم اﻟﻣﺟﺎل ﻣرة‬
.‫أﺧرى إﻟﻰ ﻣﺎﻟك اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‬
Anticybersquatting Legislation: The ACPA makes
cybersquatting illegal when:
1. The domain name is identical or confusingly similar to the
trademark of another.
2. The one registering, trafficking in, or using the domain name
has a “bad faith intent” to profit from that trademark.
:‫ﺗﺷرﯾﻊ ﻣﻛﺎﻓﺣﺔ اﻟﺳطو‬ACPA ‫ اﺳم اﻟﻣﺟﺎل ﻣطﺎﺑق أو ﻣﺷﺎﺑﮫ ﺑﺷﻛل ﻣرﺑك ﻟـ‬.1 :‫ﯾﺟﻌل اﻟﺳطو اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ ﻏﯾر ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﻲ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ‬
‫ اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟذي ﯾﻘوم ﺑﺗﺳﺟﯾل اﺳم اﻟﻣﺟﺎل أو اﻟﻣﺗﺎﺟرة ﻓﯾﮫ أو اﺳﺗﺧداﻣﮫ ﻟدﯾﮫ "ﻧﯾﺔ ﺳﯾﺋﺔ" ﻟﻼﺳﺗﻔﺎدة ﻣن‬.2 .‫ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ أﺧرى‬
.‫ﺗﻠك اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻧطﺑﺎق وﻋﻘوﺑﺎت‬ACPA • ) ‫ﯾﻧطﺑق ﻗﺎﻧون اﻟﻣﺣﺎﺳﺑﯾن اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﯾن اﻟﻣﻌﺗﻣدﯾن‬ACPA) ‫ •ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﻣدﻋﯾن‬.‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻣﯾﻊ ﺗﺳﺟﯾﻼت اﺳم اﻟﻣﺟﺎل اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‬
.‫ أو ﺗﺧﺗﺎر ﻟﺗﻠﻘﻲ ﺗﻌوﯾﺿﺎت ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ‬، ‫اﻟﻧﺎﺟﺣﯾن ﺟﻣﻊ اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻔﻌﻠﯾﺔ واﻷرﺑﺎح‬
Meta tags are key words that give Internet
browsers specific information about a Web page.
• Using another’s trademark in a meta tag without
the owner’s permission normally constitutes
trademark infringement.
• .‫اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟوﺻﻔﯾﺔ ھﻲ اﻟﻛﻠﻣﺎت اﻟرﺋﯾﺳﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌطﻲ اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت اﻟﻣﺗﺻﻔﺣﺎت ﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺎت ﻣﺣددة ﺣول ﺻﻔﺣﺔ اﻟوﯾب‬
‫اﺳﺗﺧدام ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﻟﺷﺧص آﺧر ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ وﺻﻔﯾﺔ ﺑدوﻧﮭﺎ ﯾﺷﻛل إذن اﻟﻣﺎﻟك ﻋﺎدة إﺧﻼل ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ‬
Trademark dilution occurs when a trademark is
used, without authorization, in a way that
diminishes the distinctive quality of the mark.
‫ ﺑطرﯾﻘﺔ أن ﯾﻘﻠل ﻣن‬، ‫ دون إذن‬، ‫ﯾﺣدث ﺗﺧﻔﯾف اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺗﻛون اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﺗﺳﺗﺧدم‬
.‫اﻟﺟودة اﻟﻣﻣﯾزة ﻟﻠﻌﻼﻣﺔ‬
Most material on the Internet is copyrighted and
in order to transfer that material, it must be“copied.”
• A person can be criminally liable for the piracy of
copyrighted materials even if he or she does not realize a profit.
• 9–2a Digital Millennium Copyright Act
• The DMCA established civil and criminal penalties for anyone who
circumvents (bypasses) encryption software or other technological
antipiracy protection.
A company may permit another party to use a
trademark under a license.
• A licensor might grant a license allowing its
trademark to be used as part of a domain name.
• Licenses frequently include restrictions that
prohibit licensees from sharing the file and using
it to create similar software applications.
‫ •ﻗد ﯾﻣﻧﺢ اﻟﻣر ِ ّﺧص‬.‫ﻗد ﺗﺳﻣﺢ اﻟﺷرﻛﺔ ﻟطرف آﺧر ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧدام ﻣﻠف ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ ﺑﻣوﺟب ﺗرﺧﯾص‬
‫ •ﻏﺎﻟﺑًﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺗﺿﻣن‬.‫ﺻﺎ ﯾﺳﻣﺢ ﺑذﻟك اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﻣراد اﺳﺗﺧداﻣﮭﺎ ﻛﺟزء ﻣن اﺳم اﻟﻣﺟﺎل‬
ً ‫ﺗرﺧﯾ‬
‫اﻟﺗراﺧﯾص ﻗﯾودًا ﻣﻧﻊ اﻟﻣرﺧص ﻟﮭم ﻣن ﻣﺷﺎرﻛﺔ اﻟﻣﻠف واﺳﺗﺧداﻣﮫ ﻹﻧﺷﺎء ﺗطﺑﯾﻘﺎت ﺑرﻣﺟﯾﺔ ﻣﻣﺎﺛﻠﺔ‬
File-Sharing Technology
Methods of File-Sharing
• Peer-to-peer (P2P) networking: A type of
distributed network that may include devices from all over
‫" •ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﺷﺧص ﻣﺳؤوﻻ‬.‫ ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون "ﻧﺳﺦ‬، ‫ ﻣﻌظم اﻟﻣواد اﻟﻣوﺟودة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﻣﺣﻣﯾﺔ ﺑﺣﻘوق اﻟطﺑﻊ واﻟﻧﺷر و ﻣن أﺟل ﻧﻘل ﺗﻠك اﻟﻣواد‬the world.
2–9• .‫ﺟﻧﺎﺋﯾﺎ ﻋن اﻟﻘرﺻﻧﺔ اﻟﻣواد اﻟﻣﺣﻣﯾﺔ ﺑﺣﻘوق اﻟطﺑﻊ واﻟﻧﺷر ﺣﺗﻰ ﻟو ﻟم ﯾﻔﻌل ذﻟك ﺗﺣﻘﯾق رﺑﺢ‬a ‫ﻗﺎﻧون ﺣﻘوق اﻟﻧﺷر اﻟرﻗﻣﯾﺔ ﻟﻸﻟﻔﯾﺔ •أﻧﺷﺄ ﻗﺎﻧون‬
• Cloud computing: A subscription-based or pay-per‫اﻷﻟﻔﯾﺔ اﻟﺟدﯾدة ﻟﺣﻘوق طﺑﻊ وﻧﺷر اﻟﻣواد اﻟرﻗﻣﯾﺔ ﻋﻘوﺑﺎت ﻣدﻧﯾﺔ وﺟﻧﺎﺋﯾﺔ ﻟـ أي ﺷﺧص ﯾﺗﺣﺎﯾل )ﯾﺗﺟﺎوز( اﻟﺗﺷﻔﯾر اﻟﺑراﻣﺞ أو ﻏﯾرھﺎ ﻣن وﺳﺎﺋل اﻟﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ‬
.‫اﻟﺗﻛﻧوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺿﺎدة ﻟﻠﻘرﺻﻧﺔ‬
use service that extends a computer’s software or storage
capabilities. ) ‫طرق ﻣﺷﺎرﻛﺔ اﻟﻣﻠﻔﺎت •ﺷﺑﻛﺎت ﻧظﯾر إﻟﻰ ﻧظﯾر‬P2P): ‫ﻧوع ﻣن اﻟﺷﺑﻛﺔ اﻟﻣوزﻋﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﻗد‬
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﺎس اﻻﺷﺗراك أو‬:‫ •اﻟﺣوﺳﺑﺔ اﻟﺳﺣﺎﺑﯾﺔ‬.‫ﺗﺗﺿﻣن أﺟﮭزة ﻣن ﻓﻲ ﺟﻣﯾﻊ أﻧﺣﺎء اﻟﻌﺎﻟم‬
Sharing Stored Music Files
.‫اﻟدﻓﻊ ﻟﻛل اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﺧدﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻣد ﺑراﻣﺞ اﻟﻛﻣﺑﯾوﺗر أو ﻗدرات اﻟﺗﺧزﯾن‬
• Recording artists and their labels stand to lose royalties and revenues if
Social media: Provides a means by which
relatively few digital downloads are purchased and then made available on
people can create, share, and exchange ideas
distributed networks.
and comments via the Internet.
Legal Issues
Pirated Movies and Television
• Impact on Litigation
• The motion picture industry loses significant amounts of revenue due to pirated
• Social media posts are routinely included in
DVDs.
Impact on Settlement Agreements
• Social media posts have been used to invalidate
settlement agreements that contained confidentiality
clauses. ‫م‬.‫ا اﻻﻟﺗﺟﺄﺗﺛﯾﻣﺎرﻋﯾﻋﺔﻠﻰﻹﺑاﺗﻔطﺎﺎﻗﯾلﺎ اﺗتﻔﺎاﻗﻟﯾﺗﺎﺳتوﯾاﻟﺔﺗﺳ•وﺗﯾمﺔا اﻟﺳﺗﺗﻲﺧدﺗامﺣﺗﻣوﻧﺷيوﻋرﻠاﻰت اﻟوﺳﺳﺎرﺋﯾﺔل اﺷﻹرﻋوﻼط‬
Administrative Agencies
• Federal regulators also use social media posts in their
investigations into illegal activities.
‫ﺿﺎ ﻣﻧﺷورات وﺳﺎﺋل‬
ً ‫اﻟوﻛﺎﻻت اﻹدارﯾﺔ •ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم اﻟﻣﻧظﻣون اﻟﻔﯾدراﻟﯾون أﯾ‬
.‫اﻟﺗواﺻل اﻻﺟﺗﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺗﺣﻘﯾﻘﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻷﻧﺷطﺔ ﻏﯾر اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ‬
Criminal Investigations
• Law enforcement uses social media to detect and
prosecute criminals as well as to locate or identify
‫اﻟﺗﺣﻘﯾﻘﺎت اﻟﺟﻧﺎﺋﯾﺔ •ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم ﺗطﺑﯾق اﻟﻘﺎﻧون وﺳﺎﺋل اﻟﺗواﺻل‬
suspects.
‫اﻻﺟﺗﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻻﻛﺗﺷﺎف و ﻣﻘﺎﺿﺎة اﻟﻣﺟرﻣﯾن وﻛذﻟك ﺗﺣدﯾد ﻣﻛﺎﻧﮭم أو‬
Employers’ Social Media Policies
• Employees who use social media in a way that
violates their employer’s stated policies may be
‫ﺳﯾﺎﺳﺎت وﺳﺎﺋل اﻟﺗواﺻل اﻻﺟﺗﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻷﺻﺣﺎب اﻟﻌﻣل •اﻟﻣوظﻔون‬
disciplined or fired. ‫اﻟذﯾن ﯾﺳﺗﺧدﻣون وﺳﺎﺋل اﻟﺗواﺻل اﻻﺟﺗﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﺑﮭذه اﻟطرﯾﻘﺔ ﯾﻧﺗﮭك‬
.‫اﻟﺗﻌرف ﻋﻠﯾﮭم اﻟﻣﺷﺗﺑﮫ ﺑﮭم‬
Cyber torts are torts that arise from online
conduct.
• Because the Internet enables individuals to
communicate with large numbers of people
simultaneously, online defamation is a common
problem in today’s legal environment.
.‫ﺳﯾﺎﺳﺎت ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل اﻟﻣﻌﻠﻧﺔ ﻗد ﯾﻛون ﻣﻧﺿﺑط أو ﻣطرود‬
‫اﻟﻘﺿﯾﺔ اﻷوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ أﺛﺎرھﺎ اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر ﻋﺑر‬
• .‫اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ھﻲ ﻣﺟرد اﻛﺗﺷﺎف ﻣن ﯾرﺗﻛﺑﮭﺎ‬
) ‫ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻣزود ﺧدﻣﺔ اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت‬ISP) ‫اﻟﻛﺷف‬
‫اﻟﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺎت اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ ﻋن ﻋﻣﻼﺋﮭﺎ ﻓﻘط ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ‬
.‫أﻣرت ﺑذﻟك ﻣن ﻗﺑل اﻟﻣﺣﻛﻣﺔ‬
‫ •ﻷن اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﺗﻣﻛن اﻷﻓراد ﻣن‬.‫اﻷﺿرار اﻟﺳﯾﺑراﻧﯾﺔ ھﻲ أﺿرار ﺗﻧﺷﺄ ﻣن اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت إﺟراء‬
‫ ﯾﻌد اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر ﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت أﻣًرا ﺷﺎﺋﻌًﺎ‬، ‫اﻟﺗواﺻل ﻣﻊ أﻋداد ﻛﺑﯾرة ﻣن اﻟﻧﺎس ﻓﻲ اﻟوﻗت ﻧﻔﺳﮫ‬
.‫ﻣﺷﻛﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ اﻟﯾوم‬
‫ھل ﯾﻧﺑﻐﻲ اﻋﺗﺑﺎر ﻣزودي ﺧدﻣﺎت اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﻛﻧﺎﺷرﯾن و ﻟذﻟك ﯾﺗﺣﻣل اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن اﻟرﺳﺎﺋل اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾرﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗم ﻧﺷرھﺎ ﺑواﺳطﺔ‬
‫ ﺑﻣوﺟب‬:‫اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣﯾن ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﻧﺗدﯾﺎت ﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت أو ﺳﺎﺣﺎت أﺧرى؟ •اﻟﻘﺎﻋدة اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‬CDA ، ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﺗم اﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣل ﻣﻊ ﻣﻘدﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺧدﻣﺎت اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﺑﺷﻛل ﻣﺧﺗﻠف ﻋن اﻟﻧﺎﺷرﯾن ﻓﻲ وﺳﺎﺋل اﻹﻋﻼم اﻷﺧرى وﻟﺳﻧﺎ ﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾن ﻋﻧﮭﺎ ﻧﺷر ﺑﯾﺎﻧﺎت ﺗﺷﮭﯾرﯾﺔ ﺻﺎدرة ﻋن‬
‫ ﺑدأت ﺑﻌض اﻟﻣﺣﺎﻛم ﻓﻲ وﺿﻊ ﺣدود ﻟذﻟك ﺣﺻﺎﻧﺔ‬:‫ •اﺳﺗﺛﻧﺎءات‬.‫طرف ﺛﺎﻟث‬
An initial issue raised by online defamation is
simply discovering who is committing it.
