EUROPEANHIS TORY TheFr enc hRev o l ut i o no f1789 Caus es TheFr enc hpeo pl er ev o l t edi n1789ag ai ns tt heg o v er nmento fLo ui sXVIasa r es ul to fac o mb i nat i o no ffac t o r ss uc hast heex i s t i ngs ys t emo fg o v er nment ,an i nc o mpet entki ng ,fi nanc i alc r i s es ,andt hes y s t em o fpr i v i l eg esamo ngo t her fac t o r s .Thatt her ev o l ut i o nb r o kei n 1789and no tear l i eri sb ec aus et he s i t uat i o ni nFr anc ehaddet er i o r at ed.Thepeo pl eo fFr anc ec o ul dno twai tany l o ng er . Po l i t i c al Po l i t i c al l yt her ev o l twast r i g g er edo fb yfac t o r ss uc hast heex i s t i ngs ys t em o f g o v er nment ,an i nc o mpet entki ng aswel lasv ar i o usi nfl uenc esfr o m t he Amer i c anWaro fIndependenc e,Eng l andandt hePhi l o s o pher s . 1. TheEx i s t i ngS ys t emo fGo v er nment -Theex i s t i ngs ys t em o fg o v er nmenti nFr anc el ac kedpo l i t i c alpar t i c i pat i o n andr epr es ent at i o no ft hepeo pl e. -Thi si si nv i ewo ft hefac tt hatal lt hepo werwasc ent r edi nt hehandso fo ne per s o n-t heFr enc hKi ng .Hewasr es po ns i b l efo ral lt hepo l i t i c alappo i nt ment s andhewast heo newi t ht hefi nals ayo nal ls t at ei s s ues .Thi si sc o nfi r medb yhi s wo r ds“ Thes t at ei smys el f.Thet hi ngi sl eg alb ec aus eIwi s hi t . ” -t hi sc l ear l yi ndi c at edt hathet r eat edFr anc eashi sper s o nalpr o per t yandi t c l ears ho wshi sdi c t at o r i alt endenc i esaswel lasab s o l ut ear r o g anc e. - Fur t her mo r eFr anc edi d no thav ea par l i ament .Ofc o ur s et her ewasa pl at fo r mi nt hefo r mo ft heEs t at es -Gener ali nwhi c ht hepeo pl epr es ent ed 1 t hei rg r i ev anc esandpr o po s al st ot heki ng .Butt hent hes el as tmeti n1614yet t heyearwasno w1789. - Thusal lt hedec i s i o nmaki ngpr o c es swasl efti nt hehandso ft heKi ngandt he Ro yalCo unc i l .ThusFr anc ewasl eftwi t ho utc hec ksandb al anc esmaki ngLo ui s XVIadi c t at o r . -In addi t i o n al lt hepo l i t i c alpo s t swer emo no po l i z ed b yag r o upo fafew i ndi v i dual s ,t heno b i l i t y.Thi swasapr i v i l eg edc l as st hatb el o ng edt ot hes ec o nd es t at e.Theyal o nec o ul db eappo i nt edt oc ab i netpo s t sasamb as s ado r sab r o ad andt oc o mmi s s i o nedr anksi nt henav yandt hear my.Theb o ur g eo i s i efel tt hat t hei reduc at i o nandweal t hmadet hemqual i fyfo rt heappo i nt ment s . -Thel eg als ys t em o fFr anc ewaspat het i candi ns hamb l es .Fr anc ehadab o ut 360di ffer entfeudalc o des .Theg o v er nmento fLo ui sXVIwasi nv o l v edi nt he appo i nt ment o f l o c al c o unc i l si n t o wns hi ps and meddl ed i n par i s h admi ni s t r at i o n. - Asar es ul tt her ewast hes el ec t i v eappl i c at i o no ft hel awi nfav o uro ft he No b i l i t yandt hec l er g y . - Inv i ewo ft heab o v es ys t em o fg o v er nmentt heFr enc hpeo pl e,par t i c ul ar l y t heThi r d Es t at es t ag ed a r ev o l ut i o ni n May1789i no r dert oc o r r ec tt he s i t uat i o n.Thei rai m wast oac hi ev epo l i t i c alpar t i c i pat i o nb yb ei ngi nv o l v edi n t heaffai r so ft hes t at eandb ei ngr epr es ent edpo l i t i c al l yt hr o ug hanas s emb l y. 2 TheInc o mpet entKi ng -TheFr enc hKi ngLo ui sXVIwasdi r ec t l yr es po ns i b l efo rt heo ut b r eako ft he Fr enc hRev o l ut i o nb ec aus eo fhi si nc o ns i s t entpo l i c i es .Hehadaweak-wi l l ed c har ac t ert hatc aus ed hi m no tt ofo l l o wupo nr efo r mst hathewo ul d hav e i ni t i at ed. -Thi si sb ec aus eLo ui sXVIwo ul di ni t i at ear efo r m pr o g r ammeandt henfai lt o c o mpl et ei t .Fo r ex ampl ei nt he 1780she i ni t i at ed an ec o no mi cr efo r m pr o g r ammedes i g nedt os t ab i l i z et heFr enc hec o no my. - Heappo i nt ed a numb ero fec o no mi s t sl i keTur g o t ,Nec ker ,Br i enneand 2 Cal o nnewhoal lpr o po s ed t hatFr anc edoawaywi t ht heex i s t i ngs ys t em o f pr i v i l eg est hathi nder edec o no mi cdev el o pment .Inpar t i c ul art heypr o po s eda s ys t em o ffai r ert ax at i o nandt her emo v alo ft ar i ffsi nb et weent heFr enc h di s t r i c t si no r dert ofac i l i t at et hemo v emento fg o o ds . - Tur g o tadv o c at edo nho nes t yandeffi c i enc yandpr o po s edt oc hec ko nt he po wero ft hec hur c h,adv o c at edfo rj us t i c ei nt ax at i o nandt hec i r c ul at i o no f g o o dses pec i al l yc o r n. - Nec keradv o c at ed fo rt he mai nt enanc eo ft he s t at usquob utb ec ame unpo pul arwi t ht heKi ngandt heno b i l i t ywhenhei s s uedas t at emento nt he fi nanc i alpo s i t i o no fFr anc eatat i mewhent hepar t i c i pat i o no fFr anc ei nt he Amer i c an War o f Independenc e had l eft t he c o unt r yo nt he v er g eo f b ankr upt c y. - Cal o nnewhot o o ko v erfr o m Nec kerdi dno ts eekt oc ur bt heex t r av ag anc eat t hec o ur tb uts o o nb ec ameunpo pul aramo ngt heno b i l i t ywhenheadv o c at edfo r al andt axt ob epai db yev er yo net oi mpr o v eo ns t at er ev enue. -Thepr o po s al st heec o no mi s t swer eo ppo s edb yt heno b i l i t y,c l er g y,andt he Queen.TheKi ngfai l edt os uppo r tt heec o no mi s t sandg av ei nt opr es s ur eand had eac ho ft heec o no mi s t sdi s mi s s ed o neaft erano t her .Fr anc el o s tt he o ppo r t uni t yt os t ab i l i z et heec o no my. - Thedi s mi s s alo ft heec o no mi s t st hr ew awayan ex c el l ento ppo r t uni t yt o di ffus et ens i o nb et ween t hepeas ant sand t hec l er g yand t heno b i l i t yo v er t ax at i o n. - Thec i r c ul at i o no fg o o dses pec i al l yc o r nc o ul dhav ehel pedt oal l ev i at et he dev as t at i ngeffec t so ft heb adhar v es t so f1789. - Thedi s mi s s al sal s odemo ns t r at edt hatt heg o v er nmento fLo ui sXVIl ac ked anyfo r mo fs er i o us nes st o war dss o l v i ngt hefi nanc i alc r i s eso fFr anc e. - Thes edi s mi s s al sal s os ho wed t hatt heec o no mi s t swer et o l er at ed b yt he g o v er nmento fLo ui sXVIasl o ngast heydi d no tpo ket hei rno s esi nt ot he affai r so ft heNo b i l i t yandt heCl er g y. -Mo r eo v ert heki ng ’ si nc o mpet enc eandi nc o ns i s t enc ewasc l ear l yev i dentwhen c al l edfo rt hemeet i ngo ft heEs t at es -Gener ali nMay1789i no r dert oc har tt he 3 wayfo r war dfo rFr anc e. -Theex pec t at i o no ft heThi r dEs t at ewast hati two ul dmeetj o i nt l ywi t ht he Fi r s tandS ec o ndEs t at esc o mpr i s i ngo ft hec l er g yandt heno b i l i t yr es pec t i v el y andt hendr aftt hei rpr o po s al sfo rt heKi ngt oc o ns i der . -Butt hent heki ngat t empt edt ob l o c kt hi sr efo r m pr o c es sb yo r der i ngt he es t at est omeets epar at el y.Itwashi g hl ypr o b ab l et hatt hepr o po s al sfr o mt he Thi r dEs t at ewo ul dno tr eac ht heki ngs i nc et hepr o c edur ewast hatt heThi r d Es t at ewo ul dpr es entt hei rpr o po s al st ot heFi r s tandS ec o ndEs t at esb efo r et hey ar efo r war dedt ot heki ng . -Itwast heki ng ’ sac t i o nt hatt r i g g er edt her ev o l ut i o ns i nc et heThi r dEs t at e r eac t ed b yt aki ngamo r er adi c almo v eand dec l ar ed i t s el fast heNat i o nal as s emb l yt her eb ys et t i ngt her ev o l ut i o ni nt omo t i o n. -Lo ui sXVIwasdi c t at o r i al .Thr o ug ht hel awo f“ Let t er sdeCac het s ”t hatal l o wed i mpr i s o nmentwi t ho utt r i al .Thel awunder mi nedt hefr eedo mo ft heFr enc h peo pl e. - Lo ui sXVIhadaweak-wi l l edc har ac t er .Heal l o wedhi ms el ft os uc c umbt ot he i nfl uenc eo ft ho s ear o undhi m iehi swi fe,No b i l i t yandt heCl er g y.Itwast hi s t r i ot hatb l o c ked t heec o no mi cr efo r m pr o c es so ft he1780sand hav et he ec o no mi s t sfi r edb yt heKi ng . -Theyar eal s ot heo nest hatper s uadedt heki ngt oo r dert hemeet i ngo ft he es t at ess epar at el y .Itwast hi sfat efulmo v et hatt r i g g er ed o fft heFr enc h Rev o l ut i o n. -Lo ui sXVIwasc ar el es s .Heal l o wedt heex t r av ag antex pendi t ur eatt hec o ur tat at i mewhent hec o unt r ywasnear l yo ni t skneesec o no mi c al l y. -Heo ft enwenthunt i ngwi t ht hememb er so ft heCo ur tatat i mewhenhi s pr es enc ewasg r eat l yneeded.Thi sappr o ac ht hathet o o kwast o or el ax edfo r s uc hac r i t i c almo ment . - Fur t her mo r et hes endi ngo ft heFr enc hs o l di er sb yLo ui sXVIt opar t i c i pat ei n t heAmer i c anWaro fIndependenc eal s odemo ns t r at edt hei nc o mpet enc eo f t heFr enc hki ng . -Thi smo v eb ac kfi r edb ec aus ei ti nc r eas edt heFr enc hnat i o naldeb ts i nc et he 4 warwasfi nanc edfr o mb o r r o wi ng sfr o mt heb o ur g eo i s i e. -Thi si nt ur nc o nt r i b ut edt ob ankr upt c y .Att hes amet hepar t i c i pat i o no ft he Fr enc ht r o o psi nt hewarex po s edt hem t or ev o l ut i o nar yi deas .Fo rex ampl et he Amer i c anDec l ar at i o no fIndependenc epo i nt ed o utt hatmanwer ec r eat ed wi t ht heal i enab l er i g ht snamel yl i feandl i b er t y . -Thi sex pl ai nswhyLafayet t ewhowast hev et er ano ft heAmer i c anWaro f Independenc eb ec ameo neo ft her ev o l ut i o nar yl eader s . -Inv i ewo ft heab o v ei ti sc l eart hatt hepeo pl er ev o l t edag ai ns tt hei rki ng b ec aus ehi si nc o mpet enc eands t anc ewasc o s t i ngt hec o unt r ydear l y. Infl uenc es 1. ThePhi l o s o pher s - The phi l o s o pher senl i g ht ened t he peo pl e and made t hem r ev o l ut i o nar y t hr o ug ht hei rwr i t i ng s . - Fo ri ns t anc eVo l t ai r ewr o t epl ays ,no v el s ,hi s t o r yandl ampo o nsi nwhi c hhe at t ac kedt hepo werandt hei nfl uenc eo ft heC at ho l i cChur c handat t ac kedal l t hefaul t swi t hi nt heFr enc hs o c i et y.Heal s opr eac hed t hei deao fr el i g i o us t o l er anc e. - TheEnc yc l o pedi as t spr o duc ed ac o l l ec t i o no fal lwo r ksi nt hefo r mo fa s ummar yo nal lt heex i s t i ngkno wl edg efr o m phi l o s o phy,hi s t o r yands c i enc e. S uc hwo r kshadt heeffec to fenl i g ht eni ngt hepeo pl e. - Ano t herphi l o s o pherMo nt es qui euadv o c at edfo rt hel i mi t i ngo ft hepo wer so f t hemo nar c handt hepr i v i l eg eso ft heno b i l i t y .Heal s oadv o c at edfo rt her i g ht t odeb at eandamendl awb efo r ei ti spas s ed. -Fur t her mo r eRo us s eauwr o t et heS o c i alCo nt r ac ti nwhi c hhear g uedt hatt he Gener alwi l lo ft hepeo pl es ho ul db et her ul i ngfo r c ei nanys o c i et y.Hefur t her ar g uedt hatg o v er nment sar et her eb ec aus eo ft hepeo pl e’ sc o ns ent . - Theyal s opr o duc ed wo r kst hatat t ac ked ev er yt hi ngi nFr anc ehat ed b y phi l o s o pher s . It sc o nt r i b ut o r si nc l uded Vo l t ai r e,Mo nt es qui euand Ro us s eau. Thei rat t ac kswer emo s t l ydi r ec t edt ot heChur c handt heS t at e. 5 - Thust hr o ug ht hei rwr i t i ng s ,t hephi l o s o pher senl i g ht enedt hepeo pl et her eb y c r eat i ngar ev o l ut i o nar yat mo s pher ei nFr anc e.Thi swasmai nl yt r ueamo ngt he i nt el l ec t ual sandt heweal t hi ert hathadac c es st ot hewr i t i ng s . 2. Eng l and -TheEng l i s hwr i t i ng sandi ns t i t ut i o nspr o v i dedFr anc ewi t hapr ac t i c alex ampl e o fapar l i ament ar ydemo c r ac y. - Thi si si nv i ewo ft hefac tt hatt heFr enc hpeo pl ehad ac c es st oEng l i s h wr i t i ng s .S o mev i s i t edEng l andandex per i enc edt heEng l i s hfo r mo fdemo c r ac yi et heFr enc hphi l o s o pher sl i keVo l t ai r eandMo nt es qui euwer eg r eat l yi nfl uenc ed b yt heEng l i s hwr i t i ng s . - Ro us s eau’ swr i t i ng shadmanyi deasfo undi nt hewr i t i ng so ft heJo hnLo c ke, anEng l i s hphi l o s o pher . - Al lt hes ei nfl uenc esfr o m Eng l andr es ul t edi nt hes pr eado fdi s c o nt entand fr eet ho ug hti nFr anc eandmanys c ho l ar sr eg ar dt hem ast hev er yfi r s tc aus es o ft her ev o l ut i o n. - Itc ant henb es ai dt hatt hes ei nfl uenc esc o nt r i b ut edfundament al l yt ot he c o l l aps eo ft heo l ds ys t em. 3. - TheAmer i c anWaro fIndependenc e The par t i c i pat i o no ft he Fr enc hs o l di er si nt he Amer i c an War o f i ndependenc ehadag r eateffec to fex po s i ngt hes o l di er st odemo c r at i cand r ev o l ut i o nar yi deast hati nt ur nmadet hem r ev o l ut i o nar yupo nr et ur ni ngt o Fr anc e. - Thewarex po s edt hes o l di er st odemo c r at i ci deasegt hes o l di er sg o tex po s ed t ot heAmer i c anDec l ar at i o no fIndependenc et hatpo i nt edo utt hatal lmen wer ec r eat edwi t hi nal i enab l er i g ht snamel yl i feandl i b er t y. - Att hes amet i met hes o l di er sfo ug hto nt heAmer i c ans i defi g ht i ngag ai ns t t heBr i t i s ht hatt ax edt heAmer i c anpeo pl et hatl ac kedr epr es ent at i o ni nt he 6 Br i t i s hpar l i ament . - Aft ert hewart hes o l di er sr et ur nedt oaFr anc ewho s epeo pl ehadnoc o nt r o l o v ert heFr enc ht ax at i o ns i nc et her ewasnopar l i ament . - Thatt he Fr enc hs o l di er sg o tex po s ed t o demo c r at i ci deashasb een demo ns t r at edb yt hefac tt hatGener alLafayet t e,av et er ano ft heAmer i c an Waro fIndependenc e,b ec ameo neo ft her ev o l ut i o nar yl eader s . Ec o no mi c TheFi nanc i alCr i s es 1. TheFr enc hfi nanc eswer ec hao t i candt hec o unt r ywaso nt hev er g eo f b ankr upt c y.Thi si si nv i ewo ft hefac tt hatFr anc ehadhug epr o duc t i v e l andsb utl eg g ed b ehi nd t he o t herEur o pean c o unt r i esi nt er mso f ec o no mi cdev el o pment . - S uc has c enar i owasduet ot hes ys t em o ft ax at i o ni n whi c ht he weal t hi erwer eex empt edfr o m payi ngt ax esandt heb ur deno ft ax at i o n fel lo nt hepo o r ers ec t i o nso fFr anc e. - Thust her ev enuer ai s edfr o mt ax at i o nwasno teno ug hfo rFr anc et o meeti t sl i ab i l i t i esegt hepeas ant shadt oc ar r yt heb ur deno fb o t ht he di r ec tand i ndi r ec tt ax esyett heywer epo o r .Theyhad t opayt ax es namel yt ai l l e,po l landt axo nal lpr o per t yasdi r ec tt ax eswhi l et heypai d as al tt axandfeudalduesasi ndi r ec tt ax es . - Thepeas ant swer eno tal l o wedt oo wnmi l l so rwi nepr es s es .Theyhadt o depend o nt hei rl andl o r dsfo rs uc hs er v i c esand had t opayt ax est o t hes el andl o r ds . -S uc has ys t emwasdi s c r i mi nat o r yt ot heThi r dEs t at et hathadt oc ar r y t heb ur denfo rt ax at i o n.Iti st her efo r eno ts ur pr i s i ngt hats o meev aded t ax at i o n - Heav ypuni s hment swer ei mpo s edo nal lt ho s et hatfel tt omeett hei r t axo b l i g at i o nsegi nt heyear1783,11000peo pl ewer ear r es t edands o me 7 o ft hemwer ehang ed. - The Bo ur g eo i s i ec o mpr i s i ng o ft r ader s and i ndus t r i al i s t s wer e ex empt edfr o mt ax at i o n.Thes ameappl i edt ot heno b i l i t yes pec i al l yt he Gr eat erNo b i l i t ywhoo wnedt hel ar g es tandweal t hi es tl andedes t at esi n Fr anc e. 2. Ther ewasahug eex pendi t ur eatt heKi ng ’ spal ac e.Thepal ac eex pens es ac c o unt ed fo ro net wel ft ho ft henat i o nalb udg et .TheQueen Mar i e Ant o i net t ewast hec hi efc ul pr i to fex t r av ag anc y.Iti ss ai dt hats he o wned500pai r ss ho es . -Theo t herc ul pr i t swer et hec l er g ywhol i v edi nl ux ur yatt hepal ac eand s pentmo s to ft het i meb anquet i ngandhunt i ng . - S pendi ngmo neyex t r av ag ant l yata t i mewhen t hes i t uat i o n was ex t r emel yb addemo ns t r at edal ac ko fc o mmi t mentb yt her ul er st ot he pl i g hto ft hepeo pl e.Att hes amet i mes pendi ngpr ec i o ust i mehunt i ng b ear sdemo ns t r at edat o t aldi s r eg ar do ft hewel far eo ft hepeo pl e. 3. Thefai l ur eo ft heec o no mi cr efo r msal s oac c o unt edfo rt heb ankr upt c y o ft hes t at e.Theki nghadappo i nt edanumb ero fec o no mi s t so neaft er ano t her l i ke Tur g o t ,Nec ker ,Br i enne and Cal o nne t os t ab i l i z et he ec o no my. - Butal lt hei rpr o po s al st oi mpr o v et her ev enueb as eb yi nt r o duc i nga s ys t em o fafai r ert ax at i o nandr emo v i ngt hes ys t em o fpr i v i l eg eswer e b l o c kedb yt het r ag i cc o mb i nat i o no ft heno b i l i t y,Cl er g yandt heQueen. - Nec kerat t empt edt or educ et heex pendi t ur eatt hepal ac ewhenhe per s uadedt heki ngt or educ et heg r ant so ffav o ur sandpens i o ns . - Li keal lo t herec o no mi s t swhohadmadepr o po s al st hatwer ec ent r al l y t ot hewi s heso ft heno b i l i t y ,c l er g yandt heQueen,Nec kerwasdi s mi s s ed b yt heki ng . - WhenNec kerwasr ec al l edt og o v er nmenti nAug us t1788he admi t t ed t hati twast o ol at et or es c uet hes i t uat i o no fb ankr upt c yi nt owhi c ht he g o v er nmenthadfal l en. 8 - Thust hefai l ur eb yt heki ngt os o l v et hefi nanc i alc r i s i si nFr anc edr o v e t hes t at edeeperi nt ob ankr upt c y.Itwast hi ss i t uat i o nt hatfo r c edLo ui s XVIt oag r eet ot hemeet i ngo ft heEs t at es -Gener ali nMay1789t hat mar kedt heb eg i nni ngo ft her ev o l ut i o n. Fami ne -Thefami neo fMay1789t r i g g er edo fft heFr enc hRev o l ut i o n.Itwasar es ul t o fav er yb adhar v es to f1788t hatwasag g r av at edb yt hehar s hwi nt ert hat fr o z et heFr enc hr i v er s . - Thi smadet r ans po r t at i o no ffo o ddi ffi c ul t .Fami nec aus eddi s o r derand di s t r es si nt hec o unt r ys i de. - Thepeo pl ei nt hec o unt r ys i defl edt ot het o wnsho pi ngt ofi ndwo r kast he fami nes pr ead.Thei ndus t r i al i s t ss uffer edt heeffec t so fc o mpet i t i o nfr o mt he i mpo r t sfr o mEng l andundert heCo mmer c i alt r eat yo f1786. - Thust her ewasani nc r eas ei nunempl o yment .Tho s efl eei ngt hec o unt r ys i de c o ul dno tfi ndempl o ymentasar es ul tt het o wnsl i kePar i sendedupwi t hani dl e po pul at i o nt hatl at erb ec amet hefamo usmo bdur i ngt her ev o l ut i o n. - Itwast hi smo bt hatc aus edr i o t sanddi s o r der .Theg o v er nmentr eac t edb y t hr o wi ngt hemi nt opr i s o ns .Thi swasev i dent l yanac to fdes per at i o nt hatfai l ed t oi mpr o v et hes i t uat i o n. - Byt het i meLo ui sXVIc al l edfo rt hemeet i ngo ft heEs t at es -Gener ali nMay 1789ar ev o l ut i o nar yat mo s pher ehadb eenc r eat edi nFr anc e. - Themo bt hatwast opl ayani ns t r ument alr o l edur i ngt her ev o l ut i o nwas al r eadyi npl ac e. S o c i al -Thes ys t em o fpr i v i l eg est hatfav o ur edt heFi r s tandS ec o ndEs t at eswasa g r eats o ur c eo fang eramo ngt heBo ur g eo i s i eandt hepeas ant s .Ital i enat edt he Thi r d Es t at e fr o m o t heres t at esand t he mo nar c hy t her eb yl eadi ngt oa 9 r ev o l ut i o n. - Thi sb ec aus et he Fi r s tand s ec o nd Es t at esenj o yed and mo no po l i z ed pr i v i l eg esegt heGr eat erNo b i l i t yc o mpr i s edo f100fami l i est hato wnedt he l ar g es tandt heweal t hi es tl andes t at esi nFr anc e.Theywer eac c o r dedpr i v i l eg es t hatpl ac edt hemab o v et heo t herc l as s esi nt hes t at e. - Thehi g hes tc o mmandsi nt hear mywer eandnav ywer er es er v edfo rt hem andt heyal o newer eappo i nt edasamb as s ado r s . - Theywer eex empt edfr o m payi ngt ax at i o n.Theywer ev er yi nfl uent i alatt he pal ac eandc o ul daffo r db ei ngab s ent eel andl o r dsiel eftt hei rl andedes t at es t ol i v ei nt het o wns . - Al s ob enefi t i ngfr o mt hepr i v i l eg esi st heLes s erNo b i l i t yc o mpr i s i ngo f99 fami l i es .They had l anded es t at es b ut c o ul d no t affo r dt he l ux ur yo f ab s ent eei s m asc o mpar edt ot heGr eat erNo b i l i t y .Theyhadl i t t l epo l i t i c alpo wer andenv i edt hepr i v i l eg eso ft heGr eat erNo b i l i t yandwer eg r eat l yfr us t r at ed fr o mb ei ngex c l udedfr o mt hehi g her ,s o c i alandpo l i t i c all i feo fFr anc e. - Al s ob i t t erwi t ht hes ys t em o fpr i v i l eg eswer et heNo b i l i t yo ft heRo b ewho s e pr i v i l eg ewaso nl yt het i t l e.Theyenv i edt hepr i v i l eg eso ft heGr eat erNo b i l i t y. - Thi sex pl ai nswhyt her ewer eanumb ero fs uppo r t er so ft her ev o l ut i o namo ng t heLes s erNo b i l i t yandt heNo b i l i t yo ft heRo b e. - Realb i t t er nes swi t ht hes ys t em wasamo ngt heb o ur g eo i s i eandt hepeas ant s . Fo ri ns t anc eatt het i meo ft her ev o l ut i o nt hepeas ant snumb er ed23000000 o uto fat o t alpo pul at i o n25mi l l i o n. - Thi swast hel ar g es tg r o upb utl andl es swhi l eo t her so wneds mal lpat c heso f l andfr o mwhi c ht heys c r apedav er yb ar el i v i ng .Itwast hi spo o rg r o upt hatwas b ur denedwi t hdi r ec tandi ndi r ec tt ax at i o nwi t hheav ypuni s hmentfo rfai l i ng t opay. - Thi sg r o upwasc o ndemned t os av ei nt hemi l i t i a wi t h nopo s s i b i l i t yfo r ex empt i o ns .Theywer edeni edpo l i t i c alr i g ht s .Theywer es ub j ec t edt oc o nt r o lb y t heno b i l i t yo nwho s el andt heyl i v edandwer es ub j ec t edt ov ar i o usfo r mso f feudaldues . -Inv i ewo ft hi ss c enar i ot hepeas ant sl o o kedfo r war dt ot her ev o l ut i o nfo r 10 i ndependenc eandfr eedo m fr o m unfai randt heo v er b ur deni ngt ax at i o nand t hec o nt r o lb yt hel andl o r ds . - The b o ur g eo i s i e had a s er i o usc aus eo f di s c o nt ent .They wer e al mo s t c o mpl et el yex c l udedfr o mt heg o v er nmento fFr anc edes pi t et hei reduc at i o n andweal t hy. - Theyhadnopr o s pec t sfo rpr o mo t i o ni nt heFr enc har myandnav ywher e c o mmi s s i o nedr ankswer epr es er v edfo rt heNo b i l i t y. - Theyal s ohad ec o no mi cg r i ev anc es .Thei rec o no mi cac t i v i t i eswer eb ei ng fr us t r at edb yt heeno r mo usex t r av ag anc yandl ux ur yatt hepal ac es uc ht hatas at1789Fr anc ewaso nt hev er g eo fb ankr upt c y. - Fr o mt heb o ur g eo i s i epo i nto fv i ewt heeno r mo uspr i v i l eg esenj o yedb yt he no b i l i t yac c o unt edfo rt heFr enc hb ankr upt c y . - Thatt heb o ur g eo i s i ewer es uffi c i ent l yeduc at ed and uni t ed t ol ead t he r ev o l ut i o nt heyb ec amet hefer t i l es eedb edfo rt her ev o l ut i o nar yi deas . - Duet ot heab o v efac t si ti sno ts ur pr i s i ngt hatmo s to ft hel eader s hi po ft he r ev o l ut i o nwasdr awnfr o mt heb o ur g eo i s i ec l as s . - TheCat ho l i cChur c henj o yedapr i v i l eg edpo s i t i o nwi t hi nFr anc e.Itwast he es t ab l i s hedc hur c ho fFr anc ehenc ei twast heo nl ypub l i cwo r s hi pal l o wedand r ec o g ni z edb yl aw. - Thev ar i o usfo r mso fpr o t es t antfai t ht hatex i s t ed i n Fr anc ewer eno t r ec o g ni z ed. - Wi t hi nt hec hur c hi t s el ft her ewer eg r eat eri nequal i t i eso fi nc o mehenc et her e wast heg r o upo fpo o rpar i s hpr i es t l yandt hehi g herc l er g y. - Themaj o r i t yo ft hes i xt ho us andpar i s hpr i es t sr ec ei v edanannuals al ar yo f 30and70po undswhi l et he134Ar c hb i s ho psr ec ei v edar o und2500po unds . - Fur t her mo r et hehi g herc l er g ywer eappo i nt edt owel l -pai dpo l i t i c alpo s t sand t heyl i v edi nt hepal ac ei nl ux ur yands pendmuc ho ft hei rt i mei nt hepl eas ur es o fhunt i ng .Muc ho ft hedayt odaywo r ki nt hec o unt r ys i dewasl eftt ot he par i s hpr i es t s . - Att hes amet i met hec hur c hhadeno r mo usweal t h.Ito wnedo nefi ft ho ft he l andi nFr anc ewi t hayear l yi nc o meo f500000000fr anc so fwhi c ho nl ys o me30 11 mi l l i o nwer eus edt omai nt ai nho s pi t al s ,s c ho o l sando t heri ns t i t ut i o ns . - Iti st her efo r eno ts ur pr i s i ngt hatt hepar i s hpr i es t swhower efr us t r at edwi t h t hepr i v i l eg edpo s i t i o no ft hehi g herc l er g yj o i nedi nt her ev o l ut i o nal o ng s i det he peas ant sandt heb o ur g eo i s i ewhoal s og r eat l yr es ent edt hepr i v i l eg edpo s i t i o n o ft heCat ho l i cChur c h. TheCo ur s eo ft heRev o l ut i o n TheMeet i ngo ft heEs t at es -Gener alMay1789 -Themeet i ngo ft heEs t at es -Gener almar ked t heb eg i nni ngo ft heFr enc h Rev o l ut i o n. -Thi si si nv i ewo ft hefac tt hatt heki ng ’ sac t i o npr ec i pi t at edt heo ut b r eako f t her ev o l ut i o n.Wheni tb ec ameappar entt hatt hec o ndi t i o nswi t hi nFr anc ehad t akenfo rt hewo r s eLo ui sXVIag r eedt ot hemeet i ngo ft heEs t at es -Gener al t hathadl as tmeti n1614. -Themeet i ngwasex pec t edt oc har tt hewayfo r war di ns o l v i ngt heFr enc h pr o b l ems .Theki ngi nt er fer edwi t ht hepr o c es sb yo r der i ngt hatt hees t at esmeet s epar at el y. -TheThi r d Es t at ehad ho ped fo rj o i ntmeet i ngwi t ht heFi r s tand S ec o nd Es t at es .Undert henewar r ang ementi tb ec amec l eart ot heThi r dEs t at et hat t hei rpr o po s al swo ul db eb l o c kedb yo t heres t at ess i nc et heywer eex pec t edt o pr es entt hei rpr o po s al st ot heFi r s tandS ec o ndEs t at esb efo r eb ei ngpr es ent ed t ot heki ng . -Iti satt hi spo i ntt hatt heThi r dEs t at et o o kamo r er adi c almo v eo fdec l ar i ng t hems el v esast heNat i o nalAs s emb l y.Undert hel eader s hi po ft heb o ur g eo i s i e t heNat i o nalAs s emb l yt o o kano at hi nwhi c hi tv o wednev ert odi s b andunt i la newc o ns t i t ut i o ni sag r eed. -Thust hemeet i ngo ft heEs t at es -Gener ali n1789c anb er eg ar dedast he b eg i nni ngo ft heFr enc hr ev o l ut i o nundert hel eader s hi po ft heb o ur g eo i s i e.It wast her eac t i o nar yac t i o nso ft heki ngt hati nfl uenc edt hemt or i s efo rt heki ng 12 want edt ob l o c kt her efo r mpr o c es s . TheRi s i ng s -Ther i s i ng sb yt hepeas ant si nt hec o unt r ys i dehel ped i ns peedi ngupt he r ev o l ut i o nar ypr o c es s .Thi smakest hemt hemedi umo fc hang e. -Thepeas ant sr o s es o o naft ert henewso ft hedi s mi s s alo fNec kerfo rt he s ec o ndt i mer eac hedt hem i nJul y1789.Tot hem Nec kerwast hel as tho pei n s o l v i ngt heFr enc hpr o b l ems . -Al s oj o i ni ngi nt her i s i ngwast hemo bi nt het o wnst hatdemo ns t r at edi nt he s t r eet so fPar i s ,o t hert o wnsandt hepr o v i nc es . -Theywer es o o nj o i nedb yt hes o l di er sands t o r medt heBas t i l l eo n14Jul y.The Bas t i l l ewasapr i s o nfamo usfo rho us i ngt hepo l i t i c alo ppo nent so fLo ui sXVI.To t heFr enc ht heBas t i l l es ymb o l i z edt her eac t i o nar yr ul eo fLo ui sXVI. -It sc apt ur eb yt her ev o l ut i o nar i ess i g nal edt hedemi s eo ft her eac t i o nar yr ul e o ft he ki ng .The ev ent so f 14 Jul yi nt ur ni ns pi r ed t he peas ant si nt he c o unt r ys i de.Theys ei z edl andfr o mt heno b i l i t y,c apt ur edt hemans i o nsand c as t l esb el o ng i ngt ot heno b i l i t yandt henel ec t edc o mmunesandc o unc i l st o r epr es entt hemo nl o c all ev el . -Fac edb yt hi sdi ffi c ul ts i t uat i o nLo ui sXVIag r eedt owi t hdr awhi st r o o psfr o m t he s t r eet s ,r ec o g ni z et he newl yc r eat ed Nat i o nalAs s emb l y and t ot he es t ab l i s hmento faNat i o nalGuar d.Nat i o nalGuar dwasafo r c ec r eat edb yt he Nat i o nalAs s emb l yt og uar ant eet her ev o l ut i o nar yg ai ns . - Ther efo r et her i s i ng sb yt hepeas ant sr es ul t ed i nt her ev o l ut i o nar yg ai ns namel yl and fo rt he peas ant s ,po l i t i c alpar t i c i pat i o n and r epr es ent at i o n t hr o ug ht heNat i o nalAs s emb l yand t heCo mmunesand Co unc i l so nb o t ht he nat i o nalandl o c all ev el s .Al lt hes eg ai nsandt ho s et oc o mewer eg uar ant eedb y t henewl yc r eat edNat i o nalg uar d. 13 TheS es s i o nso ft heNat i o nalAs s emb l y a) TheAug us tS es s i o n -Att hi ss es s i o nt heNat i o nalAs s emb l yundert hel eader s hi po ft heb o ur g eo i s i e ac hi ev edequal i t yo fal lFr enc hpeo pl eb yab o l i s hi ngfeudal i s m. -TheFr enc hfeudals t r uc t ur ewasab o l i s hedb yat o t alo f32r es o l ut i o ns .The di s g r unt l edel ement samo ngt heno b i l i t yes pec i al l yt heLes s erNo b i l i t yandt he No b i l i t yo ft heRo b ewer ei nv i t edt oj o i nt heas s emb l y. -Eac hno b l eman,o neaft erano t herr o s eg i v i ngupt hei rpr i v i l eg es .Thust he feudals ys t em c o l l aps edast hepeas ant swer efr eedfr o mt hec o nt r o lo ft he no b i l i t y.Al lfeudaldueswer eab o l i s hed b utt heki ngr efus ed t oac c eptt he r es o l ut i o nso ft he Aug us tS es s i o no ft he Nat i o nalAs s emb l yt hatab o l i s hed feudal i s m. -Fr o mt heab o v ei tc anb ear g uedt hatt heAug us tS es s i o nb r o ug htequal i t y wi t hi nFr anc eb yt heab o l i t i o no ft hefeudals ys t emandi t ss ys t emo fpr i v i l eg es . Iti sho wev eri mpo r t antt or eal i z et hatt her eac t i o nar yt endenc i eso ft heki ng wer epr es ents i nc eher efus edt oac c eptt her es o l ut i o nso ft hes es s i o n. b )TheDec l ar at i o no fRi g ht so fMan - The Nat i o nalAs s emb l y undert he l eader s