• An Internet service provider (ISP) can disclose
personal information about its customers only
when ordered to do so by a court.
Should ISPs be regarded as publishers and
therefore be held liable for defamatory messages
that are posted by their users in online forums or
other arenas?
• General Rule: Under the CDA, ISPs are usually treated
differently from other media publishers and are not liable for
publishing defamatory statements that come from a third party.
• Exceptions: Some courts have started establishing limits to this
immunity.
ch10
Executed contract: A contract that has been fully
performed by both parties.
Executory contract: A contract that has not yet been
fully performed.
‫ اﻟﻌﻘد اﻟذي ﻟم ﯾﺗم ﺗﻧﻔﯾذه ﺑﻌد‬:‫ •اﻟﻌﻘد اﻟﺗﻧﻔﯾذي‬.‫ اﻟﻌﻘد اﻟذي ﺗم ﺗﻧﻔﯾذه ﺑﺎﻟﻛﺎﻣل ﯾؤدﯾﮭﺎ ﻛﻼ اﻟطرﻓﯾن‬:‫•اﻟﻌﻘد اﻟﻣﻧﻔذ‬
.‫أداء ﻛﺎﻣل‬
Contract Enforceability
• Voidable Contracts: A contract that may be legally
avoided at the option of one or both of the parties.
• Unenforceable Contracts: A valid contract rendered
unenforceable by some statute or law.
• Void Contracts: A contract having no legal force or
binding effect.
Requirements of the Offer
• An offer is a promise or commitment to perform or
refrain from performing some specified act in the
future. There are 3 elements needed for it to be
effective:
1. There must be a serious, objective intention by the offeror.
2. The terms of the offer must be reasonably certain, or
definite, so that the parties and the court can ascertain the
terms of the contract.
3. The offer must be communicated to the offeree.
‫ ﺑﺣﯾث ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻸطراف‬، ‫ أو ﻣﺣددة‬، ‫ ﺷروط اﻟﻌرض ﯾﺟب أن ﺗﻛون ﻣؤﻛدة ﺑﺷﻛل ﻣﻌﻘول‬.2 .‫ ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون ھﻧﺎك ﻧﯾﺔ ﺟﺎدة وﻣوﺿوﻋﯾﺔ ﻣن ﻗﺑل اﻟﻌﺎرض‬.1
.‫ ﯾﺟب إﺑﻼغ اﻟﻌرض إﻟﻰ اﻟﻣﻌروض ﻋﻠﯾﮫ‬.3 .‫واﻟﻣﺣﻛﻣﺔ اﻟﺗﺄﻛد ﻣن ﺑﻧود اﻟﻌﻘد‬
‫ ﻋﻘد ﺳﺎري‬:‫ •اﻟﻌﻘود ﻏﯾر اﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺗﻧﻔﯾذ‬.‫ ﻋﻘد ﻗد ﯾﻛون ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﯾًﺎ ﯾﺗم ﺗﺟﻧﺑﮫ ﺑﺎﺧﺗﯾﺎر أﺣد اﻟطرﻓﯾن أو ﻛﻠﯾﮭﻣﺎ‬:‫ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯾﺔ ﺗﻧﻔﯾذ اﻟﻌﻘد •اﻟﻌﻘود اﻟﻣﻠﻐﺎة‬
.‫ ﻋﻘد ﻟﯾس ﻟﮫ ﻗوة ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ أو أﺛر ﻣﻠزم‬:‫ •اﻟﻌﻘود اﻟﺑﺎطﻠﺔ‬.‫اﻟﻣﻔﻌول ﻏﯾر ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺗﻧﻔﯾذ ﻣن ﻗﺑل ﺑﻌض اﻟﺗﺷرﯾﻌﺎت أو اﻟﻘﺎﻧون‬
Intention
• Agreements to Agree
• Preliminary Agreements
• Intention
• Intention is determined by what a reasonable person
in the offeree’s position would conclude that the
offeror’s words and actions meant.
‫•اﻟﻧﯾﺔ ﺗﺣددھﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺷﺧص ﻋﺎﻗل ﻓﻲ ﻣوﻗف اﻟﻣﻌروض ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﺳﯾﺧﻠص إﻟﻰ أن أﻗوال اﻟﻌﺎرض وأﻓﻌﺎﻟﮫ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻧﻲ‬
‫ ﺑﯾﺎﻧﺎت‬.2 ‫ إﺑداء اﻟرأي‬.1 ‫ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﻛون ھﻧﺎك ﻧﻘص ﻓﻲ اﻟﻧﯾﺔ‬
‫ اﻟدﻋوات ﻟﺗﻘدﯾم‬.4 ‫ ﻣﻔﺎوﺿﺎت أوﻟﯾﺔ‬.3 ‫اﻟﻧواﯾﺎ اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻘﺑﻠﯾﺔ‬
‫ اﻟﻣزادات اﻟﺣﯾﺔ‬.6 ‫ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت وﻗواﺋم اﻷﺳﻌﺎر‬.5 ‫اﻟﻌطﺎءات‬
‫وﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت‬
When Intent May Be Lacking
1. Expressions of opinion
2. Statements of future intent
3. Preliminary negotiations
4. Invitations to bid
5. Advertisements and price lists
6. Live and online auctions
Definiteness of Term
• Generally, the contract must include:
1. The identification of the parties.
2. The identification of the object or subject matter of the
contract, including the work to be performed, with
specific identification of such items as goods, services,
and land.
3. The consideration to be paid.
4. The time of payment, delivery, or performance.
‫ ﺑﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ذﻟك اﻟﻌﻣل اﻟذي‬، ‫ ﺗﺣدﯾد ﻣوﺿوع أو ﻣوﺿوع اﻟﻌﻘد‬.2 .‫ ﺗﺣدﯾد اﻷطراف‬.1 :‫ ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﺗﺿﻣن اﻟﻌﻘد‬، ‫ﺗﻌرﯾف اﻟﻣﺻطﻠﺢ •ﺑﺷﻛل ﻋﺎم‬
.‫ وﻗت اﻟدﻓﻊ أو اﻟﺗﺳﻠﯾم أو اﻷداء‬.4 .‫ اﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑل اﻟواﺟب دﻓﻌﮫ‬.3 .‫ واﻷرض‬، ‫ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺣدﯾد ﻣﺣدد ﻟﻌﻧﺎﺻر ﻣﺛل اﻟﺳﻠﻊ واﻟﺧدﻣﺎت‬، ‫ﯾﺗﻌﯾن اﻟﻘﯾﺎم ﺑﮫ‬
• Communication
• The offer must be communicated to the offeree.
Termination by Operation of Law
• ‫•اﻧﻘﺿﺎء اﻟوﻗت •اﻟدﻣﺎر أو اﻟﻣوت أو ﻋدم اﻟﻛﻔﺎءة‬
• Lapse of Time
‫اﻹﺷراف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﺧﺎﻟﻔﺎت‬
• Destruction, Death, or Incompetence
• Supervening Illegality
Termination by Action of the Parties
• Revocation: The withdrawal of a contract offer by the
offeror.
• Irrevocable Offers: Some offers can be made
irrevocable.
• Option contract: A contract under which the offeror cannot
revoke the offer for a stipulated time period (because the
offeree has given consideration for the offer to remain open)
• Rejection: A rejection is effective only when it is
actually received by the offeror or the offeror’s agent.
‫ ﯾﻣﻛن ﺗﻘدﯾم‬:‫ •ﻋروض ﻏﯾر ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻧﻘض‬.‫ ﺳﺣب ﻋرض اﻟﻌﻘد ﻣن ﻗﺑل اﻟﻌﺎرض‬:‫اﻹﻧﮭﺎء ﻋن طرﯾق إﺟراء ﻣن اﻷطراف •اﻹﻟﻐﺎء‬
‫ ﻋﻘد ﻻ ﯾﺳﺗطﯾﻊ اﻟﻌﺎرض ﺑﻣوﺟﺑﮫ إﻟﻐﺎء اﻟﻌرض ﻟﻔﺗرة زﻣﻧﯾﺔ ﻣﺣددة )ﻷن أﺧذ‬:‫ •ﻋﻘد اﻟﺧﯾﺎر‬.‫ﺑﻌض اﻟﻌروض ﻏﯾر ﻗﺎﺑل ﻟﻺﻟﻐﺎء‬
‫ اﻟرﻓض ﻻ ﯾﻛون ﺳﺎرًﯾﺎ إﻻ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﻛون ﻛذﻟك اﺳﺗﻠﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﺎرض‬:‫ •اﻟرﻓض‬.(‫اﻟﻣﻌروض ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻋﺗﺑﺎر أن ﯾظل اﻟﻌرض ﻣﻔﺗوًﺣﺎ‬
.‫أو وﻛﯾﻠﮫ ﻓﻌﻠًﯾﺎ‬
An acceptance is a voluntary act by the offeree
that shows assent, or agreement, to the terms of an
، ‫اﻟﻘﺑول ھو ﻋﻣل ﺗطوﻋﻲ ﻣن ﻗﺑل اﻟﻣﻌروض ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﯾ ُظﮭر اﻟﻣواﻓﻘﺔ‬
offer by words or conduct. .‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷروط ﻋرض ﺑﺎﻟﻛﻠﻣﺎت أو اﻟﺳﻠوك‬، ‫أو اﻟﻣواﻓﻘﺔ‬
‫اﻹﻧﮭﺎء ﺑﺣﻛم اﻟﻘﺎﻧون‬
Termination by Action of the Parties
• Counteroffers: A rejection of the original offer and
the simultaneous making of a new offer.
• At common law, the mirror image rule requires that
the offeree’s acceptance match the offeror’s offer
‫ ﺗﺗطﻠب‬، ‫ •ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧون اﻟﻌﺎم‬.‫ رﻓض اﻟﻌرض اﻷﺻﻠﻲ و ﺗﻘدﯾم ﻋرض ﺟدﯾد ﻓﻲ وﻗت واﺣد‬:‫•اﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑل‬
exactly.
.‫ﻗﺎﻋدة اﻟﺻورة اﻟﻣﺗطﺎﺑﻘﺔ ذﻟك ﻗﺑول اﻟﻣﻌروض ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﯾﺗطﺎﺑق ﻣﻊ ﻋرض ﻣﻘدم اﻟﻌرض ﺑﺎﻟﺿﺑط‬
Unequivocal Acceptance
• The offeree must accept unequivocally to exercise the
power of acceptance effectively.
• An acceptance cannot impose new conditions or
change the terms of the original offer.
• .‫اﻟﻘﺑول اﻟﻘﺎطﻊ •ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻘﺑل اﻟﻣﻌروض ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﺑﺷﻛل ﻻ ﻟﺑس ﻓﯾﮫ ﻟﻣﻣﺎرﺳﺔ ﻗوة اﻟﻘﺑول ﺑﺷﻛل ﻓﻌﺎل‬
ً ‫ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﻘﺑول أن ﯾﻔرض ﺷرو‬
.‫طﺎ ﺟدﯾدة أو ﺗﻐﯾﯾر ﺷروط اﻟﻌرض اﻷﺻﻠﻲ‬
‫إﻧﮭﺎء ﻋن طرﯾق إﺟراء ﻣن اﻷطراف‬
Silence as Acceptance
• Ordinarily, silence cannot constitute acceptance, even
if the offeror states this as part of the offer.
• However, silence or inaction will operate as an
acceptance in some instances if the offeree has a
duty to speak, or when the offeree has had prior
dealings with the offeror.
Consideration is often broken down into two parts:
• (1) something of legally sufficient value must be given in
exchange for the promise, and
• (2) there must be a bargained-for exchange.