hi po ft he b o ur g eo i s i e pr es s ed fo r war d wi t ht he r ev o l ut i o n b yi s s ui ng a s o c i o -po l i t i c aldo c ument t hat g uar ant eedt her i g ht sandl i b er t yo ft heFr enc hpeo pl e. - Thi st heyac hi ev ed b ymo del i ngt hei rdo c umento nt heAmer i c an waro f Independenc et hatdec l ar edt hatal lmanwer ec r eat edequalwi t hi nal i enab l e r i g ht snamel yl i fe,l i b er t yandfr eedo m. -Ag ai nLo ui sXVIr efus edt os i g nt hedo c umenti nt ol aw.TheThi r dEs t at e,i n par t i c ul ari t swo menr eac t edb ydemo ns t r at i ngt o war dst hepal ac edemandi ng t hatt heki ngac c eptt heAug us tS es s i o nr es o l ut i o ns ,s i g nt heDec l ar at i o no ft he 14 Ri g ht so fMani nt ol awandi nc r eas et hes uppl yo fb r eadwi t hi nt hec o unt r y. -Fac edwi t hs uc hav o l at i l es i t uat i o nt heki ngg av ei n,ac c ept edt her es o l ut i o ns o ft heAug us tS es s i o n,t heDec l ar at i o no ft heRi g ht so fManandpr o mi s edt o i nc r eas et hes uppl yo fb r ead. -Thust hr o ug ht hec o nt r i b ut i o nso ft heb o ur g eo i s i eandt hewo ment her i g htso f t hepeo pl ewer eg r ant edandg uar ant eedandt her es o l ut i o nso ft heAug us t s es s i o nwer ec o nfi r med. c ) TheCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g y -Per hapst hemo s ti mpo r t antc o nt r i b ut i o no ft heNat i o nalAs s emb l yt ot he r ev o l ut i o nwast hes epar at i o no ft hec hur c hfr o ms t at eaffai r s . -Thi swasac hi ev edt hr o ug ht her emo v alo ft hec hur c hi nfl uenc efr o m po l i t i c s t hr o ug ht heCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g y.Thenewc o ns t i t ut i o nc o o r di nat ed t headmi ni s t r at i o no ft hec hur c h,pai dt hes al ar i eso ft heCl er g y,c utt i eswi t h t hePo peandmadet heCl er g yt ot akeano at ho fl o yal t y. - Ag ai nt heki ngr efus ed t oac c eptt hec o ns t i t ut i o n po i nt i ngo utt hatt he r ev o l ut i o nar i eshad g o ne t o o far .Lo ui sXVI had t he s uppo r to ft he i n c o ndemni ngt hec o ns t i t ut i o n. -Lo ui sXVIandmemb er so ft her o yalfami l yat t empt edt ofl eefr o m Par i st o Var ennesandt henes c apet oes c apet onei g hb o ur i ngs t at est oj o i nt heémi g r és , t heno b i l i t ywhohadfl edfr o mFr anc e. -Thei nt entwast ofi g htt her ev o l ut i o nfr o mo ut s i dewi t ht henei g hb o ur i ng fr i endl ys t at es .Theywer edet ec t edo nt hei rway,ar r es t edandr et ur nedt o Par i saspr i s o ner s . -Theki ngwass us pendedfr o mc ar r yi ngo uthi sdut i esandi twasr es o l v edt hat hi sfut ur ewo ul db edec i dedo nupo nt hec o mpl et i o no nt hec o ns t i t ut i o no ft he c o unt r y. -Thust heCi v i lc o ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g ys epar at ed t hec hur c hfr o ms t at e affai r st her eb yput t i ngt oan end t heeno r mo usi nfl uenc et hatt hec hur c h enj o yeddur i ngt heanc i entr eg i me.Att hes amet i met heCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no f 15 t he Cl er g y ex po s ed t he r eac t i o nar yt endenc i eso ft he ki ng who s e ac t i o ns i dent i fi edhi mwi t ht heenemi eso ft her ev o l ut i o n. d) Ec o no my -Thenex tt as ko ft heAs s emb l ywast os t ab i l i z et heec o no myt hatwasi nc hao s andatt hev er g eo fb ankr upt c y. -Theyat t empt edt oac hi ev et hi sb yi s s ui ngpaperc ur r enc yc al l edt heAs s i g nat s . Thi sc ur r enc ywasg uar ant eedb yt hec hur c hl andst hathadb eennat i o nal i z ed. S o meo ft henat i o nal i z edl andswer eputo nauc t i o n.Int hi swayt hel andl es s peas ant swer eg r ant edl and. -Wi t ht i met heas s i g nat sendedupl o s i ngt hei rv al ueandt hees t ab l i s hmento f t heFr enc hec o no mywasno twel lac hi ev ed. -Byat t empt i ngt os t ab i l i z et heec o no myt hr o ug hmo neyt heNat i o nalAs s emb l y wasat t empt i ngt oac hi ev es o meo ft her ev o l ut i o nar yai ms .Thenat i o nal i z at i o n o ft hec at ho l i cl andsenab l edt hel andl es st oac qui r el and. Émi g r és -Thes ewer et hefo r merno b i l i t yegt heGr eat erNo b i l i t y.Theyel ec t edt ol eav e Fr anc eands et t l ei nt henei g hb o ur i ngs t at ess uc hasPr us s i aandAus t r i a. -Theyv o wedno tt ol i v ei naFr anc eundert hec o nt r o lo ft her ev o l ut i o nar i es . They i nt ended t og et hel p fr o m s ympat het i c nei g hb o ur st o fi g ht t he r ev o l ut i o nar i esandr es t o r et hemo nar c hwi t hful lpo wer s . TheCo ns t i t ut i o n - Thewo r ko ft heNat i o nalAs s emb l yc ul mi nat ed i nt hedr aft i ngo fa new c o ns t i t ut i o no fFr anc e.Thepr o v i s i o nso ft henewc o ns t i t ut i o nwer e: 16 1. Leg i s l at i v eAs s emb l y -el ec t edmemb er s 2. Mo nar c h -Wi t hl i mi t edpo wer s ,as us pens i v eno tab s o l ut ev et opo wer ,c o nt r o lo ffo r ei g n po l i c y,appo i nt i ngt hec ab i net . -s har edpo werwi t ht heas s emb l y . 3. El ec t i o ns -Fo rt heLeg i s l at i v eb as edo nafr anc hi s e( qual i fi c at i o nasav o t ero rt ob e v o t edfo r ) 4. LandGuar ant ee - Al l o wed t hepeas ant st or et ai nt hel andsg ai n dur i ngt hec o ur s eo ft he r ev o l ut i o n. 5. Equal i t y -Equal i t yb efo r et hel awandi nt er mso fappo i nt ment s . 6. Ri g ht so fMan -Guar ant eedb yt heDec l ar at i o no fRi g ht so fMan 7. Lo c alGo v er nment 17 -Co mmunesandCo unc i l ses t ab l i s hedfo l l o wi ngt her i s i ngi nt hec o unt r ys i deand t hepr o v i nc esr et ai nedt or epr es entpeo pl eo nl o c all ev el . 8. TheCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g y -Itwasi nc o r po r at edi nt ot hec o ns t i t ut i o n. 9. TheNat i o nalGuar d -r et ai nt opr es er v et her ev o l ut i o nar yg ai ns . TheJac o b i nEr a:1791–1794 TheJac o b i ns -Thes ewer et heb o ur g eo i s i eands o mes ec t i o no ft hepeas ant s .Theywer et he r ev o l ut i o nar i esandwer et hes ec o ndmo s ti mpo r t antg r o upi nt henewl yel ec t ed l eg i s l at i v eas s emb l yaft ert hefeul l ai nt s( t her o yal i s t s–fo r merno b i l i t y) . -Wi t hi nt heas s emb l yt heJac o b i nswer ehi g hl yo r g ani z ed.Amo ngt hem t her e wer es o mes ec t i o ns ,TheCo r del i er sc o ns i s t i ngo ft hewo r ki ngc l as sundert he l eader s hi po fMadameRo l and,t heGi r o ndi nst hatwant edt ous ewart odeal wi t ht heant i -r ev o l ut i o nar yel ement si nando ut s i deFr anc eandt heHer b er t i s t s underHer b er twhowant edt odoawaywi t hChr i s t i ani t y. TheThr eatt ot heRev o l ut i o n -Fr o mt heo ns ett her ev o l ut i o ni nFr anc ewasundert hr eatfr o mt heant i r ev o l ut i o nar y el ement si n and o ut s i de Fr anc e. The ai m o ft he ant i r ev o l ut i o nar yel ement swast oo v er t hr o wt her ev o l ut i o nar yg o v er nmentand r es t o r et hemo nar c hywi t hi t sful lpo wer s . 18 Int er nalThr eat s 1. Ro yal i s t s -Theywant edt oo v er t hr o wt her ev o l ut i o nandr es t o r et hemo nar c hyt ot he t hr o newi t hi t sful lpo wer s . -Theywer et hefo r merno b i l i t ywhoc ho s et or emai ni nr ev o l ut i o nar yFr anc e. Theyhadt hemaj o r i t yi nt hel eg i s l at i v eas s emb l ywher et heywer ekno wnast he feul l ai nt s .Theex i s t i ngfr anc hi s eb as edo no ne’ si nc o meenab l edt hemt og ai na maj o r i t yi nt heas s emb l y . - Thes er o yal i s t sai med atr emo v i ngt her ev o l ut i o nar yg o v er nmentand t he l eg i s l at i v eas s emb l yanddoawaywi t hal lt her ev o l ut i o nar yc hang est hatwer e ens hr i nedi nt hec o ns t i t ut i o no fS ept emb er1791. -Amo ngt hec hang eswer epo l i t i c alpar t i c i pat i o nandr epr es ent at i o nt hr o ug h t heas s emb l y,c o mmunesandc o unc i l s ;equal i t y;r i g ht so fmanandt hel and g ai nsfo rt hel andl es s . -Ther o yal i s t sho pedt or es t o r et hemo nar c hywi t hful lpo wer s .Theyenj o y ed s uppo r tfr o mt heki ngwhowass ympat het i ct ot heFr enc hs i t uat i o n. -Thefac tt hatt her o yal i s t swer eag ai ns tt her ev o l ut i o nex pl ai nwhyt heyl ac ked z ealdur i ngt her ev o l ut i o n. 2. Cl er g y -Theyenj o yedeno r mo uspr i v i l eg esdur i ngt heanc i entr eg i meandt heywant ed t oo v er t hr o wt her ev o l ut i o nandhel pr es t o r et heki ngi no r dert or eg ai nt hei r pr i v i l eg edpo s i t i o n. -Theyl i v edatt hepal ac eandhadmuc hi nfl uenc ei nt heFr enc hpo l i t i c s .They b ec ameal i enat edfr o mt her ev o l ut i o nb ec aus ei tt o o kawayt hei rpr i v i l eg es . -Thec o nfl i c tb et weent hec l er g yandt her ev o l ut i o nar i eswaswo r s enedb yt he pr o v i s i o nso ft heCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g yt hats epar at edt hec hur c hfr o m 19 t hes t at e. -Thec o ns t i t ut i o nr equi r edt hatt hec l er g yt akeano at h.Dur i ngt het i meo ft he l eg i s l at i v eas s emb l yando nwar dsmo s tc l er g ymenr efus edt ot aket heo at h. -Tho s er efus edt ot aket heo at hb ec amekno wnast heno n-j ur i ngpr i es t s .The r ev o l ut i o nar i esv i ewedt hei rac t i o nsasant i -r ev o l ut i o nar y. 3. Lo ui sXVI -Hi sr eac t i o nar yt endenc i esmadehi mt heb i g g es tt hr eatt ot her ev o l ut i o n. -Fr o mt heo ns etLo ui sXVI’ si dent i fi ed hi ms el fwi t ht heant i -r ev o l ut i o nar y el ement s .Wel lb efo r et heo ut b r eako ft her ev o l ut i o nLo ui sXVIal l o wedhi ms el f t ob ei nfl uenc edb yt heant i -r ev o l ut i o nar yel ement ss uc hashi swi fe,no b i l i t y andt hec l er g yt ob l o c kt heec o no mi cr efo r mpr o c es sb ydi s mi s s i ngt heec o no mi s t s o neaft erano t her . -Ini t i al l yher efus ed t oac c eptt her ev o l ut i o nar yr es o l ut i o nso ft heAug us t S es s i o no ft heNat i o nalAs s emb l yt hatb r o ug htequal i t yt oFr anc easwel last he Dec l ar at i o no ft heRi g ht so fMan.Heo nl yag r eedaft erawo mendemo ns t r at i o n ag ai ns thi m. -Refus edt oac c eptt heCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g ypo i nt i ngo utt hatt hat t her ev o l ut i o nhadg o net o ofar . - He ev en at t empt ed t ofl ee Fr anc ei n 1791 t oj o i nt he émi g r ési nt he nei g hb o ur i ngs t at esi nt endi ngt ofi g htt her ev o l ut i o nfr o mo ut s i de. - Dur i ngt heper i o do ft hel eg i s l at i v eas s emb l yheus ed hi ss us pens i v ev et o po wer st ob l o c kt hemeas ur esi nt r o duc edb yt hel eg i s l at i v eas s emb l yt odealwi t h t hr eat st ot her ev o l ut i o n. -Thel eg i s l at i v eas s emb l y ,o nt woo c c as i o nsi s s ueddec r eeso r der i ngt heémi g r és t or et ur nt oFr anc eo rfac edeat handt heno nj ur i ngpr i es t st ot akeano at ht o t heCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g y.Inb o t hc as est heki ngv et o edt hedec r ees . - The ki ng ’ s ac t i o ns wer ei nt er pr et ed b yt he r ev o l ut i o nar i es as ant i r ev o l ut i o nar y. -Fur t her mo r et hepaper st hatwer el at erdi s c o v er edatt heTul l er i esPal ac ei n 20 192i ndi c at edt hatt heki ngc o r r es po ndedwi t ht heémi g r ésandev enfi nanc ed t hei rac t i v i t i es . Ex t er nalThr eat s 1. Émi g r és -Or g ani z edanar mywi t ht hehel po fs ympat het i cnei g hb o ur i ngs t at ess uc has Aus t r i aandPr us s i awi t ht heai mo fr emo v i ngt her ev o l ut i o nar i esfr o m po wer andr es t o r et hemo nar c hy. -Thes efo r merno b i l i t yhad el ec t ed t ol eav eFr anc eb ec aus et heywer eno t pr epar edt ol i v ei naFr anc et hatwasc o nt r o l l edb yt her ev o l ut i o nar i eshenc e t heywer ec o ns i der edasenemi eso ft her ev o l ut i o n. 2. Pr us s i aandAus t r i a - Thes ehab o ur ed and s uppo r t ed t heémi g r ésmuc ht ot hec hag r i no ft he r ev o l ut i o nar i es . i ) TheDec l ar at i o no fPi l ni t z -Pr us s i aandAus t r i ai s s uedt hi sdec l ar at i o npo i nt i ngo utt hatt hec aus eo f Lo ui sXVIwasal s ot hei r s .Theyo penl ydec l ar edt hei rs uppo r tfo rt heFr enc h Ki ngi nhi ss t r ug g l et or eg ai nhi spo wer . i i ) TheBr uns wi c kMani fes t o -Thi swasano t herdec l ar at i o nb yt henei g hb o ur i ngs t at esi ns uppo r to fLo ui s XVI .Ini tt heywar nedt heFr enc hpeo pl eag ai ns tdemo ns t r at i ngag ai ns tt hei r ki ngwhowashi nder i ngr ev o l ut i o nar ypr o g r es sb yus i nghi sv et opo wer . 