‫ ﻓﺈن‬، ‫ •وﻣﻊ ذﻟك‬.‫ ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﺷﻛل اﻟﺳﻛوت ﻗﺑوًﻻ ﺣﺗﻰ إذا ﺻرح اﻟﻌﺎرض ﺑذﻟك ﻛﺟزء ﻣن اﻟﻌرض‬، ‫اﻟﺻﻣت ﻗﺑول •ﻓﻲ اﻷﺣوال اﻟﻌﺎدﯾﺔ‬
‫ أو ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﻛون أﻣﺎﻣﮫ ﻣﻘدم اﻟطﻠب ﻗﺑل ذﻟك‬، ‫اﻟﺻﻣت أو اﻟﺗﻘﺎﻋس ﺳﯾﻛون ﺑﻣﺛﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﻘﺑول ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌض اﻟﺣﺎﻻت إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻣﻌروض ﻋﻠﯾﮫ أ واﺟب اﻟﻛﻼم‬
.‫اﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣل ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﺎرض‬
Communication of Acceptance
• Unilateral contracts
• Bilateral contracts
• The Mailbox Rule: Acceptance is valid when it is
dispatched through the mail.
• Authorized Means of Acceptance
• Substitute Method of Acceptance
Consideration usually is defined as the value
given in return for a promise.
.‫ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﺗم ﺗﻌرﯾف اﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑل ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮫ اﻟﻘﯾﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﺑل وﻋد‬
‫ﻣﺳﺎوﻣﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﺑل اﻟﺻرف •اﻟﻌﻧﺻر اﻟﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻋﺗﺑﺎر ھو أﻧﮫ ﻻ ﺑد ﻣﻧﮫ ﺗوﻓﯾر اﻷﺳﺎس ﻟﻠﺻﻔﻘﺔ‬
‫ •ﯾﺟب ﺗﻘدﯾم اﻟﻌﻧﺻر ذي اﻟﻘﯾﻣﺔ أو اﻟﺗﻌﮭد ﺑﮫ ﻣن ِﻗﺑل اﻟوﻋد‬.‫اﻟﻣﺑرﻣﺔ ﺑﯾن اﻷطراف اﻟﻣﺗﻌﺎﻗدة‬
.‫)اﻟﻌﺎرض( ﻣﻘﺎﺑل وﻋد اﻟﻣﺗﻌﮭد ﺑﮫ أو اﻷداء‬
• ‫ و‬، ‫( ﯾﺟب ﺗﻘدﯾم ﺷﻲء ذي ﻗﯾﻣﺔ ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﯾﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﺑل اﻟوﻋد‬1• ( :‫ﻏﺎﻟًﺑﺎ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺗم ﺗﻘﺳﯾم اﻻﻋﺗﺑﺎر إﻟﻰ ﺟزأﯾن‬
.‫( ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون ھﻧﺎك ﺻﻔﻘﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺿﺔ‬2)
Elements of Consideration
To be legally sufficient, consideration must be
something of value in the eyes of the law; that
may consist of any of the following:
1. A promise to do something that one has no prior
legal duty to do.
2. The performance of an action that one is otherwise
not obligated to undertake.
3. The refraining from an action that one has a legal
right to undertake (a forbearance).
‫ وﻋد‬.1 :‫ اﻟﺗﻲ ﻗد ﺗﺗﻛون ﻣن أي ﻣﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ‬- ‫ ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون اﻻﻋﺗﺑﺎر ﺷﻲء ذو ﻗﯾﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧظر اﻟﻘﺎﻧون ؛ اﻟذي‬، ‫ﻟﻛﻲ ﺗﻛون ﻛﺎﻓﯾﺔ ﻣن اﻟﻧﺎﺣﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ‬
‫ اﻻﻣﺗﻧﺎع ﻋن ﻋﻣل ﻟﮫ ﺣق ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﻲ ﺣق‬.3 .‫ أداء ﻋﻣل ﻣﺎ ھو ﻏﯾر ذﻟك ﻏﯾر ﻣﻠزم ﺑﺎﻟﺗﻌﮭد‬.2 .‫ﺑﻔﻌل ﺷﻲء ﻟم ﯾﺳﺑق ﻟﮫ ﻣﺛﯾل واﺟب ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﻲ ﻟﻠﻘﯾﺎم ﺑﮫ‬
.(‫اﻟﺗﻌﮭد )ﺻﺑر‬
Bargained-for Exchange
• The second element of consideration is that it must
provide the basis for the bargain struck between the
contracting parties.
• The item of value must be given or promised by the
promisor (offeror) in return for the promisee’s promise
or performance.
Agreements That Lack Consideration
Preexisting Duty
• Under most circumstances, a promise to do what one
already has a legal duty to do does not constitute
legally sufficient consideration.
• Unforeseen Difficulties
• Rescission and New Contract: Two parties can
mutually agree to rescind, or cancel, their contract, to
the extent that it is executory (still to be carried out).
‫ اﻟوﻋد ﺑﻔﻌل ﻣﺎ ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﻣرء أن ﯾﻔﻌﻠﮫ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌل ﻟدﯾﮫ واﺟب ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﻲ ﻟﻠﻘﯾﺎم ﻻ ﺗﺷﻛل‬، ‫واﺟب ﻣوﺟود ﻣﺳﺑﻘﺎ •ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌظم اﻟظروف‬
‫ ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠطرﻓﯾن اﻟﻣواﻓﻘﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﺑﺎدﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬:‫ •ﺻﻌوﺑﺎت ﻏﯾر ﻣﺗوﻗﻌﺔ •اﻹﻧﮭﺎء واﻟﻌﻘد اﻟﺟدﯾد‬.‫اﻋﺗﺑﺎر ﻛﺎف ﻣن اﻟﻧﺎﺣﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ‬
.(‫إﻟﻐﺎء أو إﻟﻐﺎء اﻟﻌﻘد اﻟﻣﺑرم ﺑﯾﻧﮭﻣﺎ ﻣدى ﻛوﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻧﻔﯾذﯾﺔ )ﻻ ﯾزال ﯾﺗﻌﯾن ﺗﻧﻔﯾذھﺎ‬
Past Consideration
• An act that takes place before a contract is made and
that ordinarily, by itself, cannot later be consideration
with
respect to that contract.
‫ ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن اﻟﻧظر ﻓﯾﮭﺎ ﻻﺣﻘًﺎ ﻓﯾﻣﺎ ﯾﺗﻌﻠق‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺣد ذاﺗﮭﺎ‬، ‫اﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑل اﻟﺳﺎﺑق •ﻓﻌل ﯾﺣدث ﻗﺑل إﺑرام اﻟﻌﻘد و اﻟﺗﻲ ﻋﺎدة‬
.‫ﺑﮭذا اﻟﻌﻘد‬
Contractual capacity is the legal ability to enter
into a contractual relationship.
‫اﻷھﻠﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻌﺎﻗدﯾﺔ ھﻲ اﻟﻘدرة اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟدﺧول‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻗدﯾﺔ‬.
A contract entered into by an intoxicated person
can be either voidable or valid (and thus
ً ‫ﻋﻘد ﯾﺑرﻣﮫ ﺷﺧص ﻣﺧﻣور ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﻛون ﺑﺎط‬
‫ﻼ أو ﺻﺎﻟًﺣﺎ )وﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ‬
enforceable). (‫واﺟب اﻟﻧﻔﺎذ‬
• If the person was sufficiently intoxicated to lack
mental capacity, the transaction may be voidable.
• If the intoxicated person understood the legal
consequences of the agreement, the contract is
enforceable.
‫ •إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟﻣﺧﻣور‬.‫ ﻗد ﺗﻛون اﻟﺻﻔﻘﺔ ﺑﺎطﻠﺔ‬، ‫•إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﺷﺧص ﻣﺧﻣورا ﺑﻣﺎ ﻓﯾﮫ اﻟﻛﻔﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻧﻘص اﻟﻘدرة اﻟﻌﻘﻠﯾﺔ‬
‫ واﻟﻌﻘد واﺟب اﻟﻧﻔﺎذ‬، ‫ﯾﻔﮭم اﻟﺷرﻋﻲ ﻋواﻗب اﻻﺗﻔﺎق‬
• Contracts made by mentally incompetent
persons can be void, voidable, or valid.
• Validity of the contract depends on mental
capacity of the person at the time the contract
was formed.
A minor can generally enter into any contract that an
adult can, provided that the contract is not one
prohibited by law for minors.
• Disaffirmance: The legal avoidance, or setting aside, or a
contractual obligation. ‫ ﺑﺷرط أﻻ ﯾﻛون اﻟﻌﻘد واﺣًدا‬، ‫ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﻘﺎﺻر ﻋﻣوًﻣﺎ إﺑرام أي ﻋﻘد ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﺑﺎﻟﻐﯾن‬
‫ أو‬، ‫ أو اﻟﺗﻧﺣﯾﺔ‬، ‫ اﻹﺑطﺎل اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﻲ‬:‫ •ﻋدم اﻹﻗرار‬.‫ﯾﺣظرھﺎ اﻟﻘﺎﻧون ﻟﻠﻘﺻر‬
.‫اﻻﻟﺗزام اﻟﺗﻌﺎﻗدي‬
• For a contract to be valid and enforceable, it
must be formed for a legal purpose.
• A contract to do something that is prohibited by
federal or state statutory law is illegal, void from
the outset and unenforceable.
• 10-5a Contracts Contrary to Statute
• Contracts to Commit a Crime
• Any contract to commit a crime is in violation of a statute.
‫ •ﻋﻘد ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻣل ﻣﻣﻧوع‬.‫ ﻓﺈﻧﮫ ﯾﺟب ﺗﺷﻛﯾﻠﮭﺎ ﻟﻐرض ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﻲ‬، ‫•ﻟﻛﻲ ﯾﻛون اﻟﻌﻘد ﺳﺎري اﻟﻣﻔﻌول وﻗﺎﺑل ﻟﻠﺗﻧﻔﯾذ‬
5-10• .‫ ﺑﺎطل ﻣن اﻟﺑداﯾﺔ وﻏﯾر ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺗﻧﻔﯾذ‬، ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧون اﻟﺗﺷرﯾﻌﻲ اﻟﻔﯾدراﻟﻲ أو اﻟﺧﺎص ﺑﺎﻟوﻻﯾﺔ ﻏﯾر ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﻲ‬a
‫اﻟﻌﻘود اﻟﻣﺧﺎﻟﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﻧظﺎم اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ •ﻋﻘود ارﺗﻛﺎب ﺟرﯾﻣﺔ •أي ﻋﻘد ﻻرﺗﻛﺎب ﺟرﯾﻣﺔ ﯾﻌﺗﺑر اﻧﺗﮭﺎﻛﺎ ﻟﻠﻧظﺎم اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
Electronic contracts, or e-contracts, must meet
the same basic requirements (agreement,
consideration, contractual capacity, and legality)
as paper contracts.
• Online contracts may be formed not only for the
sale of goods and services, but also for licensing.
‫ •ﺻﺣﺔ اﻟﻌﻘد ﺗﻌﺗﻣد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻘﻠﯾﺔ ﻗدرة اﻟﺷﺧص ﻓﻲ‬.‫•اﻟﻌﻘود اﻟﻣﺑرﻣﺔ ﻣن ﻗﺑل ﻏﯾر ﻛﻔؤ ﻋﻘﻠﯾﺎ ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﻛون اﻷﺷﺧﺎص ﺑﺎطﻠﯾن أو ﻻﻏﯾﯾن أو ﺻﺎﻟﺣﯾن‬
.‫وﻗت اﻟﻌﻘد ﺗم ﺗﺷﻛﯾل‬
‫ •ﻗد ﯾﺗم ﺗﺷﻛﯾل‬.‫ واﻟﺷرﻋﯾﺔ( ﻛﻌﻘود ورﻗﯾﺔ‬، ‫ واﻟﻘدرة اﻟﺗﻌﺎﻗدﯾﺔ‬، ‫ اﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑل‬، ‫ﯾﺟب أن ﺗﻔﻲ اﻟﻌﻘود اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﯾﺔ أو اﻟﻌﻘود اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﯾﺔ ﻧﻔس اﻟﻣﺗطﻠﺑﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯾﺔ )اﺗﻔﺎق‬
.‫ﺿﺎ ﻟﻠﺗرﺧﯾص‬
ً ‫ وﻟﻛن أﯾ‬، ‫اﻟﻌﻘود ﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﻟﯾس ﻓﻘط ﻣن أﺟل ﺑﯾﻊ اﻟﺳﻠﻊ واﻟﺧدﻣﺎت‬
Online Offers
• The contract generally must be displayed online in a
readable format and all provisions should be
reasonably clear.
• Provisions to Include
1. Acceptance of terms
2. Payment
3. Return policy
4. Disclaimer
5. Limitation on remedies
6. Privacy policy
7. Dispute resolution
Online Offers
• Dispute-Settlement Provisions
• Online offers frequently include provisions relating to
dispute settlement.
• Case Example 10.26 Smith v. Xlibris Publishing (2016)
• 10-6b Online Acceptances
• Click-On Agreements
• An agreement that arises when an online buyer clicks on
‫اﻟﻌروض ﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت •أﺣﻛﺎم ﺗﺳوﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻧﺎزﻋﺎت •ﺗﺗﺿﻣن اﻟﻌروض ﻋﺑر‬
“I agree.”
‫ اﻟﻘﺑول ﻋﺑر‬.‫اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﻓﻲ ﻛﺛﯾر ﻣن اﻷﺣﯾﺎن أﺣﻛﺎﻣﺎ ﺗﺗﻌﻠق ﺑـ ﺗﺳوﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻧﺎزﻋﺎت‬
ً
‫اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت •اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯾﺎت اﻟﻧﻘر •اﺗﻔﺎق ﯾﻧﺷﺄ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﻧﻘر اﻟﻣﺷﺗري ﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت "أﻧﺎ‬
".‫ﻣواﻓق‬
‫اﻟﻌروض ﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت •ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﺗم ﻋرض اﻟﻌﻘد ﺑﺷﻛل ﻋﺎم ﻋﺑر اﻹﻧﺗرﻧت ﻓﻲ ﻣﻠف ﺷﻛل ﻣﻘروء وﯾﺟب أن ﺗﻛون ﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻷﺣﻛﺎم واﺿﺢ‬
‫ ﺳﯾﺎﺳﺔ‬.6 ‫ ﺗﺣدﯾد ﺳﺑل اﻻﻧﺗﺻﺎف‬.5 ‫ إﺧﻼء اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ‬.4 ‫ ﻋودة اﻟﺳﯾﺎﺳﺔ‬.3 ‫ اﻟدﻓﻊ‬.2 ‫ ﻗﺑول اﻟﺷروط‬.1 ‫ •أﺣﻛﺎم ﻟﺗﺷﻣل‬.‫ﺑﺷﻛل ﻣﻌﻘول‬
‫ ﺗﺳوﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻧﺎزﻋﺎت‬.7 ‫اﻟﺧﺻوﺻﯾﺔ‬
E-Signature: An electronic sound, symbol, or
process attached to or logically associated with a
record and adopted by a person with the intent to
sign the record.
• The E-SIGN Act provides that no contract, record, or
signature may be “denied legal effect” solely because
it is in electronic form.
• The act does not apply to court papers, divorce
decrees, evictions, foreclosures, health-insurance
terminations, prenuptial agreements, and wills.
‫ ﺻوت أو رﻣز أو رﻣز إﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺔ اﻟﻣرﻓﻘﺔ أو اﻟﻣرﺗﺑطﺔ‬:‫اﻟﺗوﻗﯾﻊ اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ‬
‫ •ﯾﻧص ﻗﺎﻧون اﻟﺗوﻗﯾﻊ‬.‫ﻣﻧطﻘﯾًﺎ ﺑـ ﺳﺟل واﻋﺗﻣده ﺷﺧص ﺑﻘﺻد اﻟﺗوﻗﯾﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﺣﺿر‬
‫اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋدم وﺟود ﻋﻘد أو ﺗﺳﺟﯾل أو ﻗد ﯾﻛون اﻟﺗوﻗﯾﻊ "ﺣرﻣﺎن اﻟﻣﻔﻌول‬
‫ •ﻻ ﯾﺳري اﻟﻘﺎﻧون ﻋﻠﻰ أوراق اﻟﻣﺣﻛﻣﺔ‬.‫اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﻲ" ﻓﻘط ﺑﺳﺑب إﻧﮫ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻛل إﻟﻛﺗروﻧﻲ‬
‫ واﺗﻔﺎﻗﯾﺎت ﻣﺎ‬، ‫ اﻟﺗﺄﻣﯾن اﻟﺻﺣﻲ اﻹﻧﮭﺎءات‬، ‫ ﺣﺑس اﻟرھن‬، ‫ اﻹﺧﻼء‬، ‫واﻟطﻼق اﻟﻣراﺳﯾم‬
.‫ واﻟوﺻﺎﯾﺎ‬، ‫ﻗﺑل اﻟزواج‬
14
In an agency relationship between two parties,
one of the parties, called the agent, agrees to
represent or act for the other, called the
‫ ﯾُدﻋﻰ اﻟوﻛﯾل ﯾﻣﺛل أو ﯾﺗﺻرف‬، ‫ ﯾواﻓق ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟك أﺣد اﻟطرﻓﯾن‬، ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ وﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﯾن طرﻓﯾن‬
principal..‫ ﯾﺳﻣﻰ اﻟﻣﺎﻟك‬، ‫ﻣن أﺟل اﻵﺧر‬
Employer-Employee Relationships
• Normally, all employees who deal with third parties are
deemed to be agents.
• Employment laws (state and federal) apply only to the
employer-employee relationship.
• .‫ ﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻟﻣوظﻔﯾن اﻟذﯾن ﯾﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠون ﻣﻊ أطراف ﺛﺎﻟﺛﺔ ﺗﻌﺗﺑر وﻛﻼء‬، ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت ﺑﯾن ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل واﻟﻣوظف •ﻋﺎدة‬
.‫ﻗواﻧﯾن اﻟﻌﻣل )اﻟوﻻﯾﺔ واﻻﺗﺣﺎدﯾﺔ( ﺗﻧطﺑق ﻓﻘط ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﯾن ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل واﻟﻣوظف‬
Employer-Independent Contractor
Relationships
• Independent Contractor:
• One who works for, and receives payment from,
an employer but whose working conditions and
methods are not controlled by the employer.
• An independent contractor is not an employee
but may be an agent.
‫ ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل وﻟﻛن ظروف اﻟﻌﻣل و‬، ‫ وﯾﺗﻠﻘﻰ أﺟًرا ﻣﻧﮫ‬، ‫ •اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟذي ﯾﻌﻣل‬:‫ ﻣﻘﺎول ﻣﺳﺗﻘل اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت •ﻣﻘﺎول ﻣﺳﺗﻘل‬- ‫ﺻﺎﺣب ﻋﻣل‬
.‫ •اﻟﻣﻘﺎول اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻘل ﻟﯾس ﻣوظﻔًﺎ وﻟﻛن ﻗد ﯾﻛون وﻛﯾﻼ‬.‫أﺳﺎﻟﯾب ﻻ ﯾﺗﺣﻛم ﻓﯾﮭﺎ ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل‬
Formation of Agencies
Agency by Agreement
• Most agency relationships are based on an
express or implied agreement that the agent
will act for the principal and that the principal
agrees to have the agent so act.
‫وﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﺗﻔﺎق •ﺗﺳﺗﻧد ﻣﻌظم ﻋﻼﻗﺎت اﻟوﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺗﻔﺎق ﺻرﯾﺢ أو‬
‫ﺿﻣﻧﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ أن اﻟوﻛﯾل ﺳوف ﯾﻌﻣل ﻧﯾﺎﺑﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻣدﯾر وأن اﻟﻣدﯾر‬
.‫ﯾواﻓق ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﯾﺗﺻرف اﻟوﻛﯾل ﻋﻠﻰ ھذا اﻟﻧﺣو‬
Agency by Ratification
• A party’s act of accepting or giving legal force to a
contract or other obligation entered into on his or her
behalf by another that previously was not enforceable.
/ ‫وﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺻدﯾق •ﻓﻌل ﻗﺑول أﺣد اﻟطرﻓﯾن أو إﻋطﺎء اﻟﻘوة اﻟﻘﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺔ ﻟـ ﻋﻘد أو اﻟﺗزام آﺧر دﺧل ﻓﯾﮫ‬
ً ‫ﻋﻠﯾﮭﺎ ﻧﯾﺎﺑﺔ ﻋن ﺷﺧص آﺧر ﻟم ﯾﻛن ﻗﺎﺑ‬
.‫ﻼ ﻟﻠﺗﻧﻔﯾذ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺳﺎﺑق‬
Agency by Operation of Law
• A court may find an agency relationship in the
absence of a formal agreement, such as in family
relationships or emergencies.
‫ ﻛﻣﺎ ھو اﻟﺣﺎل ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳرة اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت أو‬، ‫اﻟوﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﺣﻛم اﻟﻘﺎﻧون •ﻗد ﺗﺟد اﻟﻣﺣﻛﻣﺔ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ وﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋدم وﺟود اﺗﻔﺎق رﺳﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻻت اﻟطوارئ‬
Agency by Estoppel
Duties of Agents and
‫واﺟﺑﺎت اﻟﻣوﻛل ﺗﺟﺎه اﻟوﻛﯾل‬
1/ Performance
• The agent must use reasonable diligence and
skill in performing the work.
.‫أداء •ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟوﻛﯾل ﺑذل اﻟﻌﻧﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻌﻘوﻟﺔ و ﻣﮭﺎرة ﻓﻲ أداء اﻟﻌﻣل‬
2/Notification
• The agent must notify the principal of all matters
that come to her or his attention concerning the
subject matter of the agency.
‫ﻧﺑﯾﮫ •ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟوﻛﯾل إﺧطﺎر اﻟﻣوﻛل ﺑﻛل اﻷﻣور اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳﺗرﻋﻲ اﻧﺗﺑﺎھﮫ ﺑﺧﺻوص ﻣوﺿوع اﻟوﻛﺎﻟﺔ‬
3/Loyalty
• The agent must act solely for the benefit of the
principal. ‫وﻓﺎء •ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﺗﺻرف اﻟوﻛﯾل ﻓﻘط ﻟﺻﺎﻟﺢ اﻟﻣﺎﻟك‬
4/Obedience
• The agent must follow all lawful and clearly stated
instructions of the principal, when acting on behalf
of that principal. .‫ ﻋﻧد اﻟﺗﺻرف ﻧﯾﺎﺑﺔ ﻣن ھذا اﻟﻣﺑدأ‬، ‫طﺎﻋﺔ •ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟوﻛﯾل اﺗﺑﺎع ﻛل ﻣﺎ ھو ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﻲ وﻣذﻛور ﺑوﺿوح ﺗﻌﻠﯾﻣﺎت اﻟﻣوﻛل‬
5/Accounting
• The agent must keep and make available to the
principal an account of all property and funds
received and paid out on behalf of the principal,
unless the agent and principal have agreed
‫ﻣﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ •ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟوﻛﯾل اﻻﺣﺗﻔﺎظ ﺑﮫ وإﺗﺎﺣﺗﮫ ﻟـ رﺋﯾﺳﻲ ﺣﺳﺎب ﻟﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت‬
otherwise. .‫ ﻣﺎ ﻟم ﯾﺗﻔق اﻟوﻛﯾل واﻟﻣوﻛل ﻏﯾر ذﻟك‬، ‫واﻷﻣوال ﺗﻠﻘﯾﮭﺎ ودﻓﻌﮭﺎ ﻧﯾﺎﺑﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻣوﻛل‬
Principals
6/Compensation
• The principal has a duty to pay the agent for services
rendered..‫ﺗﻌوﯾض •ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣدﯾر أن ﯾدﻓﻊ ﻟﻠوﻛﯾل ﻣﻘﺎﺑل اﻟﺧدﻣﺎت اﻟﻣﻘدﻣﺔ‬
7/Reimbursement and Indemnification
• The principal has the duty to reimburse the agent
whenever an agent disburses funds at the request of
the principal or incurs expenses during the
reasonable performance of agency duties.
‫اﻟﺳداد واﻟﺗﻌوﯾض •ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣوﻛل أن ﯾﺳدد ﻟﻠوﻛﯾل ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﻘوم‬
‫اﻟوﻛﯾل ﺑﺻرف اﻷﻣوال ﺑﻧﺎًء ﻋﻠﻰ طﻠب رأس اﻟﻣﺎل أو ﯾﺗﻛﺑد اﻟﻧﻔﻘﺎت ﺧﻼل‬
‫أداء ﻣﻌﻘول ﻟواﺟﺑﺎت اﻟوﻛﺎﻟﺔ‬
8/Cooperation
• A principal has a duty to cooperate with the agent and
to assist the agent in performing her or his duties.
‫ﺗﻌﺎون •ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣدﯾر واﺟب اﻟﺗﻌﺎون ﻣﻊ اﻟوﻛﯾل و ﻟﻣﺳﺎﻋدة اﻟوﻛﯾل ﻓﻲ أداء واﺟﺑﺎﺗﮫ‬
9/Safe Working Conditions
• A principal is required to provide safe working
premises, equipment, and conditions for all agents
and employees.
• The principal also has a duty to inspect the working
conditions and to warn agents and employees about
any hazards.
‫ظروف ﻋﻣل آﻣﻧﺔ •ﻣطﻠوب ﻣدﯾر ﻟﺗوﻓﯾر اﻟﻌﻣل اﻵﻣن اﻟﻣﺑﺎﻧﻲ‬
‫ •اﻟﻣدﯾر أﯾﺿﺎ‬.‫واﻟﻣﻌدات واﻟﺷروط ﻟﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻟوﻛﻼء واﻟﻣوظﻔﯾن‬
‫واﺟب ﺗﻔﺗﯾش اﻟﻌﻣل وﺗﺣذﯾر اﻟوﻛﻼء واﻟﻣوظﻔﯾن ﺑﺷﺄﻧﮭﺎ أي‬
.‫ﻣﺧﺎطر‬
Agent’s Authority ‫ﺳﻠطﺔ اﻟوﻛﯾل‬
1/Equal Dignity Rule: A rule requiring that an
agent’s authority be in writing if the contract to
be made on behalf of the principal must be in
writing.
2/ Power of Attorney: Authorization for another
to act as one’s agent or attorney either in
specified circumstances (special) or in all
situations (general).
Liability for Contracts
• Authorized Acts
• If an agent acts within the scope of her or his
authority, normally the principal is obligated to
perform the contract regardless of whether the
principal was disclosed, partially disclosed, or
undisclosed.