21 -TheFr enc hpeo pl ei nt er pr et edt hi sdec l ar at i o nasadi r ec tt hr eatt oFr anc eas awho l e. i i i ) TheDec l ar at i o no fWar1792 -Thewarwi t ht henei g hb o ur i ngs t at eswasat hr eatt ot her ev o l ut i o n.Thr o ug h t hi swart he r ev o l ut i o nar i esho ped t odefeatt he nei g hb o ur i ngs t at esand neut r al i z et heémi g r ést hr eat . -Tot hem t hedefeato ft hes eel ement so ut s i deFr anc ewo ul denab l et hem t o dealwi t ht her ev o l ut i o nar yel ement swi t hi nFr anc e. Meas ur esTakenAg ai ns tRev o l ut i o nar yThr eat s -TheJac o b i nspl ayedani mpo r t antr o l ei ner adi c at i ngt het hr eat sag ai ns tt he Fr enc h Rev o l ut i o n.Thi st hey ac hi ev ed t hr o ug hl eg i s l at i o n,i mpr i s o nment , ex ec ut i o ns ,war ,t her emo v alo ft heKi nganddec l ar i ngFr anc eaRepub l i c . -Iti si mpo r t antt or eal i z et hati nt hepr o c es so fr emo v i ngt hes et hr eat st he r ev o l ut i o nar i esended up er o di ngs o me o ft he r ev o l ut i o nar yg ai nsnamel y demo c r ac y,equal i t yandt her i g ht so fman. Int er nalThr eat s -TheJac o b i ns ,t hr o ug hl eg i s l at i o nat t empt edr emo v et hr eat st ot her ev o l ut i o n. Thel eg i s l at i v eas s emb l yi s s uedadec r eet hatr equi r edt heémi g r ést or et ur nt o Fr anc eo rfac edeat h. -Theyal s oi s s uedano t herdec r eet hato r der edt heno nj ur i ngpr i es t st ot ake ano at ht ot heCi v i lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft heCl er g y.Theki ngt henr es po nded b y v et o i ngt hedec r ee.Theas s emb l yr eac t edb yr ei s s ui ngt hedec r eeb utt hent he ki ngv et o edi tag ai n. -Al t ho ug ht hes edec r eeswer ev et o edt heJac o b i nshadt akent hefi r s ts t ept o dealwi t ht het hr eat st ot her ev o l ut i o n. 22 -Indeal i ngwi t ht het hr eat so ft her o yal i s t st heJac o b i nst hr o ug ht heas s emb l y i s s ued t heLaw o fS us pec t s .Theas s emb l ywasawar eo fant i -r ev o l ut i o nar y el ement swi t hi nFr anc e. -Thi swasc l ear l yev i dentdur i ngt heLaVandeepeas antr ev o l t .TheNat i o nal Guar dt hatwass entt os uppr es si tado pt edanant i -r ev o l ut i o nar yat t i t ude.It wasr o yal i s ti nc o mpo s i t i o n. -Thust hi sl awwasai med att her o yal i s t s .Al lt ho s es us pec to fb ei ngant i r ev o l ut i o nar ywer ear r es t edandi mpr i s o ned.Al s oi nc l udedwer eal lt ho s efo und t ob el ac ki ngz eali nt her ev o l ut i o nar yeffo r t . Ex ec ut i o ns - Wer eus ed b yt heJac o b i nst oer adi c at er ev o l ut i o nar yt hr eat s .A Jac o b i n l eaderc al l edMar atc ameupwi t ht hei deaaft err eal i z i ngt hatt hepr i s o nswer e o v er fl o wi ngwi t hpr i s o ner s . -Thepr i s o ner swer edi s po s edb yb ei ngmur der edi nt hes t r eet sb ys o l di er si n whatb ec amefamo us l ykno wnast heS ept emb erMas s ac r es . TheRemo v alo ft heKi ngandt heDec l ar at i o no ft heFr enc hFi r s tRepub l i c -Per hapst hemo s ti mpo r t antc o nt r i b ut i o nb yt heJac o b i nswast her emo v alo f t hemo nar c handt hedec l ar at i o no ft heFi r s tFr enc hr epub l i c . -Thi swasaft ers i ng l i ngo utt hemo nar c hast hemai no b s t ac l eo ft her ev o l ut i o n. Itwasaft ert heKi ngus edhi sv et opo weri namo v et ob l o c kt her ev o l ut i o nar y pr o c es s . -Afo r c ec al l edt heCo mmuneunderDant o n,aJac o b i nl eaderwasc r eat ed.It s t o r med t heKi ng ’ spal ac eatt heTul l er i es .Theki ngwasdepo s ed fr o mt he t hr o nei n1792andex ec ut edi n1793aft ert r i al . -Themo nar c hywasab o l i s hed and Fr anc ewasdec l ar ed aRepub l i c .A new c o ns t i t ut i o n wasag r eed o n and a new as s emb l yc al l ed t hec o nv ent i o n was el ec t ed. 23 - Amo ngo t herpr o v i s i o nst he new c o ns t i t ut i o n dec l ar ed a uni v er s almal e s uffr ag eandat t empt edt oi nt r o duc eanumb ero fdemo c r at i cmeas ur est hat i nc r eas edt hefr eedo mandequal i t yo ft heFr enc hpeo pl e. TheRei g no fTer r o r -TheJac o b i nsus edt er r o rt odealwi t ht her ev o l ut i o nar yt hr eat swi t hi nFr anc e. Co mmi t t eess uc h ast heCo mmi t t eeo fPub l i cs afet y,Co mmi t t eeo fGener al S ec ur i t yandt heRev o l ut i o nar yTr i b unalwer ees t ab l i s hedt odealwi t hpr o b l ems wi t hi nFr anc e. - The Co mmi t t ee o f Pub l i cS afet y wasr un b y 12 memb er si nc har g eo f g o v er nmentdepar t ment s . -TheCo mmi t t eeo fGener als ec ur i t ywasr es po ns i b l efo rt hei nt er nals ec ur i t yo f Fr anc e.Thes ec o mmi t t eesi dent i fi edt heenemi eso ft her ev o l ut i o nandal lt ho s e peo pl es us pec t edo fwo r ki ngag ai ns tt her ev o l ut i o n. -TheRev o l ut i o nar yTr i b unalwo r kedasac o ur to fl aw.Itv er di c t swer efi nal , t her ewasnoappeal . -UnderRo b es pi er r e,o neo ft her ev o l ut i o nar yl eader s ,t het woc o mmi t t eesand t het r i b unalwer eus edt oer adi c at eo ppo s i t i o nt ot her ev o l ut i o n.Heex ec ut e,i n t hr eemo nt hso fhi sr ei g n,mo r epeo pl et hant ho s eki l l edi nt heent i r eper i o do f t her ev o l ut i o n. Ex t er nalThr eat s 1. Leg i s l at i o nwasal s ous edb yt heJac o b i nswi t hi nt heLeg i s l at i v eAs s emb l y t odealwi t ht heex t er nalt hr eat st ot her ev o l ut i o n. -Adec r eewasi s s uedb yt heLeg i s l at i v eAs s emb l yag ai ns tt heémi g r éswho wer ewo r ki ngwi t ht henei g hb o ur i ngs t at est oo v er t hr o wt her ev o l ut i o nand r es t o r et hemo nar c hy. -Thedec r eeo r der edt hem t or et ur nt oFr anc eo rfac edeat h.Ho wev er t hi smeas ur ewasb l o c kedb yt heKi ngwhov et o edt hedec r eeo nal lt wo 24 o c c as i o nst hati twasi s s ued. 2. TheJac o b i nsr es po ndedt ot heex t er nalt hr eat sfr o mt henei g hb o ur i ng s t at esb yi s s ui ngt heEdi c to fFr at er ni t yt hatunder t o o kt og i v es uppo r tt o anyr ev o l ut i o nar ymo v ementwi t hi nt henei g hb o ur i ngs t at est hatwer e hab o ur i ngt heémi g r és . -Itwasho pedt hatt hes pr eado ft her ev o l ut i o nar ymo v ement st hr o ug h o utEur o pewo ul dhel per adi c at et hr eat so nt heFr enc hRev o l ut i o n. 3. TheJac o b i nsr es o r t edt ot heus eo fwart opr o t ec tt her ev o l ut i o n.Dur i ng o neo ft hes es s i o nso ft heLeg i s l at i v eAs s emb l yas ec t i o no ft heJac o b i ns c al l edt heGi r o ndi nspus hedfo rawarwi t ht henei g hb o ur i ngs t at es . -Theyho pedt hatt hedefeato ft henei g hb o ur i ngs t at eswo ul denab l e t hem t odealdi r ec t l ywi t ht heémi g r és .Thec o mmi t t eesc ameupwi t ha numb ero fmeas ur est oi mpr o v eo nt hewareffo r t . -Thr o ug ht heLawo fPer manentAc qui s i t i o nal lFr enc hmenwer et ob e c o ns c r i pt edper manent l yi nt ot heFr enc har my. -Al luns uc c es s fulGener al swer edi s mi s s edandex ec ut ed.Thr o ug ht he meas ur esi nt r o duc edb yGener alCar no tt heFr enc har mywasr et r ai ned andequi pped. - Al lt ho s el ac ki ngz eali nt hewareffo r ts uc hast her o yal i s t swer e ar r es t edands entb efo r et het r i b unalt hats ent enc edt hemt oex ec ut i o ns . -Thr o ug ht hes eeffo r t st heJac o b i nswer eab l et opo s tv i c t o r i eso nt he warfr o ntt her eb ypr es er v i ngt her ev o l ut i o n. Ho wev eri nt hepr o c es so fer adi c at i ngt her ev o l ut i o nar yt hr eat st he Jac o b i nsendedupdes t r o yi ngs o meo ft her ev o l ut i o nar yg ai ns . -Theac t i o nso ft heJac o b i nswer eadi r ec tv i o l at i o no ft heDec l ar at i o no f t heRi g ht so fManegt heLawo fS us pec t si mpr i s o nedar b i t r ar yal lt ho s e s us pec t edo fb ei ngant i -r ev o l ut i o nar y . -Theywer el at ermur der edi nt hes t r eet si nwhatl at erb ec amekno wnas 25 t heS ept emb ermas s ac r eso r c hes t r at ed b yMar ato neo ft heJac o b i n l eader s . -Theac t i v i t i eso ft heJac o b i nsc o mpr o mi s edt her ev o l ut i o nar yi deal s .Al l t ho s epeo pl et hatwer eo ppo s edt ot hepo l i c i eso fDant o nandRo b es pi er r e wer es ummar i l yex ec ut edb yt het r i b unalwho s ev er di c twasfi nal . -Ro b es pi er r ec hang edt hepr o c edur eso ft het r i b unalb ypac ki ngt hej ur y wi t h hi ss uppo r t er s ,us i ngo nemo r alr eput at i o ni ns t ead t oc har g ea s us pec tanddenyi ngl eg alr epr es ent at i o ndur i ngt hepr o c eedi ng s . -Thusdur i ngt her ei g no ft er r o rnumb ero fex ec ut i o nsex c eededt ho s eo f t heent i r er ev o l ut i o nar yper i o d. -Thi smeanst hatt her ewasag r o s shumanr i g ht sv i o l at i o n.Theac t i v i t i es o ft heJac o b i nsc o mpr o mi s edt her ev o l ut i o nar yi deal ss uc haspo l i t i c al par t i c i pat i o nandr epr es ent at i o no ft hepeo pl e. -Thefo r mat i o no ft heCo mmi t t eeso fPub l i cS afet yandGener alS ec ur i t y aswel last heRev o l ut i o nar yt r i b unall ed t ot hees t ab l i s hmento fa di c t at o r s hi pi nFr anc e. -Po werb ec amec ent r edo nafewi ndi v i dual swi t hi nt heJac o b i nCl ubeg Dant o nandRo b es pi er r eendedupc o nt r o l l i ngt woo ft hemo s tpo wer ful i ns t i t ut i o nsi nFr anc enamel yt heCo mmi t t eeo fPub l i cS afet yandt he Co nv ent i o n. TheDi r ec t o r y Thees t ab l i s hmento ft hedi r ec t o r yg o v er nmentwasar es po ns et os o meo ft he pr o b l emst hatt her ev o l ut i o nhadex per i enc edb efo r e. 26 Les s o nsfr o mt heRev o l ut i o n 1. The r ev o l ut i o n Fr anc e ex per i enc ed a di c t at o r s hi pb yt he l eader s hi p dr awnfr o mt heJac o b i nCl ubegDant o n,Mar atandRo b es pi er r e.Thes e l eader spas s edl awsanddi dt hi ng st hatendedupdes t r o yi ngt hei deal s andac hi ev ement so ft her ev o l ut i o n. 2. As t r ug g l efo rpo weramo ngt heJac o b i nsr es ul t edi ns er i eso fex ec ut i o ns ast hel eader s hi pat t empt edt odo mi nat et hes c eneegMadameRo l and o fas ec t i o no ft heJac o b i nswasel i mi nat edb yDant oandMar atwhower e i nt ur nel i mi nat edb yRo b es pi er r e. 3. Ther ev o l ut i o nwi t nes s edal o to fev ent sb ei ngc o nt r o l l edb yt hemo bb as ed i nPar i s .Thes emo bg r o upswer eas o ur c eo ft heJac o b i ns t r eng t h. 4. TheRo yal i s t sdemo ns t r at edt hatt heywer eant i -r ev o l ut i o nar yegt he Nat i o nalg uar dt hatwasdo mi nat ed b yt hem ado pt ed a c o unt er r ev o l ut i o nar yat t i t udedur i ngt hes uppr es s i o no fapeas antr ev o l ti nt he LaVandeedi s t r i c t .Themai nc ul pr i t swer et heémi g r ést hats o ug htt he as s i s t anc eo ft henei g hb o ur i ngs t at est or emo v et her ev o l ut i o nar i esfr o m po wer .Thust heRo yal i s t swer ei nful ls uppo r to ft hemo nar c hy. TheDi r ec t o r at e -TheCo nv ent i o nr es po ndedt ot heab o v el es s o nsb yes t ab l i s hi ngadi r ec t o r at et o r ul eFr anc e. -Itwasag o v er nmentheadedb yfi v epeo pl ec al l eddi r ec t o r s .Thi smeantt hat t hedayso ft hec o nt r o lo ft heaffai r so ft hes t at eb yo neper s o nwer eo v er . - Thusg o newer et hedayso fRo b es pi er r ewhoended updo mi nat i ngs t at e affai r sb yhi ms el f. -Onedi r ec t o rwasex pec 5t edt or et i r eeac hyear ,c o nt i nui t yi nnat i o nalpo l i c y 27 wasac hi ev ed t hr o ug ht her emai ni ngfo urdi r ec t o r sand att hes amet i me av o i di ngac o nt i nuo usr ei g no fani ndi v i dual . - Toav o i di ndi v i dual sdo mi nat i nga new c o ns t i t ut i o n wases t ab l i s hed t hat c r eat edanas s emb l ywi t ht woc hamb er s .Thefi r s tc hamb erwasaCo unc i lo f500 t hatpr o po s edl aws .It smemb er shadanag el i mi to f30year sandab o v e. -Thes ec o nd c hamb er ,t heCo unc i lo fEl der sdeb at ed l awspr o po s ed b yt he Co unc i lo f500.It sag el i mi twas45year sandab o v e. -Theag el i mi t swer emeantt oc o nfi neg o v er nanc et omat ur ei ndi v i dual s .By hav i ngat woc hamb eras s emb l y ,t henewc o ns t i t ut i o ni nt r o duc edas ys t em o f c hec ksandsb al anc esi nt hepo l i t i c so fFr anc e. -Themo bi nfl uenc ewasr educ edb yl i mi t i ngv o t i ngt ot het axpayer st her eb y r emo v i ngel ec t i v epo wer sfr o mt hemo b . -Topr ev entt her es ur g enc eo ft heRo yal i s tb ec aus eo ft henewel ec t i v el aws b as edo nafr anc hi s et wot hi r dso ft hedeput i esi nt hec hamb er swer eel ec t edb y t heCo nv ent i o ni t s el f. -TheCo nv ent i o nv o t edt omai nt ai naRepub l i c anfo r mo fg o v er nmentt her eb y r emo v i nganyho peso ft heRo yal i s tr es ur g enc e. -TheJac o b i nCl ubwasc l o s eddo wnt her eb ymar ki ngt heendo ft heJac o b i ner a. Thi si nc l udedal lo t herc l ub st hatex i s t edi nFr anc e. Ac hi ev ement s 1. Thedi r ec t o r yr educ eddi c t at o r s hi pb yt hei ndi v i dual s . - Ins t ead o f hav i ng ex t r eme v i ewsb y an i ndi v i duals uc h aswhat Ro b es pi er r ehaddemo ns t r at edapanelo ffi v edi r ec t o r swasg i v ent he c o nt r o lo fg o v er nment . Thedi r ec t o r swi l lc hec kandb al anc eeac ho t her ’ spo wer . 2. Byes t ab l i s hi ngat woc hamb eras s emb l y ,as ys t em o fc hec kandb al anc es wasi nt r o duc ed.Dec i s i o nmaki ngwasdec ent r al i z ed. 28 3. Themo bt hathaddi c t at edt her ev o l ut i o npr o c es supt o1794wass i l enc ed. Itnol o ng erhad anys ayi ns t at ei s s ues .Thuspo l i t i c als t ab i l i t ywas ac hi ev ed. 4. Thedi r ec t o r yc o nt i nuedwi t ht hewareffo r tag ai ns tnei g hb o ur i ngs t at ese g Pr us s i a, Eng l and, and Aus t r i a. Thi s hel ped i n pr es er v i ng t he r ev o l ut i o nar yg ai ns . -Itwast hedi r ec t o r yt hatg av eNapo l eo nBo napar t et he c o mmand o f t hear myi nt hehi g hl ys uc c es s fulIt al i anc ampai g no f1796. -Hi sv i c t o r ys ec ur edfo rFr anc eami l i t ar yandmo r al eb o o s t er ,t er r i t o r y fo rFr anc eo nt hel eftb anko ft heRhi neand Venet i at hatenab l ed Fr anc et oc r eat et heCi s al pi neRepub l i c . 5. Thedi r ec t o r ymadeat t empt st oi mpr o v et heFr enc hec o no myb ymaki ng at t empt st or educ ei nfl at i o n.Thei nt r o duc t i o no ft heas s i g nat sdur i ng t hei ni t i als t ag eso ft her ev o l ut i o nhadr es ul t edi ni nfl at i o n.ThatFr anc e wasatwarmeantt hatt he r ev o l ut i o nar i esc o ul d no tfo c uso nt he ec o no my. TheWeaknes s es 1. Thec o ns t i t ut i o ni nt r o duc edb yt hec o nv ent i o nwasfl awed.Thi swasdue t ot hefac tt hatput t i ngfi v epeo pl et or ul eatt hes amet i mec r eat eda b ur eauc r ac y . -Thi so ft enr es ul t edIt o omuc hb i c ker i ngo ni mpo r t anti s s ues .Hav i ng o neper s o nr et i r i ngeac hyearwasi ni t s el fani ns i g ni fi c ants t epo nhav i ng effec t i v ec hec ksandb al anc es -Ther emai ni ngfo urdi r ec t o r swer el i kel yt oj el lt o g et herandc o nt i nue wi t hpo l i c i eso t her wi s ei neffec t i v e. 29 2. Byl i mi t i ngt hev o t i ngt ot het axpayer st heCo nv ent i o nhadi neffec t depr i v ed t he peas ant sand t he wo r ki ngc l as sfr o m par t i c i pat i ngi n po l i t i c s . -Thi swasc o nt r ar yt ot her ev o l ut i o nar yi deal st hatadv o c at edfo rt he po l i t i c alpar t i c i pat i o nandr epr es ent at i o no ft hepeo pl e. -Inanyc as ei twast hepeas ant sandt hewo r ki ngc l as st hatfo r medt he Thi r dEs t at et hatpl ayedani mpo r t antr o l edur i ngt her ev o l ut i o n. - Thes e meas ur es meant t os i l enc et he mo b wer ei neffec t i v e.It c o nt i nued t oc aus epr o b l ems .Itat t empt ed t or emo v et heCo nv ent i o n t hr o ug hanar medi ns ur r ec t i o ni nOc t o b er1795.Itwaso nl yt hr o ug ht he effo r t so fNapo l eo nBo napar t et hatt hedi r ec t o r ys ur v i v ed. 3. Byhav i ngt wot hi r dso ft hememb er so fb o t hc hamb er so ft heas s emb l y el ec t edb yt heCo nv ent i o ndemo ns t r at edt hedi c t at o r i alnat ur eo ft he Co nv ent i o n.Ot heras pi r ant si ns o mes ec t i o nso fFr anc ewer eex c l uded. 4. Ont heec o no mi cfr o nti nfl at i o nwasno teffec t i v el yt amed.Itc o nt i nued t or eari t sug l yfac eaffec t i ngt heec o no my. - Po v er t yr emai ned t heg r eat es tc hal l eng eass ho wn b yt her ag -t ag nat ur eo ft hear myt hatNapo l eo nBo napar t ec o mmandedi nt heIt al i an Campai g ni n1796. 5. Att hewarfr o ntt her ewass t ag nat i o nev ent ho ug hNapo l eo nBo napar t e hads ec ur edav i c t o r yfo rFr anc ei nIt al y . - Fr anc er emai ned at war wi t h Br i t ai n.Rus s i a and Pr us s i a had wi t hdr awnno ts omuc hasar es ul to ft heFr enc hv i c t o r i esb utt hei ro wn c hal l eng es . 6. Thedi r ec t o r yl ac ked c har i s mat i cl eader swhoc o ul d pul lt hepeo pl et o t hei rs i deandal o ngwi t ht hei ri deas . -Buthav i ngadi c t at o r s hi po ffi v epeo pl emeantadi l ut i o no fi ndi v i dual 30 ab i l i t y.Thust her ewasnoo net ob ei dent i fi edwi t hanyt hi ngi nc r edi t . - Ther efo r e any mi s fo r t une s uc h ast he fai l ur et o make pr o g r es s ec o no mi c al l yandatt hewarfr o ntwasb l amedo nal lt hefi v ememb er so f t hedi r ec t o r y. TheNapo l eo ni cEr a:1799-1815 Int r o duc t i o n -Ther i s eo fNapo l eo nBo napar t ei sl ar g el yex pl ai nedb ya c o mb i nat i o no ffac t o r ss uc hast heweaknes s eso ft hedi r ec t o r y, t heab i l i t yo fNapo l eo nasas o l di erandal eaderandt he pr ev ai l i ngs i t uat i o nwi t hi nFr anc e Theweaknes s eso ft hedi r ec t o r y( s eeno t eso nt hedi r ec t o r y) Theab i l i t yo fNapo l eo nasas o l di er .Hewasab r i l l i ants o l di er .Ac c o r di ng t oDenni sRi c har d Napo l eo n’ spr es enc ei nb at t l ewaswo r t hahundr ed menegt he1796It al i anCampai g nr emar kab l e,het r ans fo r medar ag t agar myi nt oas t r o ngfo r c et hatwasab l et odefeatt heAus t r i anar my . -Napo l eo ndemo ns t r at ed hi smi l i t ar ys ki l lb yo ut -mar c hi ngando ut maneuv er i ngt heenemyandt hens t r i keatt heweakes tpo i nt . -Thec ampai g nb r o ug htb enefi t sfo rFr anc ei nt hefo r mo ft er r i t o r i al g ai ns .Thr o ug ht heTr eat yo fCampoFo r mi oo fOc t o b er1797Aus t r i ag av e upi t sc l ai mo nBel g i um. -Fr anc eg o tt er r i t o r yo nt heRhi nel and.Thr o ug ht hes eg ai nsNapo l eo n c r eat edt heCi s al pi neRepub l i ct hati nc l udedVenet i a. - Thes ec o nques t sb r o ug hta s eto fb enefi t sfo rNapo l eo n.Napo l eo n fo r c ed t hedefeat ed po wer st opayi ndemni t i est her eb yr el i ev i ngt he Nat i o nalTr eas ur yt heb ur deno ffundi ngwar s . -Thefundswer eus ed t ofeed and c l o t het hear myand t odev el o p Fr anc e.Inaddi t i o nNapo l eo nl o o t edt hewo r kso far tfr o mt hec o nquer ed 31 t er r i t o r yandpl ac edt hemi nt heFr enc hmus eumshenc eb r o ug htpr es t i g e asFr anc eb ec ameani mpo r t antc ul t ur alc ent r e. -Inv i ewo ft heab o v et hepeo pl eo fFr anc ei dent i fi edNapo l eo nasa per s o n whowo ul db r i ngg l o r yt oFr anc ei n manyr es pec t s .Henc ehi s po pul ar i t ywasg r eat l yenhanc ed. Napo l eo nfur t herenhanc edhi spo pul ar i t yb yhel pi ngi ns uppr es s i ngt he Bab eufc o ns pi r ac yt hatai medatr emo v i ngt hedi r ec t o r yi nac o upd’ t at . Bab eufai medatab o l i s hi ngpr i v at epr o per t yandnat i o nal i z et hel and. -S uc h a mo v e wo ul d hav e under mi ned t he mi ddl ec l as st hathad ac qui r edl andfo l l o wi ngt heauc t i o ni ngo ft hec hur c hl ands . -Thi sc o ul dhav epl ac edFr anc eb ac kt ot hedo mi nanc eo ft hemo band t hepeas ant s ,at hi ngt hathadb eenr emo v edb yt hedi r ec t o r y. - Her eNapo l eo n’ sr o l ewast oex po s et hec o ns pi r ac yand as s i s t ed i n s uppr es s i ngi t .Bab eufand hi sl eadi ngs uppo r t er swer eex ec ut ed and Fr anc ewass av edfr o myetano t herwav eo fr ev o l ut i o n. -Thi smadeNapo l eo npo pul ari nFr anc e. Napo l eo nwento nt os av et hedi r ec t o r yfr o m yetano t heri ns ur r ec t i o n, t hi st i meo r g ani z edb yt heRo yal i s t s .Byo peni ngfi r eanddi s per s i ngt he c r o wdsNapo l eo ns av edt hedi r ec t o r y. -Iti st her efo r eno ts ur pr i s i ngt hatt hedi r ec t o r yfel tt hati to wedi t s s ur v i v alt oNapo l eo nandel ev at edhi mt ot hec o mmando ft hear my. Napo l eo nal s or o s et opo werc i r c ums t ant i al l ywhenher et ur nedfr o mt he Eg ypt i anCampai g nfi g ht i ngt heS ec o ndCo al i t i o no fBr i t ai n,Rus s i aand Eng l and. -Thec o al i t i o nhaddr i v enFr anc eo uto fS wi t z er l andandt heRhi nel and t her eb yer o di ngt heg ai nso ft heTr eat yo fCampoFo r mi o .Att hes ame t i meNapo l eo n enj o yed t hes uppo r tfr o m amo ngt hememb er so ft he Co unc i lo fEl der segAb b i eS i eyeswhob ac kedNapo l eo ni nt hec o up. -Napo l eo n’ sb r o t herLuc i enus edanar myt oi nv adet heas s emb l yand 32 dr i v et hememb er so ut . - A newc o ns t i t ut i o n wasado pt ed.Fr anc ewasno wr ul ed b yat hr ee c o ns ul s .Napo l eo nwast heFi r s tCo ns ulwi t heno r mo uspo wer s .Heal o ne dec l ar ed warand made t he key appo i nt ment sand c o nt r o l l ed t he l eg i s l at i v epr o c es s . -Wi t ht hes ec ent r al i z edpo wer sNapo l eo nc o ns o l i dat edhi spo s i t i o nand dec l ar edhi ms el fast heEmper o randt o o kt het i t l eNapo l eo nI. Fr o mt heab o v ei ti sc l eart hatt her i s eo fNapo l eo nt opo wert ob ec o met he Emper o rwasapr o duc to fav ar i et yo ffac t o r st hati nt er ac t edt opr o pel hi mt opo wer .Wi t ht hes epo wer shewasab l et odo mi nat eb o t ht heFr enc h andt heEur o peanpo l i t i c sup1815. TheNapo l eo ni cRefo r ms Ai ms -Toc o ns o l i dat ehi spo s i t i o ni nFr anc east heEmper o r . -Toi ns t i t ut eab enev o l entdes po t i s m,meani ngt ohav epo l i c i est hatb enefi tt he peo pl e. -Thepeac eatAmi enswi t ht heBr i t i s hi n1802g av eNapo l eo nab r eat hi ngs pac e t or eo r g ani z eFr anc e. 1. Admi ni s t r at i o n -AsEmper o ral lpo werwasc ent r edi nhi shands .Heal o nec o ul ddec l ar ewar andmakepeac e. -Hemadet hekeyappo i nt ment sieo ft hel o c alo ffi c i al ss uc hast hepr efec t s , s ub pr efec t s ,mayo r sandt hec hi efo ffi c i al so ft hes t at ei nt hemi l i t ar yandc i v i l po s t s . -Pr o po s edl awst hatwer edr aft edb yas pec i alc o unc i ls t at eands ub mi t t edt o 33 t hel eg i s l at i v eb o ar dt hatv o t edwi t ho utdi s c us s i o n. -Appr o v edt hel i s to fc andi dat et ob ev o t edfo rasmemb er so ft hel eg i s l at i v e b o ar d. ( i i ) TheLeg i s l at i v eAs s emb l y -t hi swasr et ai nedfr o mt her ev o l ut i o nasi tpr o v i dedfo rpo l i t i c alpar t i c i pat i o n andr epr es ent at i o n.i tv o t edo nl awss ub mi t t edt oi tb yt hes pec i alc o unc i l . -i t ’ smemb er swer ev o t edfo rb yt hepeo pl ei nel ec t i o ns. -t hel i s to ft hec andi dat eswasappr o v edb yt heEmper o r ( i i i ) Lo c alGo v er nment -t her ev o l ut i o nar yg o v er nmentwasr et ai ned t ho ug h wi t ht headdi t i o no f Napo l eo ni ci deas . -Co mmuneswer er et ai nedb utundermayo r sappo i nt edb yt heemper o r . -Ol dc o unc i l so ft her ev o l ut i o nar yer awher er et ai nedb utasadv i s o r yb o ar ds -Di s t r i c t swer ec r eat edandpr efec t sands ub -pr efec t swer eappo i nt edt ohear Go v er nmentdepar t ment s . ( i i i ) Let t er sdeCac het sandThePr es sCens o r s hi p -Thes ewer eado pt edfr o mt heanc i entReg i meandwasi nt r o duc edt oc hec kt he l ev elo fo ppo s i t i o nt ohi spo l i c i esandt ob r i ngo r der -undert hes ys t emo fl et t er sdec ac hest hel et t er sent er i ngandl eav i ngFr anc e hadc o nt ent smo ni t o r edc l o s el y. -Cens o r s hi pwasi mpo s edo nal lpr es s .Tho s et ot heEmper o rwer ec l o s esdo wn. ( i v ) Leg i o no fHo no ur -t hi swasani deab o r r o wedfr o mt heanc i entr eg i me,Napo l eo ni nt r o duc eda dec o r at i o nkno wnast heLeg i o no fHo no urfo rt hedi s t i ng ui s heds er v i c est ot he s t at e. 34 -al lt ho s eappo i nt edo nt hemer i tt oo ffi c i aldut i esandc ar r yi ngt hem o ut effi c i ent l ywer er ewar dedandg i v ent i t l es . -t husanewt ypeo fNo b i l i t yemer g ed,c o mpr i s i ngo ft i t l eho l der si .eDukes , Admi r al s ,Co unt s . TheCo nc o datTr eat y -Thi swasan ag r eementb et ween Napo l eo n and t heCat ho l i c s .Thr o ug ht hi s ag r eement Napo l eo n ho ped t or ec o nc i l e wi t ht he c hur c ht hat had b een al i enat edfr o mt heS t at e. -Dur i ngt her ev o l ut i o nar yer aundert heag r eementt heCat ho l i c sr el i g i o nwas madet heo ffi c i alS t at er el i g i o nt hatwasg r unt edt hec o nt r o lo feduc at i o n. - TheBi s ho pswer et oappo i ntt hePar i s h Cl er g ywi t ht heappr o v alo ft he Go v er nment .Inr et ur nt hec hur c hr ec o g ni z est hes al eo ft hec hur c hl andst ot he peas ant s . -Napo l eo nho pedt hatt hi sar r ang ementwo ul dhealt heb r eac hwi t ht hePo pe andPr i es t ho o dc aus edb yt heCCC.Fur t her mo r eNapo l eo nv i ewedac hur c hasa v al uab l eandes s ent i als uppo r tt ohi spo wer . - Heal s or eal i z ed t hatt hec hur c h had b ehi nd i ta v as tmaj o r i t yo ft he peas ant swho s el o yal t yheneededmo s t . 7. Co deNapo l eo n - Thi swasawr i t t enc l as s i fi c at i o nands ummar yo ft hel awso fFr anc eo nt o pi c s s uc h asr i g ht sand dut i es ,mar r i ag e,di v o r c e,par ent ag e,i nher i t anc e and pr o per t y - S i nc ei n 1789t her ewasc o nfus i o no nt hel awso fFr anc eand es pec i al l y appo i nt edl awyer swast as kedt oc o di fyt hel aw. - ThusnoFr enc hwasi nanydo ub tast ohi so rherpo s i t i o nb efo r et hel aw.The r ul eswer emadeuni fo r mandequalfo ral l . - Underfami l yl aw t hec o deai med ats t r eng t heni ngt hefami l yast he 35 fo undat i o no ft heS t at e.Theaut ho r i t yo ft hefat herwasg r eat l yi nc r eas ed. -Thes o nsc o ul dno tmar r yundert heag eo f25wi t ho utt hec o ns ento ft he fat herandi nc as eo ft hedaug ht er st heag ewas21.Thepo s i t i o no ft hewi fewas madei nfer i o rt ot hato ft hehus b andi nt hefami l y. -Inhi spr i v at ec o r r es po ndenc eNapo l eo nIi ndi c at edhi si ns ens i t i v i t yt og ender . Hepo i nt edo utt hatt hewo men’ sb r ai npo werwasfari nfer i o rt ot hato ft hemen andt heywer efi t t edfo rl i t t l eeduc at i o n. -Thec o dec o nfi r medt hel eg alequal i t yo fal lmal ec i t i z ens .Thi shel pedt ob r i ng s o c i alc o hes i o nand enab l ed t heFr enc hmanand o t her st ounder s t and t he mai npr i nc i pl esunder l i ni ngt hel aws . -Thec o deb r o ug htt o l er at i o no fal lr eg i o nsandat r i ali npub l i cb efo r et hej ur y. Thec o dewasv er ys uc c es s fult hati twasado pt edb ymanyc o unt r i esi nEur o pe 8. Mi l i t ar yRefo r ms -Napo l eo nIr eo r g ani z edt heFr enc har myt hatwasex pec t edt opl ayadec i s i v e r o l ei nt heNapo l eo ni cwar s . -Hes etupas emi -mi l i t ar ys quadc al l edl yc ees .Int hi ss quadfut ur es o l di er s wer epr o duc ed.Theai m wast opr o duc eab s o l ut el yl o yals o l di er sdev o t edt ot he S t at e. -Thear mywasr eo r g ani z ed,r eequi ppedandt r ai ned.Int hi swayNapo l eo nI pr o duc edadi s c i pl i nedl o yal ,s t r o ngandpr o fes s i o nalar myt hatwasent i r el y dev o t edt ohi mal o ne 9. Educ at i o n -Napo l eo nIi nt r o duc ed meas ur est hatpr o v i ded eac hFr enc hmanwi t han equalo ppo r t uni t yt og eteduc at ed.El ement ar ys c ho o l swer epl ac ed i nt he c hur c h. - TheGr antMas t ero ft heUni v er s i t yo fFr anc ewasputi nc har g eo fal l s ec o ndar yeduc at i o ni nFr anc e.Muc hemphas i swasputo nMat hsandS c i enc e. 36 -TheUni v er s i t ywasfo undedundert heGr antMas t erwi t hb r anc hest hr o ug ho ut t heFr enc hdi s t r i c t s . -Tec hni c als c ho o l swer eal s oes t ab l i s hed.S ub j ec t sc o ns i der ed asdang er o us s uc hashi s t o r y,ec o no mi c sandphi l o s o phywer eb anned. -Muc hemphas i swaspl ac edo nmal eeduc at i o n Car eer sOpent oTal ent -Thi swasar ev o l ut i o nar yi dea.Napo l eo nappo i nt edandpr o mo t edment ohi g h o ffi c esi nt heS t at eo nmer i to rt al enti r r eg ar dl es so fo ne’ so r i g i no rs o c i alc l as s . -Fo rex ampl emanyo fNapo l eo n’ sGener al swer emeno fl o wl yb i r t he.gMur at whowasg i v enc har g eo ft heCi s al phi neRepub l i cwast hes o no fani nnkeeper . -Thepr i nc i pl eo ft hec ar eero penedt ot al entundo ub t edl yac c o unt sfo rmuc h o ft hes t r eng t ho fFr anc eatt hi st i me. Ec o no mi cRefo r ms Napo l eo nIai medatpr o mo t i ngec o no mi cs t ab i l i t yi nFr anc e ( a)Es t ab l i s hedmanyt ec hni c als c ho o l swi t ht heai mo fi mpr o v i ngt heFr enc h i ndus t r i alpr o c es s esanddi s c o v er i ngnewo nes . ( b )In i ndus t r yNapo l eo n Ii nc r eas ed do mes t i cpr o duc t i o nb yi mpo s i nghi g h t ar i ffso ni mpo r t sandb yenc o ur ag i ngnewi nv ent i o ns ( c )Ini t i at ed i nfr as t r uc t ur aldev el o pmenti n Fr anc ec anal sand po r t swer e g r eat l yi mpr o v edandai dedt heex pans i o no fi ndus t r y ( d)Pr o mo t edb us i nes si nt er es t sb ys t ab i l i z i ngt hev al ueo ft heFr enc hc ur r enc y b as i ngo nGo l dands et t i ngupt heb anko fFr anc et oai di ndus t r i aldev el o pment . ( e)Al lt he underut i l i z ed ag r i c ul t ur all and wasr ec l ai med,i r r i g at i o n was i nt r o duc ed. ( e)Peas ant swer eal l o wedt or et ai nl andg ai neddur i ngt heRev o l ut i o n Anal ys i so fNapo l eo ni cRefo r ms 37 -Ther efo r mso fNapo l eo nwer ec har ac t er i z edb yami x t ur eo fRev o l ut i o nar y i deas ,Napo l eo ni candanc i entr eg i mei deas . Rev o l ut i o nar y - Ther e was po l i t i c alpar t i c i pat i o n and r epr es ent at i o nt hr o ug h el ec t i o ns l eg i s l at i v ec o unc i landc o mpl et i o no ft hec o di fi c at i o no ft hel aws t ar t edb yt he Rev o l ut i o n. -Ther ewasg uar ant eeo fr i g ht sandequal i t y -Equalo ppo r t uni t i eswer eg r ant edi neduc at i o n. - Rev o l ut i o nar y met ho dso fr et r ai ni ng ,r ec r ui t mentand r eequi ppi ngwer e ado pt edi nt hemi l i t ar yr efo r ms . -S t ab i l i z i ngt heFr enc hec o no my. Anc i entReg i me -Cent r al i z at i o no fpo werb yNapo l eo nj us tl i keL o ui sXVIo ft heanc i entr eg i me -Theado pt i o no fl et t er sdec ac hesandpr es sc ens o r s hi po ft heanc i entr eg i me -Theado pt i o no ft heanc i entr eg i mes ys t emo fr ewar dt heLeg i o no fHo no ur . -Ther ev i v alo ft heo l dS t at ec hur c hal l i anc et hr o ug hCo nc o datTr eat y. Napo l eo ni cIdeas -Appo i nt ment so fpr efec t s ,s ub -pr efec t sandmayo r si nc har g eo fGo v er nment depar t ment sandc o mmunesr es pec t i v el yi nadmi ni s t r at i o n. -Genderi ns ens i t i v i t yi nt hec o deNapo l eo nandi neduc at i o n - Es t ab l i s hmento fUni v er s i t yt ec hni c aleduc at i o n,emphas