‫ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣدﯾر ﻣﻠﺗزًﻣﺎ ﺑﮫ ﺗﻧﻔﯾذ اﻟﻌﻘد ﺑﻐض اﻟﻧظر‬، ‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻌﻘود •اﻷﻋﻣﺎل اﻟﻣﺻرح ﺑﮭﺎ •إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟوﻛﯾل ﯾﺗﺻرف ﻓﻲ ﻧطﺎﻗﮫ أو ﻧطﺎق ﻋﻣﻠﮫ اﻟﺳﻠطﺔ‬
.‫ﻋﻣﺎ إذا ﻛﺎن ﺗم اﻹﻓﺻﺎح ﻋن أﺻل اﻟدﯾن أو اﻟﻛﺷف ﻋﻧﮫ ﺟزﺋًﯾﺎ أو ﻟم ﯾﻛﺷف ﻋﻧﮭﺎ‬
• .‫ ﻗﺎﻋدة ﺗﺗطﻠب ذﻟك ﺳﻠطﺔ اﻟوﻛﯾل ﺗﻛون ﻣﻛﺗوﺑﺔ إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻌﻘد ﯾﺟب أن ﺗﺗم ﻧﯾﺎﺑﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻣدﯾر ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون ﺧطًﯾﺎ‬:‫ﻗﺎﻋدة اﻟﻛراﻣﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﺳﺎوﯾﺔ‬
.(‫ ﺗﻔوﯾض ﻵﺧر ﻟﻠﻌﻣل ﻛوﻛﯾل أو ﻣﺣﺎم ﺳواء ﻓﻲ ظروف ﻣﺣددة )ﺧﺎﺻﺔ( أو ﻓﻲ اﻟﻛل ﺣﺎﻻت )ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‬:‫اﻟﺗوﻛﯾل‬
4/ Apparent authority: Authority that is only
apparent, not real. An agent’s apparent authority
arises when the principal causes a third party to
believe that the agent has authority, even though
she or he does not.
‫ ﺳﻠطﺔ اﻟوﻛﯾل اﻟظﺎھرة ﯾﻧﺷﺄ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﺗﺳﺑب اﻟﻣوﻛل‬.‫ اﻟﺳﻠطﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ھﻲ ﻓﻘط ظﺎھر ﻏﯾر ﺣﻘﯾﻘﻲ‬:‫•اﻟﺳﻠطﺔ اﻟظﺎھرة‬
.‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟرﻏم ﻣن ذﻟك ھﻲ أو ھﻲ ﻻ ﺗﻔﻌل ذﻟك‬، ‫ﻟطرف ﺛﺎﻟث ﻓﻲ ﻧﻌﺗﻘد أن اﻟوﻛﯾل ﻟدﯾﮫ اﻟﺳﻠطﺔ‬
5/Implied Authority
• Unauthorized Acts
• If an agent has no authority but contracts with a
third party, the principal cannot be held liable on
the contract.
.‫ ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣوﻛل ﻣﺳؤوﻻً ﻋن اﻟﻌﻘد‬، ‫•اﻷﻋﻣﺎل ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﺻرح ﺑﮭﺎ •إذا ﻟم ﯾﻛن ﻟﻠوﻛﯾل ﺳﻠطﺔ وﻟﻛن ﯾﺗﻌﺎﻗد ﻣﻌﮫ طرف ﺛﺎﻟث‬
Liability for Torts and Crimes
‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن اﻷﺿرار واﻟﺟراﺋم‬
• Principal’s Tortious Conduct
• A principal conducting an activity through an agent
may be liable for harm resulting from the principal’s
own negligence or recklessness.
• ‫اﻟﺳﻠوك اﻟﻣﺷﯾن ﻟﻣدﯾر اﻟﻣدرﺳﺔ‬
• ‫ﻣدﯾر رﺋﯾﺳﻲ ﯾﻘوم ﺑﻧﺷﺎط ﻣن ﺧﻼل وﻛﯾل‬
‫ﻗد ﯾﻛون ﻣﺳؤوﻻً ﻋن اﻟﺿرر اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻋن اﻟﻣﺳؤول‬
‫اﻹھﻣﺎل أو اﻟﺗﮭور‬.
Liability for Torts and Crimes
• Principal’s Authorization of Agent’s Tortious
Conduct
• A principal who authorizes an agent to commit a
tort may be liable to persons or property injured
thereby, because the act is considered to be the
principal’s
• ‫ﺗﻔوﯾض اﻟﻣدﯾر ﻟﻠوﻛﯾل ﻣﻌذوب‬
‫إﺟراء‬
• ‫اﻟﻣوﻛل اﻟذي ﯾﺻرح ﻟﻠوﻛﯾل ﺑﺎﻻﻟﺗزام‬
‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻘﺻﯾرﯾﺔ ﻗد ﺗﻛون ﻣﺳؤوﻟﺔ ﻋن اﻷﺷﺧﺎص أو اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﻣﺗﺿررة‬
‫ ﻷن اﻟﻔﻌل ﯾﻌﺗﺑر أن ﯾﻛون‬، ‫وﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫ﻣدﯾر اﻟﻣدرﺳﺔ‬
Liability for Agent’s Negligence
• Respondeat Superior: A doctrine under which a
principal or an employer is held liable for the
wrongful acts committed by agents or employees
while acting within the course and scope of their
agency or employment.
• Determining the Scope of Employment
‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن إھﻣﺎل اﻟوﻛﯾل‬
• ‫اﻟﻌﻘﯾدة اﻟﺗﻲ ﺑﻣوﺟﺑﮫ‬: ‫رد اﻟرﺋﯾس‬
‫ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣوﻛل أو ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل ﻣﺳؤوﻻً ﻋن‬
‫اﻷﻓﻌﺎل ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﺷروﻋﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾرﺗﻛﺑﮭﺎ اﻟوﻛﻼء أو‬
‫اﻟﻣوظﻔون‬
‫أﺛﻧﺎء اﻟﻌﻣل ﺿﻣن ﺳﯾﺎق وﻧطﺎق ﻋﻣﻠﮭم‬
‫وﻛﺎﻟﺔ أو وظﯾﻔﺔ‬.
• ‫ﺗﺣدﯾد ﻧطﺎق اﻟﺗوظﯾف‬
• Liability for Independent Contractor’s Torts
• Generally, an employer is not liable for physical harm
caused to a third person by the negligent act of an • ‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن أﺿرار اﻟﻣﻘﺎول اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻘل‬
• ‫ ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل ﻏﯾر ﻣﺳؤول‬، ‫ﺑﺷﻛل ﻋﺎم‬
independent contractor in the performance of the ‫ﻋن اﻷذى اﻟﺟﺳدي‬
‫ﺗﺳﺑﺑﮫ ﻟﺷﺧص ﺛﺎﻟث ﺑﻔﻌل إھﻣﺎل ﻣن ﻗﺑل‬
contract.
• Liability for Agent’s Misrepresentation
‫اﻟﻣﻘﺎول اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻘل ﻓﻲ أداء‬
‫ﺔ‬
‫اﺗﻔﺎﻓﯾ‬.
• A principal is exposed to tort liability whenever a
third person sustains a loss due to the agent’s
misrepresentation.
• Liability for Agent’s Crimes
• ‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن ﺗﺣرﯾف اﻟوﻛﯾل‬
• A principal or employer is not liable for an agent’s
• ‫اﻟﻣدﯾر ﻣﻌرض ﻟﻠﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻘﺻﯾرﯾﺔ ﻛﻠﻣﺎ أ‬
crime even if the crime was committed within the
‫ﺗﻛﺑد اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟﺛﺎﻟث ﺧﺳﺎرة ﺑﺳﺑب اﻟوﻛﯾل‬
‫ﺗﺣرﯾف‬.
scope of authority or employment, unless the principal
participated by conspiracy or other action.
• ‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن ﺟراﺋم اﻟوﻛﯾل‬
• ‫اﻟﻣدﯾر أو ﺻﺎﺣب اﻟﻌﻣل ﻏﯾر ﻣﺳؤول ﻋن اﻟوﻛﯾل‬
‫اﻟﺟرﯾﻣﺔ ﺣﺗﻰ ﻟو ارﺗﻛﺑت اﻟﺟرﯾﻣﺔ داﺧل‬
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻟم ﯾﻛن اﻟﻣدﯾر‬، ‫ﻧطﺎق اﻟﺳﻠطﺔ أو اﻟﺗوظﯾف‬
‫ﺷﺎرك ﺑﻣؤاﻣرة أو ﻋﻣل آﺧر‬.
Termination by Act of the Parties
• 1/Wrongful Termination
• Parties may not always possess the right to do
terminate the contract, though they have the power
‫اﻹﻧﮭﺎء ﺑﻘﺎﻧون ﻣن اﻷطراف‬
• ‫إﻧﮭﺎء ﻏﯾر ﻣﺷروع‬
• ‫ﻗد ﻻ ﺗﻣﺗﻠك اﻷطراف داﺋًﻣﺎ اﻟﺣق ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﯾﺎم ﺑذﻟك‬
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟرﻏم ﻣن أن ﻟدﯾﮭم اﻟﻘوة‬، ‫إﻧﮭﺎء اﻟﻌﻘد‬
2/Notice of Termination
Termination by Operation of Law
1. Death or insanity
2. Impossibility
3. Changed circumstances
4. Bankruptcy
5. War
Ch 5
A tort is a wrongful action that can lead to
‫اﻟﺿرر ھو ﻓﻌل ﻏﯾر ﻣﺷروع ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾؤدي إﻟﻰ‬
civil liability. ‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﻣدﻧﯾﺔ‬.
Any time that one party’s allegedly
wrongful conduct causes injury to another,
a lawsuit may arise under the law of torts.
‫ﻓﻲ أي وﻗت ﯾُزﻋم ﻓﯾﮫ ذﻟك أﺣد اﻷطراف ﯾﺗﺳﺑب اﻟﺳﻠوك ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﺷروع ﻓﻲ إﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﺷﺧص آﺧر‬
.‫ ﻗد ﺗﻧﺷﺄ دﻋوى ﻗﺿﺎﺋﯾﺔ ﺑﻣوﺟب ﻗﺎﻧون اﻷﺿرار‬،
Generally, the purpose of tort law is to provide
remedies for the violation of various protected
‫ اﻟﻐر‬، ‫ﺑﺷﻛل ﻋﺎم‬
interests. ‫ؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻘﺻﯾرﯾﺔ ھو ﺗوﻓﯾر ﺳﺑل اﻻﻧﺗﺻﺎف‬.‫ضﻣﯾﻣﺔن اﻗﺎﻹﻧھوﺗﻣنﺎ اﻣﻟﺎﻣتﺳ‬
‫ﻻﻧﺗﮭﺎك ﻣﺧﺗﻠف اﻟﻣﺣ‬
Society recognizes an interest in:
/١ Personal physical safety
2/ Protecting property
‫ﯾﻌﺗرف اﻟﻣﺟﺗﻣﻊ ﺑﺎھﺗﻣﺎﻣﮫ ﺑـ‬:
• ‫اﻟﺳﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺟﺳدﯾﺔ اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬
• ‫ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت‬
Damages Available in Tort Actions
1/ Compensatory damages: Reimburses the plaintiff for actual
losses • Special: Quantifiable monetary losses • General:
Compensate for non-monetary aspects of harm suffered, such as
pain and suffering. Not available for businesses
‫ اﻟﺗﻌوﯾض ﻋن اﻟﺟواﻧب ﻏﯾر اﻟﻧﻘدﯾﺔ‬:‫ اﻟﺧﺳﺎﺋر اﻟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﯾﺎس اﻟﻛﻣﻲ •ﻋﺎم‬:‫ ﯾﺳدد اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻋن اﻟﺧﺳﺎﺋر اﻟﻔﻌﻠﯾﺔ •ﺧﺎص‬:‫•اﻟﺗﻌوﯾﺿﺎت‬
‫ ﻏﯾر ﻣﺗوﻓر ﻟـ اﻷﻋﻣﺎل‬.‫ﻟﻠﺿرر ﻋﺎﻧﻰ ﻣﺛل اﻷﻟم واﻟﻣﻌﺎﻧﺎة‬
2/ Punitive damages: Monetary damages used to punish the
defendant • Only allowed in circumstances where the conduct
was particularly bad ‫ اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣﺔ ل ﻣﻌﺎﻗﺑﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﮭم •ﻣﺳﻣوح ﻓﻘط‬:‫•اﻷﺿرار اﻟﺗﺄدﯾﺑﯾﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟظروف اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﻛون ﻓﯾﮭﺎ اﻟﺳﻠوك ﺳﻲء ﺑﺷﻛل ﺧﺎص‬
• Defenses : are reasons why the plaintiff should not obtain
damages. •‫ﺳﻻﺑﺎﺗﺣب اﻟﺻﺗلﻲ ﺗﻋدﻠﻓﻰﻊ ﺗاﻟﻌﻣودﯾﻋﺿﻲﺎت‬.‫اﻟدﻓوع ھﻲ اﻷ‬
• Even if the elements of the tort have been met, there may be
a defense that prevents recovery of damages. ‫ذاﻗﺗدمﯾاﻛﺳوﺗﯾنﻔﺎھءﻧﺎﻋكﻧﺎدﻓﺎﺻرع‬،‫اﻟ•ﺿﺣﺗرﻰر إ‬
.‫ﯾﻣﻧﻊ اﺳﺗرداد اﻷﺿرار‬
Common defenses are 1/consent and 2/comparative
3/negligence. ‫دﻓﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻣﺷﺗرﻛﺔ ھﻲ اﻟﻣواﻓﻘﺔ واﻟﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ إھﻣﺎل‬
• General types of torts 1/ Intentional torts 2/ Unintentional
torts (negligence) 3/ Strict liability •4/Product liability
‫•أﻧواع اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ •اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻣدة •اﻷﺿرار ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻣدة )اﻹھﻣﺎل( •اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺻﺎرﻣﺔ •اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت‬
• 1/intentional tort : is a wrongful act knowingly committed.