i so n Mat hsand S c i enc e,t heb anni ngo fhi s t o r y ,phi l o s o phyandec o no mi c s -Thec r eat i o no fapr o fes s i o nalar myl o yalt oNapo l eo nhi ms el f. -Thees t ab l i s hmento fi nfr as t r uc t ur e,b anko fFr anc e,newc ur r enc y,i ndus t r i al 38 r efo r msands c ho o l s . Mo t i v eo ft heRefo r ms 1 Co ns o l i dat ehi spo s i t i o nasEmper o r -Effi c i enc yando r deri nadmi ni s t r at i o nenhanc edhi s -Po pul ar i t y -Cent r al i z at i o nenhanc edhi spo pul ar i t y - Chec ki ngo ppo s i t i o nt hr o ug h pr es sc ens o r s hi p and l et t er sdec ac hes enhanc edhi spo pul ar i t y -TheLeg i o no fho no urenhanc edhi spo pul ar i t yamo ngt henewt ypeo f no b i l i t y . -Thec o nc o r datwo nNapo l eo ns uppo r tandpo pul ar i t ywi t ht hePo peand c hur c hfo l l o wer s . - Co deNapo l eo n enhanc ed t heaut ho r i t yo f mal esb yi mpl i c at i ngt he emper o r saut ho r i t y.Ital s oenhanc edhi spo pul ar i t y. -Mi l i t ar i l yr efo r mss t r eng t hened hi spo s i t i o nt hr o ug hc r eat i o no far my l o yalt ohi mal o ne. - Educ at i o n r efo r ms g i v i ng equalac c es so ppo r t uni t y enhanc ed hi s po pul ar i t y. -Thec ar eer so pent ot al entt hatb r o ug htequal i t yi nmaki ngappo i nt ment s enhanc edhi spo pul ar i t y - Ec o no mi cr efo r mst hats t ab i l i z i ng t he ec o no my wo n hi m po pul ar i t y es pec i al l yamo ngb us i nes sc l as s Benev o l enc e Ther efo r mswer emeantt ob enefi tt hepeo pl et hr o ug heffi c i enc yando r deri n admi ni s t r at i o n. Po l i t i c al par t i c i pat i o n and r epr es ent at i o n t hr o ug h el ec t i o ns ,l eg i s l at i v e as s emb l y l o c al g o v er nment ,l et t er s de c ac hes , pr es s c ens o r s hi p and 39 c ent r al i z at i o nb r o ug htl awando r deri nFr anc e. Undert heL eg i o no fHo no ur ,effi c i ento ffi c i al swer er ewar dedhenc epr o mo t i ng effi c i enc yThec ar eer so pent ot al entg av et heFr enc hmanequalo ppo r t uni t i es i nt er mso fappo i nt ment s . TheCo nc o r datTr eat yr ec o nc i l edt heS t at eandt hec hur c haft eral o ngper i o d o fho s t i l eands t r ai nedr el at i o ns . Educ at i o nalr efo r msg av eFr enc hmananequalac c es st oeduc at i o n. Co di fi edl awt hatg r ant edr i g ht sandequal i t ywasac c es s i b l et oal lFr enc hman. Mi l i t ar yr efo r msc r eat ed a pr o fes s i o nalar myfo rdefens i v eand o ffens i v e pur po s es . Ec o no mi cr efo r mss t ab i l i z edt heFr enc hec o no my N. B Napo l eo nwasadi c t at o r -c ent r al i z at i o n -l eg i s l at i v ec o unc i lar ub b ers t ampi ngb o ar d -s uppr es s edl i b er t y -ado pt i o no fLeg i o no fHo no urt ob ac kFr anc et ot heanc i entr eg i mer emi nded t hepeo pl eo fanewt ypeo fNo b i l i t y . -ado pt i o no fLeg i o no fHo no urt ob ac kFr anc et ot heanc i entr eg i mer emi nded peo pl eo fanewt ypeo fNo b i l i t y . -The educ at i o n po l i c y and Co de Napo l eo n s ho wed Napo l eo n’ sg ender i ns ens i t i v i t y. -Thear mywasl o yalt ohi m. -Hewasb enev o l ent . -Heus edhi sdi c t at o r i alpo wer sfo rt heb enefi to ft hepeo pl e( s eepr ev i o us no t es ) Fo r ei g nPo l i c y Ai ms -Toc o nt r o lt hedens i t yo fEur o pei .eex t endi ngt heb o undar i eso fFr anc e 40 -i thasal s our g edt hatNapo l eo nc o ul dno tr eno unc et heex c i t emento fwar s aft erhi sv i c t o r i esi nt heIt al i anc ampai g ni n1796 Defeato ft heS ec o ndCo al i t i o n -Thememb er so ft hes ec o ndc o al i t i o nwer eEng l and,Rus s i aandAus t r i a.Oft he t hr eeAus t r i awaseas i ert oat t ac kandatt heb at t l eo fMar eng o ,Aus t r i awas defeat edb yafo r c eo f40t ho us andmen.Fr anc ewasab l et or eg ai nt er r i t o r y t hathadb eenl o s ts i nc et heg ai nso ft het r eat yo fCampoFo r mi o . - Rus s i a wi t hdr ew b ec aus ei twasunhappy wi t ht he c o al i t i o n.Ther e wer e j eal o us i esandmut uals us pi c i o ns . -Ag ai ns tBr i t ai n,Napo l eo nai medatdes t r o yi nghero v er s east r ade.Hefo r med t heLeag ueo fAr medNeut r al i t ywi t hS t at est hatwer eo ffendedb yt heBr i t i s h po l i c yi .eRus s i a,S wedenandDenmar k. -S wedenandDenmar kc l o s edt heBr i t i s hent r anc et ot heBal t i cS ea.Br i t ai n r eac t edb ys endi nganav alfo r c eo nDenmar kandatt heb at t l eo fCo penhag en t heDani s hfl eetwasdes t r o yedandt hel eag uec o l l aps ed Peac eo fAmi ens1802 - Fo l l o wi ngt he b r eaki ngup o ft he s ec o nd c o al i t i o n,ItwasBr i t ai nt hat r emai ned atwarb utt hewarwasc aus i ngdi ffi c ul t i esfo rt heBr i t i s ht r ade. Napo l eo nal s oneededpeac et oc o ns o l i dat ehi spo weri nFr anc e. -Thust hr o ug hanag r eementBr i t ai nr es t o r edt heFr enc hc o l o ni esb utr et ai n Cey l o nandTr i ni dad.Br i t ai nal s opr o mi s edt oev ac uat eMal t aandEg ypt .It al s opr o mi s edt or ec o g ni z et heFr enc hb o undar i esasat1802. Napo l eo ni cWar s 1. Renewalo fWar -Fr anc eandBr i t ai ns o o nc l as hedmo s t l yb ec aus eo ft heFr enc ho c c upat i o no f 41 t heAus t r i anNet her l andsandt heFr enc ht ar i ffs ys t em t hathi nder edBr i t i s h t r ade.Thuswarwasr enewedi n1802. 2. Tr afal g ar -Thi swasb et weenFr anc eandBr i t ai ni nOc t o b er211805t heFr enc handt he Br i t i s hnav i esmetatCapeTr afal g ar .TheBr i t i s hv i c t o r yl eftheranundi s put ed mas t ero ft hes eas . 3. TheThi r dCo al i t i o n -Itwasfo r medb yBr i t ai n,Aus t r i aandRus s i a.It sai m wast odr i v eFr anc e b ac kt ot heo r i g i nalb o undar i eso uto fBel g i um,t heGer mans t at esandIt al y. 4. TheBat t l eo fUl mandAus t er l i t z ,1805 -Thes ewer eb at t l esb et weenAus t r i aandFr anc e.Aus t r i awasdefeat ed.Under t heTr eat yo fPr es s b ur g ,Aus t r i al o s t3mi l l i o no fherfo r ei g npo pul at i o nand Venet i awasi nc o r po r at edi nt ot heKi ng do mo fIt al yt hathadb eenc r eat ed. -Aus t r i afur t herl o s tDal mat i a,Tyr o l ,TheAdr i at i cCo as tandt heRhi nel and. 5. TheBat t l eo fJena -Itwasab at t l eb et weenFr anc eandPr us s i a.Pr us s i ahadb eenneut r alb et ween 1795and 1805.Pr us s i awasdefeat ed atJenaand Napo l eo nt o o ko v ert he c o nt r o lo fBer l i n. 6. Thedefeato fRus s i a -Fo l l o wi ngt hedefeato fRus s i at heTr eat yo fTi l s i twass i g nedb et weenRus s i a andFr anc e.Undert het r eat yFr anc et o o ko v ert hec o nt r o lo fFi nl and,S weden 42 andas har eo ft heTur ki s hEmpi r e. -Rus s i aag r eedt oent eri nt oanal l i anc ewi t hFr anc ei no r dert oenfo r c et he c o nt i nent als ys t emag ai ns tBr i t ai n. 7. ThePeni ns ul aWar s - Fr anc ec apt ur ed Po r t ug ali n 1808 fo l l o wi ngi t ’ sr efus alt o enfo r c et he c o nt i nent als ys t em.Po r t ug alwasdefeat edb yac o mb i nedFr enc handS pani s h ar my. -Napo l eo nwasab l et og ai nc o mpl et ec o nt r o lo fS pai nb yenfo r c i ngt heKi ngt o ab di c at et het hr o ne.Inhi spl ac eheappo i nt edhi sb r o t herJo s eph. -Aus t r i ar e-ent er edwari n1809andwasdefeat edatt heb at t l eo fWag r am. -Undert het r eat yo fVi enna,i tl o s therl ar g es har eo fPo l andt oRus s i aand s o mepr o v i nc eso ft heAdr i at i ct oFr anc eandwasc o mpel l edb yNapo l eo nt oj o i n hi sc o nt i nent als ys t em. -Napo l eo nandAus t r i ac o nc l udedamar r i ag eal l i anc e.Whenhemar r i edt he daug ht ero ft heAus t r i anEmper o r TheCo nt i nent alS ys t em -TheFr enc hdefeatatt heBat t l eo fTr afal g arhaddemo ns t r at edt hatt he Fr enc hi nv as i o no f Br i t ai n wasi mpo s s i b l e.Br i t i s h weal t hi nt he fo r m o f i ndus t r i esandi nt er nat i o nalt r adeenab l edhert os us t ai nt hewar .Ther eal dang erfo rNapo l eo nwast heBr i t i s hec o no mi cpo wer . -Napo l eo ndec i dedt oc r us ht hi spo werb ydes t r o yi ngt heBr i t i s ho v er s east r ade. Heho pedt hatt hi swo ul dc aus eunempl o ymenti nBr i t ai nt hatwo ul dmaket he Br i t i s hpeo pl efo r c et hei rg o v er nmentt owi t hdr awfr o mt hewar . -Napo l eo ni s s uedt heBer l i ni nNo v emb er1806t hatdec l ar edab l o c kadeo ft he Br i t i s hIs l esandfo r b adeFr enc hal l i est ot r adewi t hBr i t ai n. -Napo l eo nanno unc edani mmedi at ec o nfi s c at i o no fal lBr i t i s hg o o dso nt he Eur o peanc o nt i nent . 43 -Br i t ai nr eac t edb yi s s ui ngt heo r der si nc o unc i lt hatdec l ar edanec o no mi c b l o c kadeo nal lt heFr enc hal l i est hathadac c ept edt hec o nt i nent als ys t em. -Br i t ai nanno unc edt hati two ul dus ei t snav yt ofi g htag ai ns tNapo l eo nandhi s al l i esi nt er fer i ngwi t ht heBr i t i s h -InDec emb er1807,Napo l eo ni s s uedmo r edec r eesi nt hefo r mo ft heMi l an Dec r eesc al l i ngfo ranec o no mi cb l o c kadeo nBr i t ai n. Effec t s -1807-1810,Napo l eo nat t empt edt oenfo r c ehi sdec r eesb ys eal i ngo fft he who l eo ft heEur o peanc o as t l i neo nBr i t ai n -1807,Denmar kwasfo r c edi nt ot hes ys t em andi n1809t heFr enc ht r o o ps o c c upi edt heGer manS t at eso fHamb ur g ,Br emen,Danz i gandLub ec k. - Hedepo s ed Lo ui sBo napar t efo r mt heDut c ht hr o neaft erher efus ed t o enfo r c et hes ys t em o fg r o undt hati two ul dr ui nt heDut c hmer c hant s .Thus Ho l l andwaspl ac edundert hedi r ec tc o nt r o lo fFr anc e -Napo l eo nwass o o ni nv o l v edi nac o nfl i c twi t ht hePo pe.Theywi s hedt or emai n neut r ali mpl yi ngt hatt heBr i t i s ht r adec o ul db ec ar r i edo nt hePapalS t at es -Napo l eo nr eac t edb yi mpr i s o ni ngt hePo peandaddedt hePapalS t at est ohi s Ki ng do mo fIt al y -Thec o nt i nent als ys t emwasadi s as t erfo rFr anc e: 1. Tr ade dec l i ned and unempl o yments pr ead wi del y amo ng hi sal l i es es pec i al l yt ho s eo ft heNo r t her nGer many. 2. Inc r eas ei no ppo s i t i o nfr o mt heEur o peant r ader s .Itwast hi smi ddl e c l as so ft r ader st hatpl ayedamaj o rr o l eo far o us i ngnat i o nal i s tmo v ement s t hatdev el o pedag ai ns tNapo l eo nandhel pedi nb r i ni nghi sdo wnfal l . 3. Fr anc el ac ked t henav alpo wert oenfo r c et hes ys t em.TheBr i t i s h 44 c o unt erb l o c ked Napo l eo n’ spl anst ous et heDani s hfl eetwasfai l ed b yt he Br i t i s hdes t r uc t i o no ft hefl eetatt heHab o uro fCo penhag en. 4. TheEng l i s ht r ader ss mug g l edg o o dsi nt oc o nt i nent alEur o pet hr o ug ht he unpr o t ec t eds po t sal o ngt hec o as t l i nes uc hasHel i g o l and,Po r t ug al ,S i c i l y,and S al o ni c a. Napo l eo n’ sDynas t yS ys t em -Napo l eo nes t ab l i s hedhi sc o nt r o lo v erc o nquer edt er r i t o r i esb yappo i nt i nghi s r el at i v esandfr i endst or ul eo nhi sb ehal f. -Thes er ul er swer eex pec t edt oi nt r o duc eNapo l eo ni cadmi ni s t r at i v es ys t em. - Theyal s oi mpl ement ed Napo l eo ni ci deaso ffr eet r adeand t hec o deo f Napo l eo n -Ter r i t o r i est hatfel lundert hedynas t ys ys t emwer e: - TheGer manS t at eswer eg r o upedt ofo r mt heCo nfeder at i o no ft he Rhi nel andunderFr anc i sIIo fRus s i awhowasfo r c edt or eno unc ehi s t i t l eo ft heho l yRo manEmper o r - - Napl eswaspl ac edunderNapo l eo n’ sb r o t herJo s eph - Ho l l andunderNapo l eo n’ sb r o t herLo ui sBo napar t e S pai nandBel g i umwer eal s opl ac edunderNapo l eo n’ sr el at i v es TheMo s c o wCampai g n -1811,Ts aro fRus s i ab r o keawayfr o mt hec o nt i nent als ys t emduet o : - Napo l eo n appear ed t ob e no l o ng eri nt er es t ed i n ful fi l l i ng t he pr o mi s et ob r eakt heTur ki s hEmpi r e. - Napo l eo ns ei z edaNo r t hGer manS t at eo fOl db er gt hatwasr ul edb y t heTs ar ’ sb r o t her -i n-l aw. - TheRus s i anNo b i l i t yo ppo s edt hec o nt i nent als ys t em t hatdes t r o y ed t hei rl uc r at i v et r adei nt i mb erandhempwi t hBr i t ai n. 45 - Rus s i awass ec r et l yt r adi ngwi t hEng l and. -Napo l eo nr eac t ed t ot heRus s i anb r eakawayb yo r g ani z i ngt hei nv as i o no f Rus s i ai n1812. -Wi t h600000menhemar c hedi nt oRus s i ai nt hes ummero f1812. -Hewasdefeat edb yRus s i ai nas pac eandt i me.TheRus s i ansev ac uat edt hei r c api t alo fMo s c o w.Napo l eo nfo undMo s c o wdes er t edandheb ec amei s o l at edi n t heRus s i anc api t al . -Rus s i aado pt edas c o t c hedear t hpo l i c yo fdes t r o yi ngv i l l ag esandc r o psas t heyr et r eat ed.Thust her ewasnofo o dfo rNapo l eo n’ st r o o ps . -Napo l eo nno wfac edt heRus s i anwi nt er .Hi st r o o pshado nl yb r o ug hts ummer wearho pi ng t he c ampai g n wo ul d end s o o n.Pani c ,des pai rand t he c o l d affec t edt hemo r al eo ft heFr enc ht r o o ps -TheRus s i ansdes t r o yedt heb r i dg esb ui l tb yt heFr enc ho nt heBer es i naRi v er -Tho us andso ft heFr enc ht r o o psdi edi nt her i v er ,o nl y30000menr e-c r o s s ed t heNi emenRi v eri nDec emb er1812 TheWaro fLi b er at i o n - Napo l eo n’ shumi l i at i ngdefeati nt heMo s c o w Campai g n wasa s i g nalfo r Pr us s i at ot akeac t i o n. - Pr us s i a ex per i enc ed a r ev i v al .ThePr us s i an s o c i et ywasr e-o r g ani z ed b y Pr us s i anMi ni s t erS t endandHar denb ur g . -S er fdo mwasab o l i s hed,el ec t edc o unc i l sundert hec o nt r o lo ft hemi ddl ec l as s andt hel ando wner swer ees t ab l i s hed,anewl anddi s t r i b ut i o nt hatb enefi t ed t hepeas ant swasi nt r o duc edandmi l i t ar yr efo r msi nt r o duc edi nwhi c ht her e wasuni v er s almi l i t ar ys er v i c eand t r ai ni ng .A l ar g epr o fes s i o nalar mywas c r eat ed. -Thi sr ev i v alr es ul t edi nt her i s eo faPr us s i annat i o nal i s m.Theyno wc al l edfo r t her emo v alo fNapo l eo ni nGer many. -Theent r yo fPr us s i ai nt ot hewaro penedas ec o ndfr o ntfo rNapo l eo nhenc e 46 Fr anc ewass t r et c hed. TheBat t l eo fDr es den( Aug us t1813) -Napo l eo nwasdefeat edb yAus t r i at hathadj o i nedwarag ai ns thi m. TheBat t l eo fLei pz i g( t heBat t l eo fNat i o ns ) ,Oc t o b er1813 -Fr anc efo ug htag ai ns tal l i es ,Aus t r i a,Rus s i a,Pr us s i aandS weden. -Napo l eo nwasdefeat edandfl edt ot heRhi nel andb utt heCo nfeder at i o no f t heRhi nel andt hathec r eat edt ur nedag ai ns thi m. - Ki ngJo s eph Bo napar t eo fS pai n wasdr i v en o utb yt heBr i t i s h Dukeo f Wel l i ng t o nwhowasno went er i ngS o ut her nFr anc e. -TheRus s i anTs arandPr us s i anki ngent er edPar i si nMar c h1814,Napo l eo n wasex i l edt ot heIs l ando fEl b a. -Undert hefi r s tTr eat yo fPar i so f1814,Fr anc el o s tal lherc o nques t si n Ger many,Bel g i umandIt al y. -Lo ui sXVIIIwhowasnex ti nt heBo ur b o nMo nar c hywasr es t o r ed. The100Days - Att hei s l and o fEl b a,Napo l eo n enj o yed a g r eatdealo ffr eedo m.He manag edt oes c apeandl andi nS o ut her nFr anc e. -Het henmar c hed t oPar i si nt r i umphalpr o c es s i o n.Theo ppo nent so fLo ui s XVI IIwel c o medt hear r i v alo fNapo l eo nI. -Tr o o pst hatwer es entt oar r es thi mac t ual l yj o i nedhi m.Lo ui sXVIIIfl edfr o m Fr anc e.Wi t hi nt hr eeweekso fr eg ai ni ngpo wer ,Napo l eo nr ai s edanewar myand mar c hedi nt oBel g i um. - Att heb at t l eo fWat er l o oi n 1815Napo l eo n wasdefeat ed b yt heFo ur t h Co al i t i o n undert hec o mmand o ft heDukeo fWel l i ng t o n.Napo l eo n’ sempi r e c r umb l ed.Hes ur r ender edandwasex i l edt ot heIs l ando fS tHel ena 47 Reas o nsfo rt heDo wnfal lo fNapo l eo nI -Lac ko fnav alpo wert huswasdefeat edatTr afal g ari n1805i nt hewaro f l i b er at i o ni n1814andt heWat er l o oi n1815. -Napo l eo n’ sc o nt i nent als ys t em wasdo o medfr o mt heo ns etduet ol ac ko fa nav y.TheDani s hfl eett hatheho pedt ous ewasdes t r o yedb yt heBr i t i s h. -Thec o nt i nent als ys t em b ac kfi r ed.Napo l eo n’ sal l i eswer eac t ual l ydependent o nt heBr i t i s ht r ade.Henc ehi sal l i esl i keRus s i ab r o keawayi n1810. -Byt aki ngdi r ec tc o nt r o lo fS pai nandPo r t ug ali no r dert oens ur et hes uc c es s o ft hec o nt i nent als ys t em.Napo l eo nunder es t i mat eds pi r i to fnat i o nal i s mi n t hes ec o unt r i es . -Napo l eo n’ spo o rj udg ment ;Mi s c al c ul at edt hathi sent r anc ei nt ot heRus s i an c api t alwo ul dr es ul ti nRus s i andefeat .Het ho ug htt hatt heMo s c o wc ampai g n wo ul dendi ns ummerashedi dno tpr epar efo rt hewi nt erandal o wo pi ni o no f t heDukeo fWel l i ng t o n’ sab i l i t yasas o l di er . -Thepeo pl eo fFr anc ewer eb ec o mi ngwear yo fwares pec i al l ydur i ngt he100 day s . Mo t i v eso ft heFo r ei g nPo l i c y -Toc o nt r o lt hedes t i nyo fEur o pe -Ac qui r edEur o peant er r i t o r y -It al i anc ampai g n-Ci s al phi neal l i anc e -Tr eat yo fTi l s i t-t heRus s i anal l i anc e -t hec r eat i o no ft heGr andDuc hyo fWar s aw -Bat t l eo fAus t er l i t z– Aus t r i anNet her l ands ,Adr i at i cCo as t ,Tyr o l ,Is t r i a, Venet i a,Dal mat i aandt heRhi nel and -Bat t l eo fJena-Ber l i n -Peni ns ul aWar s -S pai n,Po r t ug al ,Ger manS t at es -Co nt i nent alS ys t em-anat t emptt ob r eakt heec o no mi cpo wero fBr i t ai nhenc e ano ut r i g htc o nt r o lo fEur o pe 48 - By1807-09Napo l eo n att hehei g hto fhi spo werwasno wi nc o nt r o lo f c o nt i nent alEur o pedi r ec t l yandi ndi r ec t l y -Thedynas t ys ys t emc l ear l ys ho wedt hatNapo l eo nwasi nc o nt r o l Ter r i t o r yFal l i ngUndert hi sS ys t em 1. It al y-Ci s al phi neRepub l i c 2. Thec o nfeder at i o nso ft heRhi nel andi nGer many 3. Bel g i um 4. S pai n 5. Po r t ug al 6. TheGr andDuc hyo fWar s aw -Aft er1810Napo l eo nno wai medatkeepi nghi sal l i anc eandt hec o nt r o lo f Co nt i nent alEur o pe -Hewasfac i ngr eb el l i o nfr o m hi sal l i esandanat t ac kb yt hefo ur t hc o al i t i o n ag ai ns thi m. -Thushefo ug ht : - Mo s c o wc ampai g n1812 - War so fLi b er at i o n1814-1815 - Wat er l o o1815 Met ho dsus edb yNapo l eo nI - Di pl o mac y -Mi l i t ar yc ampai g ns -Dynas t ys ys t em Di pl o mac y -Pi ec eo fAmi enspr o v i dedNapo l eo nwi t hab r eat hi ngs pac ei no r dert or e- 49 o r g ani z eFr anc e -Tr eat yo fTi l s i t–Napo l eo ns ec ur edt heRus s i anal l i anc et hatwasv al uab l ei n maki ngt hec o nt i nent als ys t emeffec t i v e -Mar r i ag eal l i anc ewi t hAus t r i a.Napo l eo nmanag edt os ec ur eanal l i anc ewi t h Aus t r i at hatwasi mpo r t anti nhi sfi g htag ai ns tt het hi r dc o al i t i o n -Co nt i nent als ys t em–Napo l eo nputt o g et heranal l i anc eo fc o nt i nent alEur o pe t oenfo r c eanec o no mi cb l o c kag eag ai ns tBr i t ai n Mi l i t ar yCampai g n -Napo l eo nemb ar kedo nas er i eso fwar st oc o nquerEur o pe - Bat t l eo fTr afal g ar–defeat ed - Bat t l eo fJena–b r o ug hthi mBer l i n - Bat t l eo fAus t er l i t z–ac qui r ed Aus t r i an Net her l ands,Rhi nel and ,Tyr o l , Adr i at i cc o as t ,Venet i a,Is t r i a,Damal t i a -Peni ns ul awar senab l edNapo l eo nt og ai nt hec o nt r o lo fc o nt i nent alEur o pe - Aft er1810,heus ed mi l i t ar yc ampai g nst odealwi t hr eb elal l i esand t o defendFr anc efr o mt hefo ur t hc o al i t i o n - Mo s c o wCampai g n - Bat t l eo fDr es denandLei pz i g - Bat t l eo fWat er l o o TheDynas t yS ys t em -Napo l eo npl ac edr el at i v esandfr i endst oc o nt r o landadmi ni s t erc o nquer ed t er r i t o r i eso nhi sb ehal f -Theyi mpl ement edNapo l eo n’ sfo r mso fadmi ni s t r at i o nandi deas . Co nt r i b ut i o no ft heFo ur t hCo al i t i o nt ot hedefeato fNapo l eo n1 Br i t ai n 50 Pl ayedadec i s i v er o l e.Onl ymemb ero ft heFo ur t hCo al i t i o nt hathadno tb een defeat edb yNapo l eo n1.Vi c t o r yag ai ns tNapo l eo n1atTr afal g arkeptt heho pe o fdefeat i ngNapo l eo n 1al i v e.Us ed i t spo wer fulnav yt odefeatNapo l eo n. Des t r o yedt heDani s hfl eett hatNapo l eo nho pedt ous e. Des t r o yedt heCo nt i nent alS y s t em o fNapo l eo n.Is s uedt hec o unt erOr der si n Co unc i li nwhi c hi ti mpo s edat r adeemb ar g oag ai ns tNapo l eo n’ sal l i es .Real i s ed t hati twasac t ual l yt heal l i eso fNapo l eo nt hatneededhert r ademo s t .Fo r ex ampl et heRus s i ant r ader sfo undt het r adei nt i mb erandhempwi t hBr i t ai n qui t el uc r at i v e. Us ed i t snav yeffec t i v el yt oens ur et r adewasc ar r i ed o utt ot ho s eal l i eso f Napo l eo nt hatwer ewi l l i ngt o .Henc ei tens ur ed t hec o nt i nent als ys t em was di s as t r o usfo rNapo l eo n. Att heBat t l eo fWat er l o oBr i t ai npl ayed ac r uc i alr o l e.TheBr i t i s hDukeo f Wel l i ng t o ns t o o dhi sg r o undag ai ns tNapo l eo n1des pi t et hefac tt hatNapo l eo n r eg ar dedhi m has‘ ab adg ener alc o mmandi ngb adt r o o ps . ’TheFr enc hat t ac ks c o ul dno tpenet r at et het hi nBr i t i s hl i neswho s er i fl eswer es odeadl yt her eb y fo r c i ngNapo l eo nt os ur r enderandab di c at et het hr o neb efo r eb ei ngex i l edt o t hei s l ando fS tHel ena. Rus s i a Co nt r i b ut edt ot heb r eakupo fNapo l eo nal l i anc e.S ec r et l yc o nt i nuedt r adewi t h Br i t ai n b efo r e ev ent ual l y wal ki ng o ut o ft he al l i anc e henc e weakened Napo l eo n’ sal l i anc e. Pl ayedac r uc i alr o l efo rt heev ent ualdefeato fNapo l eo n.Thei rv i c t o r yi nt he Mo s c o wc ampai g ns i g nal edt hedemi s eo fNapo l eo n. Ado pt ed s uper i o rt ac t i c s ;s t r at eg i cwi t hdr awalfr o m Mo s c o wl eftNapo l eo n i s o l at edanddemo r al i z ed;har as s edNapo l eo nt r o o pswhi l ec ampedi nMo s c o w; hel pedt odel ayt heFr enc hi nMo s c o wunt i lwi nt ero fwhi c hNapo l eo nwasi l l pr epar ed;depr i v edNapo l eo nandhi st r o o pso ffo o dt hr o ug ht hes c o r c hedear t h po l i c y;des t r o yedb r i dg esb ui l to nt heNi emenRi v erandat t ac kedt heFr enc h henc eo ft he600000s o l di er st hatNapo l eo ns t ar t edwi t ho nl y30000madei t 51 b ac kt oFr anc e. Al s ot o o kpar ti nt heb at t l eo fNat i o nsal o ngwi t hAus t r i a,Pr us s i aandS wedeni n whi c ht heydefeat edNapo l eo nandfo r c edhi mt ofl eet ot heCo nfeder at i o no f t heRhi nel andwhi c hi nt ur nt ur nedag ai ns thi m.Al o ngwi t ht hePr us s i aKi ng , t hePr us s i anTs arent er edPar i si n1814t her eb yfo r c i ngNapo l eo nt oab di c at e andfl eet ot hei s l ando fEl b a. Pr us s i a Hadb eeni nv o l v edag ai ns tNapo l eo nasamemb ero ft hefi r s t ,s ec o ndandt hi r d c o al i t i o nt ho ug hs uffer i ngdefeat s .Butasamemb ero ft heFo ur t hCo al i t i o n Pr us s i as c o r ed s i g ni fi c ant v i c t o r i es ag ai ns t Napo l eo n.Thi s was aft er i t under wentar ev i v alo fi t sar myandr e-o r g ani z at i o no fi t ss o c i et y. S er fdo m wasab o l i s hed,el ec t edc o unc i l sundert hec o nt r o lo ft hemi ddl ec l as s andt hel ando wner swer ees t ab l i s hed,anewl anddi s t r i b ut i o nt hatb enefi t ed t hepeas ant swasi nt r o duc edandmi l i t ar yr efo r msi nt r o duc edi nwhi c ht her e wasuni v er s almi l i t ar ys er v i c eand t r ai ni ng .A l ar g epr o fes s i o nalar mywas c r eat ed. Thi sr ev i v alr es ul t edi nt her i s eo faPr us s i annat i o nal i s m.Theyno wc al l edfo r t her emo v alo fNapo l eo ni nGer many.Al s oenc o ur ag edo t hernat i o nal sunder t hedy nas t ys ys t em t ofi g htag ai ns tNapo l eo npr o mi s i ngt hem i ndependenc e. Theent r yo fPr us s i ai nt ot hewaro penedas ec o ndfr o ntfo rNapo l eo nhenc e Fr anc ewass t r et c hed. Al s ot o o kpar ti nt heb at t l eo fNat i o nsal o ngwi t hAus t r i a,Rus s i aandS wedeni n whi c ht heydefeat edNapo l eo nandfo r c edhi mt ofl eet ot heCo nfeder at i o no f t heRhi nel and t hatt ur ned ag ai ns thi m.Al o ngwi t ht heRus s i an Ts ar ,t he Pr us s i anKi ngent er edPar i si n1814t her eb yfo r c i ngNapo l eo nt oab di c at eand fl eet ot hei s l ando fEl b a. Aus t r i a Al s ob eeni nv o l v edi nt hes t r ug g l eag ai ns tNapo l eo n1asamemb ero ft hefi r s t , 52 s ec o ndandt hi r dc o al i t i o ns .Asamemb ero ft heFo ur t hCo al i t i o ni ts c o r eda s i g ni fi c antv i c t o r yt hatc o nt r i b ut edt ot hedefeato fNapo l eo n1. Att heb at t l eo fDr es deno fAug us t1813Aus t r i adefeat edNapo l eo n1. Al s ot o o kpar ti nt heb at t l eo fNat i o nsal o ngwi t hPr us s i a,Rus s i aandS wedeni n whi c ht heydefeat edNapo l eo nandfo r c edhi mt ofl eet ot heCo nfeder at i o no f t heRhi nel andt hatt ur nedag ai ns thi m. NB: Al s oc o ns i dert he fac tt hatNapo l eo n 1c o nt r i b ut ed t o hi so wn do wnfal l . Di s as t r o usc o nt i nent als ys t em,po o rj udg mentet c . Vi ennaS et t l ement1815 -Tomai nt ai npeac et hr o ug hab al anc eo fpo werandapr ev ent i o no fafur t her Fr enc hag g r es s i o n -Tomai nt ai naneffec t i v eal l i anc eo ft heg r eatpo wer s -Todi s t r i b ut edi s put edt er r i t o r i esi nanac c ept ab l eway. Feat ur es -Thepr i nc i pl eo fab al anc eo fpo wer -Ex pedi enc y -ThePr i nc i pl eo fl eg i t i mac y Pr i nc i pl eo faBal anc eo fPo wer - Att heVi enna S et t l ementa b al anc eo fpo werwasac hi ev ed t hr o ug ht he fo l l o wi ng : - Thepr ev ent i o no fafur t herFr enc hag g r es s i o n - The pr ev ent i o no f a do mi nat i o no f Pr us s i a and Rus s i ao ft he no r t her npar to fEur o pe 53 - Thedi s t r i b ut i o no ft hedi s put edt er r i t o r i esi nanac c ept ab l eway. -Thec o nc epto fab al anc eo fpo weri swher eb yo t herpo wer sfo r m anal l i anc e ag ai ns tapo wert hatat t empt st odo mi nat eo t her s . - Itwasan al l i anc eo fg r eatpo wer si n fo r mo ft hefo ur t hc o al i t i o nt hat defeat edNapo l eo ni n1815. -Itwashi g hl ypo s s i b l et hatFr anc ec o ul db eag g r es s i v ei nEur o pe. -Thi si si nv i ewo ft hefac tt hatato net i meNapo l eo nes c apedfr o m ex i l ei n 1815andat t empt edt or eas s er thi saut ho r i t yi nEur o peb yi nv adi ngBel g i um i n hi s100daysr ul e. -Iti sag ai ns ts uc has c enar i ot hatt heS t at es manatt heVi ennaS et t l ement c ameupwi t hdefens i v ear r ang ementi no r dert opr ev entt her e-o c c ur r enc eo f afur t herag g r es s i o ni nEur o pe. -Undert hear r ang ementAus t r i a waspl ac edi nIt al yb yb ei ngg r ant edc o nt r o l o ft her i c h pr o v i nc eso fIt al ynamel yLo mb ar dyand Venet i a and i ndi r ec t i nfl uenc ei nt heIt al i anS t at esnamel yt heKi ng do mo fNapl esandS i c i l y,t he PapalS t at est heduc hi eso fPar ma Mo dena and Tus c anywho s er ul eswer e c o nnec t edt ot ho s east heAus t r i anHab s b ur gMo nar c hy -Itwasho pedt hatt hepr es enc eo fapo wer fulAus t r i anwo ul dhel ps t r eng t hen t heS o ut her nIt al i anFr o nt i erwi t hFr anc e -Aft eral lBo napar t i s m wasb o r ni nt heIt al i anc ampai g n.Itwo ul dt her efo r e no tb es ur pr i s i ngt os eeafur t herFr anc eag g r es s i o nb eg i nni ngi nIt al y -Aus t r i awasal s og r ant edt hec o nt r o lo fGer manyc o nfeder at i o nundert he Pr es i dento fAus t r i a -Itwasj udg edt hatauni fi edandi ndependentGer manywo ul db eab l et o wi t hs t andaFr enc hag g r es s i o nt hust hepr es enc eo fAus t r i ai nGer manywo ul d s t r eng t hent heFr enc hfr o nt i eri naddi t i o nt oPr us s i at hatwasg i v enc o nt r o lo f Rhi nel and -Ino r dert os t r eng t hent heFr o nt i ero fBel g i um i nFr anc e,Bel g i um wasuni t ed wi t hHo l l and.Theev ent so f1815i nwhi c hNapo l eo nes c apedfr o m ex i l eand l andedi nEur o pefo r100dayswasas i g nalt ot hes t at es menatVi ennat hatan i ndependentBel g i umwo ul dno tab l et or es i s tafur t herFr enc hag g r es s i o n. 54 -Fr o mt hes t at es menpo i nto fv i ewi twi l lb eab et r ayalo fEur o pet ol eav ean i ndependentBel g i umatt hemer c yo fFr anc e. ThePr ev ent i o no faDo mi nat i o no fPr us s i aandRus s i a -Rus s i aand Pr us s i as ec r et l yar r ang ed t hatPr us s i awo ul dg ett hewho l eo f S ax o nywhi l eRus s i awi l lg ett hewho l eo fNapo l eo n’ sc r eat i o no ft heGr andDuc hy o fWar s aw. -Thi sar r ang ementwo ul dr es ul ti nt hes et wopo wer sdo mi nat i ngt heno r t her n par to fEur o pe.Thusanal l i anc eo ft her es to ft heg r eatpo wer snamel yBr i t ai n andAus t r i awasfo r medag ai ns tRus s i aandPr us s i a. -Int heend ab al anc eo fpo werwasmai nt ai ned whenRus s i aand Pr us s i a ag r eedt hatRus s i awo ul dg ett wot hi r dso ft heGr andDuc hyo fWar s awwhi l e Pr us s i awo ul dg ett wofi ft ho fS ax o ny. TheDi s t r i b ut i o no fDi s put edTer r i t o r y -TheNapo l eo ni cWar shad c r eat ed di s put esi nt er r i t o r i aldi s t r i b ut i o n.Thi s r es ul t edi nFr anc ehav i ngmo r et er r i t o r yt hant