• ‫اﻟﺿرر اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻣد ھو ﻓﻌل ﻏﯾر ﻣﺷروع ﻋن ﻋﻠم‬
‫ﻣﻠﺗزم‬.
Intentional Torts against Persons
The tortfeasor must intend to commit an act which interferes
with another’s interests by: ‫ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻧوي ﻣرﺗﻛب اﻟﺿرر ارﺗﻛﺎب ﻓﻌل اﻟﺗﻲ‬
:‫ﺗﺗﻌﺎرض ﻣﻊ ﻣﺻﺎﻟﺢ اﻵﺧرﯾن ﻣن ﺧﻼل‬
• Intending the consequences of the act; or • Knowing with
substantial certainty that certain consequences would result
‫ أو •ﻣﻌرﻓﺔ ﯾﻘﯾﻧﯾﺔ ﻛﺑﯾرة أن ﺑﻌض اﻟﻌواﻗب ﻗد ﯾﻧﺗﺞ ﻋﻧﮭﺎ‬.‫•اﻟﻘﺻد ﻣن ﻧﺗﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﻔﻌل‬
• The intent can be transferred if the tortfeasor intended to
harm one person and harmed another instead.
Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress: An extreme and
outrageous act, intentionally committed, that results in severe
emotional distress to another. .‫ﻶﻋﺧﻣردا‬،‫إﻟاﻟﻰﻔﻌلﺿﺎاﺋﻟﻘﻣﺔﺗطﻋﺎرطﻔفﯾﺔواﻟﺷﺷدﺎﯾﺋدةن ﻟ‬:‫ﻌﯾﺎؤطدﻔيﻲ‬،‫اﻹﯾﻘﺎع اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻣد ﺑﺎﻟﺿﯾق اﻟ‬
• Outrageous Conduct: Most courts confine emotional distress
claims to truly outrageous behavior..‫اﻟﻛﻣﻌرظبم إاﻟﻟﻣﻰ اﺣﻟﺎﻛﺳﻠموﺗﻘكﯾداﻟاﺷﻻﺎﻧﺋﻔنﻌﺎﺣﻻﻘًﺎت‬:‫•اﻟﺳﻠوك اﻟﺗﻣدﻋﺷﯾﻲن‬
Limited by the First Amendment: When the outrageous conduct
consists of speech about a public figure, the First Amendment’s
guarantee of freedom of speech limits emotional distress claims.
‫ و ﺿﻣﺎن اﻟﺗﻌدﯾل اﻷول ﻟﺣرﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻌﺑﯾر ﯾﺣد ﻣن ادﻋﺎءات‬، ‫ ﻋﻧد اﻟﻔﺎﺣﺷﺔ ﯾﺗﻛون اﻟﺳﻠوك ﻣن اﻟﻛﻼم ﻋن ﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‬:‫ﻣﻘﯾد ﺑﺎﻟﺗﻌدﯾل اﻷول‬
.‫اﻟﺿﯾق اﻟﻌﺎطﻔﻲ‬
Defamation: False statements of fact that are published or
publicly spoken and that cause injury to another’s good
reputation..‫ اﻟﺑﯾﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﻛﺎذﺑﺔ ﻟﻠﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﻣﻧﺷورة أو اﻟﻣﻧطوﻗﺔ واﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺗﺳﺑب ﻓﻲ إﺻﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺳﻣﻌﺔ اﻟطﯾﺑﺔ ﻟﻶﺧر‬:‫اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر‬
Assault: Any intentional and unexcused threat of immediate The plaintiff must prove that:
harmful or offensive contact
1. The defendant made a false statement of fact. .‫ أدﻟﻰ اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﺑﺑﯾﺎن ﻛﺎذب ﺑﺎﻟوﻗﺎﺋﻊ‬.1
‫ أي اﻋﺗداء ﻣﺗﻌﻣد ﺑﻐﯾر ﻋذر اﻟﺗﮭدﯾد ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺻﺎل اﻟﻔوري اﻟﺿﺎر أو اﻟﻌدواﻧﻲ‬:‫اﻻﻋﺗداء‬
2.The statement was understood as being about the plaintiff and
tended to harm the plaintiff’s reputation. ‫ﺗم ﻓﮭم اﻟﺑﯾﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮫ ﯾﺗﻌﻠق ﺑﺎﻟﻣدﻋﻲ و ﺗﻣﯾل إﻟﻰ اﻹﺿراراﻟﺑﻣﺳدﻣﻋﻌﺔﻲ‬
attery: When an act that constitutes assault is completed
3. The statement was published to at least one person other than the
nd results in harm to the plaintiff
‫ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﺷﻛل ﻓﻌل اﻛﺗﻣﺎل اﻻﻋﺗداء وﯾﻧﺗﺞ ﻋﻧﮫ ﺿرر‬:‫اﻟﺑطﺎرﯾﺔ‬
plaintiff. .‫ﺗم ﻧﺷر اﻟﺑﯾﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺧص واﺣد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻗل ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ‬
‫ﻣدﻋﻰ‬
*False Imprisonment: Intentional confinement or restraint of 4 If the plaintiff is a public figure, she or he must prove actual malice.
another person’s activities without justification
‫ ﻓﻌﻠﯾﮭﺎ إﺛﺑﺎت ﺻﺣﺗﮭﺎ‬، ‫إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‬
.‫ﺣﻘد‬
Defamation • Statement of Fact Requirement: A frequent issue
in defamation lawsuits is whether the defendant made a
statement of fact or a statement of opinion. Statements of
opinion are normally protected under the First Amendment.
‫ ﺻﯾﺎﻏﺎت ﻣن اﻵراء‬.‫ إﺻدار ﻣﺗﻛرر ﻓﻲ دﻋﺎوى اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر ھو ﻣﺎ إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻗد ﻗدم ﺑﯾﺎن ﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ أو ﺑﯾﺎن رأي‬:‫ﯾﺎن اﻟﺣﻘﺎﺋق اﻟﻣطﻠوﺑﺔ‬
.‫ﻣﺣﻣﯾﺔ ﻋﺎدة ﺑﻣوﺟب اﻷول ﺗﻌدﯾل‬
The Publication Requirement: As it relates to the tort of
defamation, publication means that the defamatory statements
are communicated to persons other than the defamed party.
.‫ ﻣن ﺣﯾث ﺻﻠﺗﮫ ﺑﺿرر اﻟﻘذف واﻟﻧﺷر ﯾﻌﻧﻲ اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر ﯾﺗم إرﺳﺎل اﻟﺑﯾﺎﻧﺎت إﻟﻰ أﺷﺧﺎص آﺧرﯾن ﻏﯾر اﻟطرف اﻟﻣﺷﯾن‬:‫ﻣطﻠب اﻟﻧﺷر‬
Types of defamation • Libel: Defamation in writing or another
form having the quality of permanence • Slander: Defamation
in oral form ‫اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر ﻓﻲ ﺷﻛل ﺷﻔوي‬: ‫اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ أو ﺷﻛل آﺧر ﻟﮫ ﻧوﻋﯾﺔ اﻟدوام •اﻟﻘذف‬: ‫أﻧواع اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر •اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر‬
• Damages: A plaintiff is normally entitled to general damages
that are designed to compensate the plaintiff for nonspecific
harms such as disgrace or humiliation
A person may not be liable for defamation because he or she
enjoys a privilege (immunity). )‫ﻟﺑﺗﺎﺷﻣﺗﮭﯾﯾﺎرز (ﻷﻧﺣﮫ ﯾﺻﺗﺎﻣﻧﺗﺔﻊ‬.‫وﻻ ﯾﺟوز أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﺷﺧص ﻣﺳؤوﻻ ﻋن ا‬
in general, false and defamatory statements about public figures
(such as politicians) that appear in the media will not constitute
defamation unless the statements are made with actual malice
‫اﻟﺗﺻرﯾﺣﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ واﻟﻛﺎذﺑﺔ واﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾرﯾﺔ ﺣول اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ (ﻣﺛل اﻟﺳﯾﺎﺳﯾﯾن )اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗظﮭر ﻓﻲ وﺳﺎﺋل اﻹﻋﻼم ﻟن ﺗﺷﻛل ﺗﺷﮭﯾرا ﻣﺎ ﻟم ﯾﺗم‬
‫اﻹدﻻء ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺻرﯾﺣﺎت ﺑﺧﺑث ﻓﻌﻠﻲ‬
Invasion of Privacy: The Supreme Court has held that a
fundamental right to privacy is implied by various amendments
to the U.S. Constitution. ‫ﻟﻘد ﻋﻘدت اﻟﻣﺣﻛﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﯾﺎ أن اﻟﺣق اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ‬: ‫اﻧﺗﮭﺎك اﻟﺧﺻوﺻﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺧﺻوﺻﯾﺔ ﺿﻣﻧﻲ ﻣن ﺧﻼل اﻟﺗﻌدﯾﻼت اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟوﻻﯾﺎت‬
‫دﺳﺗور‬.‫اﻟﻣﺗﺣدة‬.
Types of privacy invasion • Intrusion into an individual’s affairs or
seclusion • False light • Public disclosure of private facts •
Appropriation of identity
‫أﻧواع اﻧﺗﮭﺎك اﻟﺧﺻوﺻﯾﺔ •اﻟﺗدﺧل ﻓﻲ ﺷؤون اﻟﻔرد أو ﻋزﻟﮫ •ﺿوء زاﺋف •اﻟﻛﺷف اﻟﻌﺎم ﻋن اﻟﺣﻘﺎﺋق اﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ •اﻻﺳﺗﯾﻼء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﮭوﯾﺔ‬
Fraudulent Misrepresentation: Intentional deceit of another for
personal gain. The person must misrepresent a fact he or she
• Defenses to Defamation • If the defendant can prove that the
knows to be true
defamatory statements are true, normally no tort has been
‫ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺷﺧص ﺗﺣرﯾف ﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ أﻧﮫ أو ھﻲ ﺗﻌرف أن ﯾﻛون ﺻﺣﯾﺣﺎ‬. ‫ﺧداع ﻣﺗﻌﻣد ﻵﺧر ﻟﺗﺣﻘﯾق ﻣﻛﺎﺳب ﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬: ‫ﺗﺣرﯾف اﺣﺗﯾﺎﻟﻲ‬
committed.
• ‫ﯾﺣق ﻟﻠﻣدﻋﻲ ﻋﺎدة اﻟﺣﺻول ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌوﯾﺿﺎت ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺗﮭدف إﻟﻰ ﺗﻌوﯾض اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻋن أﺿرار ﻏﯾر ﻣﺣددة ﻣﺛل اﻟﻌﺎر أو اﻹذﻻل‬: ‫اﻟﺗﻌوﯾﺿﺎت‬.
• ‫ ﻋﺎدة ﻟم ﯾرﺗﻛب أي ﺿرر‬،‫اﻟدﻓﺎع ﻋن اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾر •إذا اﺳﺗطﺎع اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ إﺛﺑﺎت ﺻﺣﺔ اﻟﺗﺻرﯾﺣﺎت اﻟﺗﺷﮭﯾرﯾﺔ‬.
Fraudulent Misrepresentation: Elements of this tort include:
Wrongful Interference
1. A misrepresentation of material facts or conditions
1/With a Contractual Relationship
2. . An intent to induce another party to rely on the
• Occurs when a person intentionally encourages a party to break a
misrepresentation
contract
• ‫ﻣﻊ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻗدﯾﺔ •ﯾﺣدث ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﺷﺟﻊ ﺷﺧص ﻋﻣدا طرﻓﺎ ﻟﻛﺳر اﻟﻌﻘد‬
3. . A justifiable reliance on the misrepresentation by the
deceived party
2/ With a Business Relationship
4. Damages suffered as a result of that reliance.
• When a person uses predatory tactics to take another
5. A causal connection between the misrepresentation and the
business’s customer
• ‫ﻣﻊ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺗﺟﺎرﯾﺔ •ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم اﻟﺷﺧص ﺗﻛﺗﯾﻛﺎت اﻟﻣﻔﺗرﺳﺔ ﻻﺗﺧﺎذ ﻋﻣﯾل ﻋﻣل آﺧر‬
injury suffered
‫ﺗﺣرﯾف اﻟﺣﻘﺎﺋق أو اﻟظروف اﻟﻣﺎدﯾﺔ‬1.
‫ﻧﯾﺔ ﻟﺣث طرف آﺧر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻋﺗﻣﺎد ﻋﻠﻰ‬2.
‫ﺗﺣرﯾف‬
‫اﻻﻋﺗﻣﺎد اﻟﻣﺑرر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺗﺣرﯾف ﻣن ﻗﺑل‬3.
‫ﺣزب ﻣﺧدوع‬
‫اﻷﺿرار اﻟﺗﻲ ﻟﺣﻘت ﻧﺗﯾﺟﺔ ﻟذﻟك اﻻﻋﺗﻣﺎد‬4. .
‫ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺳﺑﺑﯾﺔ ﺑﯾن اﻟﺗﺣرﯾف‬5.
‫وﺗﻌرﺿت اﻻﺻﺎﺑﺔ‬
•3\Defenses to Wrongful Interference • If the interference with justified or
permissible, there is no wrongful interference.
• ‫ ﻓﻼ ﯾوﺟد ﺗدﺧل ﻏﯾر ﻣﺷروع‬،‫اﻟدﻓﺎﻋﺎت ﻋن اﻟﺗدﺧل ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﺷروع •إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﺗدﺧل ﻣﺑررا أو ﻣﺳﻣوﺣﺎ ﺑﮫ‬.
Intentional Torts against Property
Trespass to Personal Property: Wrongfully taking or harming the
personal property of another, or otherwise interfering with the
lawful owner’s possession of personal property.
Intentional torts against property include: • Trespass to land •
Trespass to personal property • Conversion • Disparagement of
property ‫اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرض •اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ •اﻟﺗﺣوﯾل •اﻻﻧﺗﻘﺎص ﻣن‬: • ‫ﺗﺷﻣل اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻣدة ﺿد اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت ﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت‬
‫اﻻﺳﺗﯾﻼء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬: ‫اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬
‫ أو اﻟﺗدﺧل ﻓﻲ ﺣﯾﺎزة‬،‫ﻟﺷﺧص آﺧر أو إﻟﺣﺎق اﻟﺿرر ﺑﮭﺎ دون وﺟﮫ ﺣق‬
‫اﻟﻣﺎﻟك اﻟﺷرﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬.
• These torts are wrongful actions that interfere with
individuals’ legally recognized rights with regard to their land or
personal property. • ‫ھذه اﻟﺿررات ھﻲ أﻓﻌﺎل ﻏﯾر ﻣﺷروﻋﺔ ﺗﺗﻌﺎرض ﻣﻊ ﺣﻘوق اﻷﻓراد اﻟﻣﻌﺗرف ﺑﮭﺎ ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﺎ ﻓﯾﻣﺎ ﯾﺗﻌﻠق ﺑﺄراﺿﯾﮭم أو ﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎﺗﮭم اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬.
• Types of property • Real property: Land, and everything
“permanently” attached to land • Personal property: All other
movable, tangible items
• ‫ واﻟﺑﻧود‬،‫ﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻟﻣﻧﻘوﻟﺔ اﻷﺧرى‬: ‫ وﻛل ﺷﻲء "ﺑﺷﻛل داﺋم "ﺗﻌﻠق ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرض •اﻟﻣﻠﻛﯾﺔ اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬،‫اﻷرض‬: ‫أﻧواع اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت •اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﻌﻘﺎرﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻣﻠﻣوﺳﺔ‬
Trespass to Land: Occurs when one enters another’s real
property without permission. Actual harm to the land is not an
essential element of this tort.
‫واﻟﺿرر اﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ ﻟﻸرض ﻟﯾس ﻋﻧﺻرا أﺳﺎﺳﯾﺎ ﻣن ﻋﻧﺎﺻر ھذا اﻟﺿرر‬.‫ﯾﺣدث ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾدﺧل أﺣدھﻣﺎ ﻋﻘﺎر اﻵﺧر دون إذن‬: ‫اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرض‬.
Conversion: Wrongfully using or possessing the personal
property of another. • There is usually overlap between trespass
to personal property and conversion. ‫اﺳﺗﺧدام أو ﺣﯾﺎزة اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ ﻟﺷﺧص آﺧر‬: ‫اﻟﺗﺣوﯾل‬
‫ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﻛون ھﻧﺎك ﺗداﺧل ﺑﯾن اﻟﺗﻌدي ﻋﻠﻰ‬.• ‫دون وﺟﮫ ﺣق‬
‫اﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ واﻟﺗﺣوﯾل‬.
• General types of torts 1/ Intentional torts 2/ Unintentional
torts (negligence) 3/ Strict liability •4/Product liability
‫•أﻧواع اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ •اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻣدة •اﻷﺿرار ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﺗﻌﻣدة )اﻹھﻣﺎل( •اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺻﺎرﻣﺔ •اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت‬
Negligence: is the failure to exercise a duty of care that a
reasonable person would exercise in the same situation
• Reasonable person standard • The defendant is held to the
same standard as a reasonably objective (hypothetical) person
in the defendant’s same situation would have acted
• ‫ﻣﻌﯾﺎر اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟﻣﻌﻘول •ﯾﺧﺿﻊ اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻟﻧﻔس اﻟﻣﻌﯾﺎر اﻟذي ﻛﺎن ﺳﯾﺗﺻرف ﺑﮫ ﺷﺧص ﻣوﺿوﻋﻲ (اﻓﺗراﺿﻲ )ﻣﻌﻘول ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔس اﻟﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫اﻹھﻣﺎل ھو ﻋدم ﻣﻣﺎرﺳﺔ واﺟب اﻟرﻋﺎﯾﺔ اﻟذي ﯾﻣﺎرﺳﮫ اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟﻌﺎزم ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔس اﻟﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬
The plaintiff must prove each of the following:
• Duty. The defendant owed a duty of care to the plaintiff. • ‫اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻣدﯾن ﺑواﺟب اﻟرﻋﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻣدﻋﻲ‬.‫واﺟب‬.
• Breach. The defendant breached that duty. • ‫اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ أﺧل ﺑﮭذا اﻟواﺟب‬. ‫ﺧرق‬
• Causation. The defendant’s breach caused the plaintiff’s
The duty of landowners • People who
injury.
‫وﺗﺳﺑب ﺧرق اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻓﻲ إﺻﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ‬. ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﮫ اﻟﺳﺑﺑﯾﮫ‬.
invite others onto their property have a
• Damages. The plaintiff suffered a legally recognizable injury
duty to keep the premises safe.
• ‫ﺗﻌرض اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻹﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﻌﺗرف ﺑﮭﺎ ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺎ‬. ‫اﻷﺿرار‬
• The duty of care is the duty of all persons, as established by
tort law, to exercise a reasonable amount of care in their
dealings with others.
• ‫ أن ﯾﻣﺎرﺳوا ﻗدرا ﻣﻌﻘوﻻ ﻣن اﻟﻌﻧﺎﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﮭم ﻣﻊ‬،‫ ﺣﺳﺑﻣﺎ ﯾﻧص ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻗﺎﻧون اﻟﺿرر‬،‫واﺟب اﻟرﻋﺎﯾﺔ واﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻷﺷﺧﺎص‬
‫اﻵﺧرﯾن‬.
‫واﺟب ﻣﻼك اﻷراﺿﻲ •ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﺷﺧﺎص اﻟذﯾن ﯾدﻋون اﻵﺧرﯾن إﻟﻰ ﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎﺗﮭم واﺟب اﻟﺣﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻣﺎن‬
‫اﻟﻣﺑﺎﻧﻲ‬.
• Firms that invite persons (business invitees) to come onto their
premises are usually have a duty to exercise reasonable care to
protect them.
However, some risks are so obvious that the owner does not
need to warn others about them.
.‫ ﻓﺈن ﺑﻌض اﻟﻣﺧﺎطر واﺿﺣﺔ ﻟدرﺟﺔ أن اﻟﻣﺎﻟك ﻻ ﯾﺣﺗﺎج إﻟﻰ ﺗﺣذﯾر اﻵﺧرﯾن ﻣﻧﮭﺎ‬، ‫وﻣﻊ ذﻟك‬
The duty of professionals • Professionals have a duty of care
towards their clients, and the law takes their [the
professionals’] training and expertise into account
The plaintiff must have suffered a legally recognizable injury
and suffered some loss, harm, wrong, or invasion of a protected
interest. ‫ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻗد ﻋﺎﻧﻰ ﻣن ﺿرر ﻣﻌﺗرف ﺑﮫ ﻗﺎﻧوﻧﯾﺎ وﻋﺎﻧﻰ ﻣن ﺑﻌض اﻟﺧﺳﺎرة أو اﻟﺿرر أو‬
‫اﻟﺧطﺄ أو ﻏزو ﻣﺻﻠﺣﺔ ﻣﺣﻣﯾﺔ‬.
‫ واﻟﻘﺎﻧون ﯾﺄﺧذ ﺗدرﯾﺑﮭم وﺧﺑرﺗﮭم [اﻟﻣﮭﻧﯾﯾن ]ﻓﻲ اﻻﻋﺗﺑﺎر‬،‫واﺟب اﻟﻣﮭﻧﯾﯾن •اﻟﻣﮭﻧﯾﯾن واﺟب اﻟرﻋﺎﯾﺔ ﺗﺟﺎه ﻋﻣﻼﺋﮭم‬
The purpose of tort law is to compensate people through
monetary damages. If there is no harm, there is no violation.
A professional who violates her or his duty of care toward a
client may be sued for malpractice (professional negligence).
‫ ﻻ ﯾوﺟد أي اﻧﺗﮭﺎك‬،‫إذا ﻟم ﯾﻛن ھﻧﺎك ﺿرر‬.‫واﻟﻐرض ﻣن ﻗﺎﻧون اﻟﺿرر ھو ﺗﻌوﯾض اﻟﻧﺎس ﻋن طرﯾق اﻷﺿرار اﻟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬.
)‫ﯾﺟوز ﻣﻘﺎﺿﺎة اﻟﻣﺣﺗرف اﻟذي ﯾﻧﺗﮭك واﺟﺑﮫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻧﺎﯾﺔ ﺗﺟﺎه اﻟﻌﻣﯾل ﺑﺳﺑب ﺳوء اﻟﻣﻣﺎرﺳﺔ (اﻹھﻣﺎل اﻟﻣﮭﻧﻲ‬.
Causation: The plaintiff must prove two different types of
‫ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ إﺛﺑﺎت ﻧوﻋﯾن ﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﯾن ﻣن اﻟﺳﺑﺑﯾﺔ‬: ‫اﻟﺳﺑﺑﯾﺔ‬.
causation.
• Causation in fact: The harm would not have occurred “but
for” the conduct of the defendant.
• ‫ﻟم ﯾﻛن اﻟﺿرر ﻟﯾﺣدث "ﺑل ﻣن أﺟل "ﺳﻠوك اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ‬: ‫اﻟﺳﺑﺑﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟواﻗﻊ‬.
Good Samaritan Statutes: Someone who is aided voluntarily by
another cannot turn around and sue a “Good Samaritan” for
‫ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن ﻟﻠﺷﺧص اﻟذي ﯾﺳﺎﻋده ﺷﺧ‬: ‫اﻟﻘواﻧﯾن اﻟﺳﺎﻣرﯾﺔ اﻟﺟﯾدة‬
negligence. ‫ص آاﻟﺧرﺻﺎﻟطﺢوا"ﺑﻋﺗﯾﮭﺔﻣأﺔناﯾﻹﺳھﺗﻣدﺎﯾلر‬
‫وﯾﻘﺎﺿﻲ "اﻟﺳﺎﻣري‬.
• Contributory negligence (used in a few states): If the plaintiff is
also negligent, it bars recovery of damages.
• Proximate cause: The link between the action and the cause
• ‫ ﻓﺈﻧﮫ ﯾﻣﻧﻊ اﺳﺗرداد اﻷﺿرار‬،‫)إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻣﮭﻣﻼ أﯾﺿﺎ‬: ‫اﻹھﻣﺎل اﻟﻣﺳﺎھم (اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدم ﻓﻲ ﻋدد ﻗﻠﯾل ﻣن اﻟوﻻﯾﺎت‬.
was sufficiently strong to warrant liability
Comparative negligence (used in most states): If the plaintiff is also
• ‫ﻛﺎﻧت اﻟﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﯾن اﻹﺟراء واﻟﺳﺑب ﻗوﯾﺔ ﺑﻣﺎ ﯾﻛﻔﻲ ﻟﺗﺑرﯾر اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ‬: ‫اﻟﺳﺑب اﻟﻣﺑﺎﺷر‬
negligent, then the plaintiff’s level of fault determines whether
and how much damages are recovered.
• It must have been foreseeable that the defendant’s actions
would have caused the harm for liability to be imposed.
‫ ﻓﺈن ﻣﺳﺗوى ﺧطﺄ اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﯾﺣدد ﻣﺎ إذا ﻛﺎن ﯾﺗم اﺳﺗرداد اﻷﺿرار‬، ‫)إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻣﮭﻣﻼ أﯾﺿﺎ‬: ‫اﻹھﻣﺎل اﻟﻧﺳﺑﻲ (اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدم ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌظم اﻟوﻻﯾﺎت‬
• ‫ﻛﺎن ﻣن اﻟﻣﺗوﻗﻊ أن ﺗﻛون أﻓﻌﺎل اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻗد ﺗﺳﺑﺑت ﻓﻲ ﻓرض اﻟﺿرر ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ‬.
‫وﻣﻘدارھﺎ‬.
Contributory negligence (used in a few states): If the plaintiff is
also negligent, it bars recovery of damages. • Comparative
negligence (used in most states): If the plaintiff is also
negligent, then the plaintiff’s level of fault determines whether
and how much damages are recovered
‫)إذا ﻛﺎن اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻣﮭﻣﻼ أﯾﺿﺎ‬: ‫اﻹھﻣﺎل اﻟﻣﺳﺎھم (اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدم ﻓﻲ ﻋدد ﻗﻠﯾل ﻣن اﻟوﻻﯾﺎت‬
‫)إذا‬: ‫اﻹھﻣﺎل اﻟﻧﺳﺑﻲ (اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدم ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌظم اﻟوﻻﯾﺎت‬.• ‫ ﻓﺈﻧﮫ ﯾﻣﻧﻊ اﺳﺗرداد اﻷﺿرار‬،
‫ ﻓﺈن ﻣﺳﺗوى ﺧطﺄ اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﯾﺣدد ﻣﺎ إذا ﻛﺎن ﯾﺗم اﺳﺗرداد‬،‫ﻛﺎن اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻣﮭﻣﻼ أﯾﺿﺎ‬
‫اﻷﺿرار وﻣﻘدارھﺎ‬
Negligence: A person who is injured by a product may sue the
manufacturer for negligence if due care was not used to make
the product safe.
‫ﯾﺟوز ﻟﻠﺷﺧص اﻟﻣﺻﺎب ﻣن ﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﻣﻘﺎﺿﺎة اﻟﺷرﻛﺔ اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﺔ ﺑﺳﺑب اﻹھﻣﺎل إذا ﻟم ﯾﺗم اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻌﻧﺎﯾﺔ اﻟواﺟﺑﺔ ﻟﺟﻌل‬: ‫اﻹھﻣﺎل‬
‫اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ آﻣﻧﺎ‬.
Manufacturers must exercise due care in product design,
material selection, production processes, and product
assembly. • Manufacturers must adequately warn users of
dangers of which an ordinary person might not be aware. •
Product liability action based on negligence does not require
privity of contract between the injured plaintiff and the
defendant manufacturer
‫ﯾﺟب‬.• ‫ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﯾن ﻣﻣﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﻌﻧﺎﯾﺔ اﻟواﺟﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺻﻣﯾم اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت واﺧﺗﯾﺎر اﻟﻣواد وﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻹﻧﺗﺎج وﺗﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﺗطﻠب دﻋوى‬.• ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﯾن ﺗﺣذﯾر اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣﯾن ﺑﺷﻛل ﻛﺎف ﻣن اﻟﻣﺧﺎطر اﻟﺗﻲ ﻗد ﻻ ﯾﻛون اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟﻌﺎدي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻠم ﺑﮭﺎ‬
‫ اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹھﻣﺎل‬privity ‫اﻟﻌﻘد ﺑﯾن اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ اﻟﻣﺗﺿرر واﻟﺷرﻛﺔ اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ‬
• General types of torts 1/ Intentional torts 2/ Unintentional
torts (negligence) 3/ Strict liability •4/Product liability
Strict liability, or liability without fault, is imposed for certain
activities. ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌض اﻷﻧﺷطﺔ‬،‫ أو اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ دون ﺧطﺄ‬،‫ﺗﻔرض اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺷددة‬.
Abnormally Dangerous Activities: People who engage in
extremely risky activities are responsible for paying for any
injuries that result.
‫اﻷﺷﺧﺎص اﻟذﯾن ﯾﺷﺎرﻛون ﻓﻲ أﻧﺷطﺔ ﻣﺣﻔوﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻣﺧﺎطر ﻟﻠﻐﺎﯾﺔ ﻣﺳؤوﻟون ﻋن دﻓﻊ ﺛﻣن أي إﺻﺎﺑﺎت ﺗﻧﺗﺞ‬: ‫اﻷﻧﺷطﺔ اﻟﺧطﯾرة ﺑﺷﻛل ﻏﯾر طﺑﯾﻌﻲ‬
‫ﻋن ذﻟك‬.
Other Applications of Strict Liability: People who knowingly
keep dangerous animals and certain types of bailments (the
transferring of goods temporarily into the care of another.)
‫اﻷﺷﺧﺎص اﻟذﯾن ﯾﺣﺗﻔظون ﻋن ﻋﻠم ﺑﺎﻟﺣﯾواﻧﺎت اﻟﺧطرة وأﻧواع ﻣﻌﯾﻧﺔ ﻣن اﻟﻛﻔﺎﻻت (ﻧﻘل اﻟﺑﺿﺎﺋﻊ ﻣؤﻗﺗﺎ إﻟﻰ‬: ‫ﺗطﺑﯾﻘﺎت أﺧرى ﻟﻠﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺷددة‬
)‫رﻋﺎﯾﺔ ﺷﺧص آﺧر‬.)
Because many products cannot be made entirely safe for all
uses, sellers or lessors are held liable only for products that are
unreasonably dangerous
‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﺑﺎﺋﻌﯾن أو اﻟﻣؤﺟرﯾن ﻣﺳؤوﻟون ﻓﻘط ﻋن اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت اﻟﺧطرة‬، ‫ﻧظرا ﻷﻧﮫ ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن ﺟﻌل اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت آﻣﻧﺔ ﺗﻣﺎﻣﺎ ﻟﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻻﺳﺗﺧداﻣﺎت‬
‫ﺑﺷﻛل ﻏﯾر ﻣﻌﻘول‬
A court may consider a product to be an unreasonably
dangerous product if: • The product is dangerous beyond the
expectation of the ordinary consumer; or • A less dangerous
alternative was economically feasible for the manufacturer, but
the manufacturer failed to produce it.
Requirements for Strict Product Liability 3. The product must be
unreasonably dangerous to the user or consumer because of its
defective condition. 4. The plaintiff must incur physical harm to
self or property by use or consumption of the product. 5. The
defective condition must be the proximate cause of the injury
‫اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﺧطﯾر‬: • ‫ ﯾﺟوز ﻟﻠﻣﺣﻛﻣﺔ أن ﺗﻌﺗﺑر اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎ ﺧطﯾرا ﺑﺷﻛل ﻏﯾر ﻣﻌﻘول إذا‬or damage. 6. The goods must not have been substantially
changed from the time the product was sold to the time the
‫ﺑﻣﺎ ﯾﺗﺟﺎوز ﺗوﻗﻌﺎت اﻟﻣﺳﺗﮭﻠك اﻟﻌﺎدي؛ أو أن اﻟﺑدﯾل اﻷﻗل ﺧطورة ﻛﺎن ﻣﺟدﯾﺎ اﻗﺗﺻﺎدﯾﺎ‬
injury was sustained.
‫ وﻟﻛن اﻟﺷرﻛﺔ اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﺔ ﻓﺷﻠت ﻓﻲ إﻧﺗﺎﺟﮫ‬،‫ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻠﺷرﻛﺔ اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﺔ‬.
‫ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﺧطرا ﻏﯾر ﻣﻌﻘول ﻋﻠﻰ‬.3 ‫ﻣﺗطﻠﺑﺎت اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺻﺎرﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﺗﺞ‬
‫ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ أن ﯾﻠﺣق ﺿررا‬. 4.‫اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدم أو اﻟﻣﺳﺗﮭﻠك ﺑﺳﺑب ﺣﺎﻟﺗﮫ اﻟﻣﻌﯾﺑﺔ‬
Requirements for Strict Product Liability Section 402A of the
‫ﯾﺟب أن ﺗﻛون‬. 5.‫ﺟﺳدﯾﺎ ﺑﻧﻔﺳﮫ أو ﺑﺎﻟﻣﻣﺗﻠﻛﺎت ﻋن طرﯾق اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ أو اﺳﺗﮭﻼﻛﮫ‬
Restatement (Second) of Torts is a widely accepted statement
of how the doctrine of strict liability should be applied to sellers ‫ﯾﺟب أﻻ ﺗﻛون اﻟﺑﺿﺎﺋﻊ ﻗد‬. 6.‫اﻟﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻣﻌﯾﺑﺔ ھﻲ اﻟﺳﺑب اﻟﻣﺑﺎﺷر ﻟﻺﺻﺎﺑﺔ أو اﻟﺿرر‬
of goods: 1. The product must be in a defective condition when ‫ﺗﻐﯾرت ﺑﺷﻛل ﻛﺑﯾر ﻣن وﻗت ﺑﯾﻊ اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ إﻟﻰ وﻗت ﺗﻌرض اﻹﺻﺎﺑﺔ‬.
the defendant sold it. 2. The defendant must normally be
engaged in the business of selling (or otherwise distributing) Product Defects—Restatement (Third) of Torts: Types of product
defects that are typically recognized in product liability law.
that product
402 ‫ﻣﺗطﻠﺑﺎت اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺻﺎرﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﺗﺞ اﻟﻘﺳم‬A ‫ﻣن إﻋﺎدة ﺻﯾﺎﻏﺔ (اﻟﺛﺎﻧﯾﺔ )ﻣن‬
‫اﻟﺿرر ھو ﺑﯾﺎن ﻣﻘﺑول ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧطﺎق واﺳﻊ ﻋن ﻛﯾﻔﯾﺔ ﺗطﺑﯾق ﻣﺑدأ اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﺻﺎرﻣﺔ‬
. 2.‫ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻌﯾﺑﺔ ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﮫ اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ‬.1: ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺎﺋﻌﻲ اﻟﺳﻠﻊ‬
‫ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﻧﺧرطﺎ ﻓﻲ أﻋﻣﺎل ﺑﯾﻊ (أو ﺗوزﯾﻊ )ھذا اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ‬
Assumption of Risk: The defendant must show that (1) the
plaintiff knew and appreciated the risk created by the product
defect and (2) the plaintiff voluntarily assumed the risk, even
though it was unreasonable to do so. • Product Misuse: Occurs
when a product is used for a purpose for which it was not
intended. Courts now recognize this as a defense only when
the particular use was not reasonably foreseeable. •
Comparative Negligence (Fault): A defendant may be able to
limit some of its liability if it can show that the plaintiff’s misuse
of the product contributed to his or her injuries
‫ )اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻛﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻠم‬1( ‫ﯾﺟب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ أن ﯾﺛﺑت أن‬: ‫اﻓﺗراض اﻟﻣﺧﺎطر‬
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ )اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﺗﺣﻣل اﻟﻣﺧﺎطر طوﻋﺎ‬2(‫وﺗﻘدﯾر اﻟﻣﺧﺎطر اﻟﻧﺎﺟﻣﺔ ﻋن ﻋﯾب اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ و‬
‫ﯾﺣدث ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ‬: ‫إﺳﺎءة اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ‬.• ‫اﻟرﻏم ﻣن أﻧﮫ ﻣن ﻏﯾر اﻟﻣﻌﻘول اﻟﻘﯾﺎم ﺑذﻟك‬
‫وﻻ ﺗﻌﺗرف اﻟﻣﺣﺎﻛم اﻵن ﺑﮭذا ﻛﻛﻔﺎع إﻻ‬.‫ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم ﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﻟﻐرض ﻟم ﯾﻛن ﻣﻘﺻودا ﻟﮫ‬
‫)ﻗد‬: ‫اﻹھﻣﺎل اﻟﻧﺳﺑﻲ (ﺧطﺄ‬.• ‫ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﻻ ﯾﻛون اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﺧﺎص ﻣﺗوﻗﻌﺎ ﺑﺷﻛل ﻣﻌﻘول‬
‫ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣدﻋﻰ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﻗﺎدرا ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺣد ﻣن ﺑﻌض ﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺗﮫ إذا ﻛﺎن ﺑﺈﻣﻛﺎﻧﮫ إﺛﺑﺎت أن‬
‫إﺳﺎءة اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻣدﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﺗﺞ ﻗد أﺳﮭﻣت ﻓﻲ إﺻﺎﺑﺗﮫ‬
Misrepresentation
When a user or consumer is injured as a result of a
manufacturer’s or seller’s fraudulent misrepresentation, the
basis of liability may be the tort of fraud: • The
misrepresentation must concern a material fact, and the seller
must have intended to induce the buyer’s reliance on the
misrepresentation. • Misrepresentation on a label or
advertisement is enough to show an intent to induce the
reliance of anyone who may use the product. • The buyer must
also have relied on the misrepresentation.
‫ﻋﻧدﻣﺎ ﯾﺻﺎب ﻣﺳﺗﺧدم أو ﻣﺳﺗﮭﻠك ﻧﺗﯾﺟﺔ ﺗﺣرﯾف اﻟﺷرﻛﺔ اﻟﻣﺻﻧﻌﺔ أو اﻟﺑﺎﺋﻊ اﻻﺣﺗﯾﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﺗﻌﻠق اﻟﺗﺣرﯾف ﺑﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ‬: • ‫ ﻗد ﯾﻛون أﺳﺎس اﻟﻣﺳؤوﻟﯾﺔ ھو ﺿرر اﻻﺣﺗﯾﺎل‬،
.• ‫ وﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﺑﺎﺋﻊ ﻗد ﻗﺻد ﺣث اﻟﻣﺷﺗري ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻋﺗﻣﺎد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺗﺣرﯾف‬، ‫ﻣﺎدﯾﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺣرﯾف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺗﺳﻣﯾﺔ أو اﻹﻋﻼن ﯾﻛﻔﻲ ﻹظﮭﺎر ﻧﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺣث ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻋﺗﻣﺎد ﻣن أي ﺷﺧص‬
‫ﯾﺟب أن ﯾﻛون اﻟﻣﺷﺗري ﻗد اﻋﺗﻣد أﯾﺿﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺗﺣرﯾف‬.• ‫ﻗد ﺗﺳﺗﺧدم اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ‬.