her es tt her eb yc aus i nganups et i nt heb al anc eo fpo weri nt er mso ft er r i t o r i aldi s t r i b ut i o n. -Thust hes t at es menatVi ennas o ug htt or es t o r eandmai nt ai nab al anc e i nt er mso ft er r i t o r i alpo s s es s i o n. -AtVi ennat er r i t o r ywasdi s t r i b ut edamo ngt hev i c t o r sass po i l sfo rt hei r wareffo r t .Ho wev erc ar ewast akent oens ur et hatab al anc ewasac hi ev ed. -Ther efo r ewher eo t her sl i keAus t r i ag ai nedi nt hes o ut hi nIt al yt hr o ug h di r ec tc o nt r o lo fVenet i aandLo mb ar dyandani ndi r ec tc o nt r o lo fIt al i an s t at esl i keNapl es ,t hePapalS t at es ,Mo dena,t heDuc hi eso fPar maand Tus c anywhower eal lc o nnec t edt ot heAus t r i anHab s b ur gmo nar c hy. -Ot her sl i keRus s i ag ai nedi nt heno r t ht hr o ug ht hec o nt r o lo ft hewho l eo f Bes s ar ab i a,Aus t r i ag ai nedi nGer manyb yb ei ngg i v ent hePr es i denc yo ft he 55 Ger manCo nfeder at i o no f39s t at eswhi l ePr us s i ag ai nedt hec o nt r o lo ft he Rhi nepr o v i nc es . -Whi l eAus t r i a,Pr us s i aandAus t r i amadet er r i t o r i alg ai nsi nc o nt i nent al Eur o pe,Br i t ai ns ec ur edt henav alb as esi nt heMedi t er r anean,Mal t aand Hel i g o l and.S heal s os ec ur edc o l o ni esl i ket heCape,Ceyl o n,Indi aandt he Wes tIndi es .Al lt hes eg ai nsenab l edBr i t ai nt ohav eadec i s i v ei nfl uenc ei n i nt er nat i o nalaffai r s . . ThePr i nc i pl eo fLeg i t i mac y -Thes t at es men atVi ennawer ewel lawar eo ft hefac tt hatal lt her ul er s depo s edb yNapo l eo nneededt ob er es t o r edt ot hei rt hr o ness i nc et heywer et he l eg i t i mat er ul er s . -WhenNapo l eo nc o nquer edt heEur o peant er r i t o r yher emo v edt her ul er sand appo i nt edhi sfr i endsandr el at i v eso nt hei rt hr o net oadmi ni s t ert hear easo n hi sb ehal f. -AtVi ennat her ul er swer er es t o r ed.Thes t at es menr eal i z edt hei mpo r t anc eo f r es t o r at i o nast heys awi ni tt hemeanso fmai nt ai ni ngEur o peanpeac e. -Theyr eas o nedt hatt hes el eg i t i mat er ul er swo ul db er el i edupo nt os t ampo ut ar ev o l ut i o ni nEur o pes i nc ei twasar ev o l ut i o nt hathadb r o ug htwari nEur o pe. - The r es t o r ed r ul er swer e Lo ui sXVIII o f Fr anc e,Fer di nand o fS pai n, Fer di nando fPo r t ug al ,Fer di nando ft heKi ng do mo fNapl esandS i c i l yandt he Ki ngo fPi edmo nt . - Ev en t ho ug ht he maj o r i t yo ft hes er ul er swer er eac t i o nar yt he Vi enna S et t l ementdi dno ts pec i fyho wt heys ho ul dr ul et ho ug ht heys ug g es t edar ul e t hr o ug hac o ns t i t ut i o n. Ex pedi enc y - Itwasan i mpo r t antfeat ur eo ft heVi enna S et t l ement .Itwaswher eb y 56 s o met hi ng i ss ac r i fi c ed i no r dert o ac hi ev e ano t her .Thusatt he Vi enna S et t l ementt hes t at es mendec i ded t os ac r i fi c et hefo r c eso fc hang enamel y nat i o nal i s mandl i b er al i s mi no r dert oac hi ev eEur o peanpeac e. -Thepr i nc i pl eo fab al anc eo fpo werwass ac r i fi c eddur i ngt hemai nt enanc eo f ab al anc eo fpo wer .Fo ri ns t anc ei nmai nt ai ni ngab al anc eo fpo wert hr o ug ht he pr ev ent i o no faFr enc hag g r es s i o nb ymaki ngadefens i v ear r ang ement . -It al ywasdeni edt heo ppo r t uni t yt og etuni fi ed.Aus t r i awasg i v enadi r ec t andi ndi r ec tc o nt r o lo fIt al y. -Ger manywasal s odeni eduni fi c at i o n.Ins t eadmo r et han200Ger mans t at es wer er eg r o upedt o39andc r eat edaGer manC o nfeder at i o nwho s ePr es i denc y wasg i v ent oAus t r i a. -Bel g i um l o s ti t si ndependenc eb yb ei nguni t edt oHo l l andt hatwaspo wer ful eno ug ht odo mi nat eher . - Po l and and Fi nl and wer eg i v en t oRus s i a aspar to fa c o mpr o mi s et hat pr ev ent edt hedo mi nanc eo fRus s i aal o ng s i dePr us s i ai nt heno r t her npar to f Eur o pe. - No r way l o s ti t si ndependenc e as i t was g i v en t oS weden as par to f c o mpens at i o nfo rl o s i ngFi nl andt oRus s i a. -Thepr i nc i pl eo fl eg i t i mac yr es ul t edi nt hes ac r i fi c eo fl i b er al i s mi no r dert o ac hi ev epeac e. -Dur i ngt heNapo l eo ni cer aal lt heEur o peant er r i t o r yfal l i ngunderNapo l eo ni c r ul ehadex per i enc eds o mel i b er alpo l i c i eso ft heNapo l eo ni cadmi ni s t r at i o n. -Butt hent heVi ennaS et t l ementr es t o r ed t her eac t i o nar yr ul er sand t hat i mpl i edt heendo ft hel i b er alphas ei nt hes ear eass uc hasS pai n,Po r t ug al , Pi edmo nt ,Fr anc eunderChar l esXandt heKi ng do mo fNapl es . Real i s t i c - TheVi enna S et t l ementc an b ec o ns i der ed asr eal i s t i cmeani ngt hatt he s t at es menmadepr ac t i c aldec i s i o ns .Theyc o ns i der edt hes i t uat i o nasi ts t o o di n 1815andmadedec i s i o nsac c o r di ng l y. 57 -Fo ri ns t anc ei n1815t hepr ev ai l i ngs i t uat i o nwast hatFr anc ec o ul dno tb e t r us t ed.Afur t herFr enc hag g r es s i o nwasar eal i t yc o ns i der i ngt hees c apeo f Napo l eo nfr o m El b aand hi sl andi ngi nFr anc eand at t emptt or eas s er thi s aut ho r i t yi nEur o pedur i ngt he100dayso fhi sr ul e. -Thememb er so ft heFo ur t hCo al i t i o ns uc hasBr i t ai n,Pr us s i a,Rus s i aand Aus t r i ahadfo ug htag ai ns tNapo l eo nandneededs po i l sast hev i c t o r s . -Napo l eo n’ sc o nques t sandt hes ub s equenti mpo s i t i o no fhi sdynas t ys ys t em r es ul t edi nanumb ero fdi s put edt er r i t o r y .Thes t at es menwer efac edwi t ha r eal i t yo ft heneedt odi s t r i b ut et hedi s put edt er r i t o r yi nanac c ept ab l eway. -Napo l eo n’ sdynas t ys ys t em r es ul t edi nt hel eg i t i mat er ul er sb ei ngdepo s ed. Thust hes t at es menwer efac edwi t hr ul er sneedi ngt ob er es t o r edo nt ot hei r t hr o nes . - Thust her es t o r ed r ul er swer eex pec t ed t os t amp o utanyr ev o l ut i o nar y mo v ement s . -Thust hes t at es menatVi ennat o o kmeas ur est opr ev entafur t herFr enc h ag g r es s i o nev eni fi tmeanti g no r i ngt hepr i nc i pl eo fnat i o nal i t y. -Thev i c t o r swer er ewar dedwi t hs po i l sev ent ho ug hi tmeantt hei g no r anc eo f t hepr i nc i pl eo fnat i o nal i t y . -Ab al anc eo fpo werwasmai nt ai nedt hr o ug ht heequaldi s t r i b ut i o no ft er r i t o r y t ho ug ht hepr i nc i pl eo fnat i o nal i t ywasi g no r edi nt hepr o c es s . -Thel eg i t i mat er ul er swer er es t o r edt ot hei rt hr o nesev ent ho ug hi tmeantt he r es t o r at i o no fEur o pe’ swo r s tr eac t i o nar yr ul er st her eb yg o i ngag ai ns tt hefo r c es o fc hang es uc hasl i b er al i s m. Reac t i o nar y -TheVi ennaS et t l ementwasr eac t i o nar y.Itwasag ai ns tpo l i t i c alpr o g r es s .Thi s wasi nv i ew o ft hefac tt hati twasag ai ns tt hefo r c eso fc hang enamel y nat i o nal i s mandl i b er al i s m. -Nat i o nal i s m wasi g no r edo nt hemai nt enanc eo fab al anc eo fpo werwhent he r ul er si nt r o duc ed s o me meas ur est opr ev enta fur t herFr enc h ag g r es s i o n, 58 pr ev ent edanat t emptb yRus s i aandPr us s i at odo mi nat eno r t her nEur o peand di s t r i b ut edal lt hedi s put edt er r i t o r yi nanac c ept ab l eway. -Nat i o nal i s mwasi g no r edwhens po i l swer ehandedo v ert ot hev i c t o r s . - Li b er al i s m wasi g no r ed when r es t o r i ngt hel eg i t i mat er ul er s ,t husEur o pe wi t nes s edt her es t o r at i o no ft hewo r s tr eac t i o nar yr ul er s . -Byi g no r i ngt hefo r c eso fc hang et her ul er sfac edr ev o l t sl at er .Fo ri ns t anc e t he1819– 20r ev o l t si nS pai n,Ger many,Po r t ug aland It al y;1830Bel g i an r ev o l ut i o nt hatputt heuni o nb et weenHo l l and and Bel g i um t oanend;t he Fr enc hr ev o l ut i o nt hatr emo v edt her es t o r edMo nar c hyo fChar l esXfr o mpo wer ; t her ev o l ut i o nsi nGer many,Po l andandIt al yt hatai medatuni fi c at i o nand i ndependenc e. THECONGRES SS YS TEM -I twasas ys t em i nwhi c ht heGr eatpo wer swo ul dmeett os o l v ei nt er nat i o nal pr o b l ems .Itwasno tani nt er nat i o nalo r g ani z at i o ns uc hast heUni t edNat i o ns Or g ani z at i o nt hatwasfo r medb yg ener alc o ns ens us . -Thi swasb ec aus et heGr eatPo wer shaddi ffer ento rdi v er g enti nt er es t sand ai mss uc h asBr i t ai nt hatwasc o nc er ned wi t h her s el fi nt er es t swhi l eo t her po wer sl i kePr us s i a,Aus t r i aandRus s i aai medatpr es er v i ngt hei rs t at esfr o m r ev o l ut i o ns . Or i g i ns -TheCo ng r es sS ys t em o r i g i nat edfr o mt het r ans fo r mat i o no ft heHo l yAl l i anc e b yMet t er ni c ho fAus t r i ai nt oaEur o peanal l i anc e. -Al ex anderIo fRus s i ahad s ug g es t ed aHo l yAl l i anc et hatwo ul dc r eat ea b r o t her ho o do fEur o peanr ul er sandpr o t es tr el i g i o n,peac e,j us t i c eandt r eat t hei rs ub j ec t si nt hel i g hto fr el i g i o uspr i nc i pl es . TheQuadr upl eAl l i anc e 59 -Mo s tEur o peanr ul er sdi dno tt aket hes ug g es t i o no fAl ex anderIo fRus s i ab ut t henMet t er ni c ht o o kupt hei deat ot r ans fo r mt heHo l yal l i anc ei nt oanal l i anc e o ft heGr eatpo wer skno wnast heQuadr upl eAl l i anc e. - Gener al l yt he al l i anc e wasai med atpr es er v i ng peac e and pr o mo t i ng c o o per at i o no ft heGr eatPo wer sb utt hent hes el fi nt er es t so ft heGr eatPo wer s t o o kpr i o r i t y. - Theal l i anc eag r eed t omeetr eg ul ar l ys ho ul dt her eb eanyi nt er nat i o nal pr o b l ems . TheCo ng r es s es Ai xl aChapel l e -Fr o mt heo ns ett heCo ng r es sS ys t em wasdo o medb ec aus eo fs us pi c i o n,j eal o us andmi s t r us to nt hes ur fac eo fal lag r eement smade. -Thec o ng r es sr e-admi t t edFr anc ei nt oanal l i anc eo ft heGr eatPo wer swhi c h wasr enamedt heQui nt upl eAl l i anc e. -Thi swasaft ert heGr eatpo wer sb ec amec o nv i nc edt hatFr anc ewasnol o ng er at hr eatt oEur o peanpeac e.Inanyc as eFr anc ehadpai dal li t si ndemni t y. -Butt hent heo r i g i nalmemb er so ft heal l i anc es ec r et l yag r eedt ofo r m an al l i anc eag ai ns tFr anc es ho ul di tpr o v et ob eanag g r es s o ri nfut ur e. -Ont hei s s ueo fr ev o l ut i o nsFr edr i c kWi l l i am o fPr us s i apr o po s edt hatanar my undert heBr i t i s hDukeo fWel l i ng t o nb es t at i o nedi nBel g i umt oc r us hr ev o l ut i o ns i nEur o pe. -Cas t l er ei g h,t heBr i t i s hS ec r et ar yo fS t at eo b j ec t edt ot hi spr o po s alb ypo i nt i ng o utt hatBr i t ai ns ho ul dno tb edr ag g edaut o mat i c al l yi nt oEur o peanc o nfl i c t . 60 - On pi r ac y and t he s l av et r ade t her e wer e fur t herdi s ag r eement s .The memb er so ft heQui nt upl eAl l i anc eo b j ec t edt ot hepr o po s al sb yBr i t ai nand Rus s i at ous et hei rfl eet st os t ampo utt hes l av et r adeandpi r ac yr es pec t i v el y. -Thi swasb ec aus et heywer eag ai ns tt heRus s i anpr es enc ei nt heMedi t er r anean and t heywer ej eal o uso fBr i t ai nb ec aus es hewo ul dg ai nt o omuc h po wer c o ns i der i ngt hefac tt hati thadt hel ar g es tnav y. Tr o ppau - Thi smeet i ngwasc al l ed fo l l o wi ngt he o ut b r eak o fr ev o l ut i o nsi nS pai n, Ger many,Napl esandt heS o ut hAmer i c anc o l o ni eso fS pai nandPo r t ug al . -Att hi smeet i ngs er i o usdi s ag r eement sar o s eb et weenBr i t ai nandt her es to f t heal l i eso v ert hec o ur s eo fac t i o nt ot akepl ac er eg ar di ngr ev o l ut i o ns . -Itwaspr o po s edt hatt hec o unt err ev o l ut i o nar ypo l i c es ys t emb ees t ab l i s hedi n Eur o peandt hatanex pedi t i o nb es entac r o s st heAt l ant i ct ofo r c et hec o l o ni es t her et or ev er tt ob ei ngt hes ub j ec t so ft hei rmo t herc o unt r i es . -Br i t ai no ppo s edt hi spr o po s alandadv i s edAus t r i at hati fs hefel tt hatt he ev ent si nIt al ywer eo fdi r ec tdo mes t i cc o nc er nt ohert hens hes ho ul di nt er v ene o nhero wnr es po ns i b i l i t y.Int heendt hemeet i ngwasadj o ur ned. Tr o ppauPr o t o c o l - Itwast hec o nt i nuat i o no ft heCo ng r es so fTr o ppau.Thepur po s eo ft he meet i ngwast ol aydo wnt hepr o c edur est ofo l l o wi nt heev ento far ev o l ut i o n. -Att hi smeet i ngi tb ec amec l eart hatt hedi ffer enc eb et weenBr i t ai nandher fel l o wal l i eswer es har p. -Br i t ai ndi dno tat t endb uts entano b s er v er .Att hemeet i ngt heal l i esag r eed t oo nl yac c eptar ev o l ut i o nfr o mab o v e.Theo nefr o mb el o wwasc o ns i der edg ui l t ands ho ul dt her efo r eb es uppr es s ed. Lai b ac h,1821 61 -Att hi sc o ng r es st hepr o v i s i o no ft hepr o t o c o lwer ec ar r i edo ut .Aus t r i ac r us hed t her ev o l ut i o ni nNapl esandr es t o r edFer di nandt ot het hr o newi t hful ldes po t i c po wer s . -Aus t r i a,wi t hRus s i anar myi nr es er v e,s uppr es s edt her ev o l ut i o ni nPi edmo nt andr es t o r edt heki ngt ohi st hr o newi t hful lpo wer s . Ver o na,1822 -Att hi sc o ng r es si tb ec amec l eart hatt hec o l l aps eo ft hec o ng r es ss ys t em was c er t ai n.Ano fferb yRus s i at os uppr es st her ev o l ut i o ni nS pai nwasr ej ec t edb y o t herpo wer swhodi dno twi s ht os eeaRus s i anfo r c emar c hi ngi nt ot hehear to f Eur o pe. -Int heendi twasFr anc et hats uppr es s edt her ev o l ut i o ni nS pai nr es t o r ed Fer di nandwi t hful lpo wer s . -No wt hatt her ev o l ut i o ni nS pai nhadb eens uppr es s edat t ent i o nno wfo c us ed o nt heS pani s hc o l o ni esi nAmer i c an. -Itwasatt hi spo i ntt hatt heBr i t i s hi nt er v enedb ec aus et hei ri nt er es t swer e i nv o l v ed.S hewasno wab l et ot r adefr eel ywi t ht hes efo r merc o l o ni es . -TheUS Ag o v er nmenti s s ued awar ni ngt ot heal l i esi nt hefo r m aMo nr o e Do c t r i net hatwar ned t hem ag ai ns tt hei rmi l i t ar ypr es enc eo nt heAmer i c an c o nt i nent . -Asar es ul tt heex pedi t i o nt oAmer i c awasc al l edo ffandar ev o l ut i o nfr o m b el o wwasal l o wedt ot r i umpht her eb yv i o l at i ngt heTr o ppauPr o t o c o l . TheGr eekWaro fIndependenc e -TheGr eekWaro fIndependenc ewast hefi nalb l o wt ot hec o ng r es ss ys t em. Al ex anderIo fRus s i ahadb eens uc c eededb yNi c ho l asIupo nhi sdeat h. -Ni c ho l asIwasdet er mi nedt oas s i s tt heGr eeksi ng ai ni ngi ndependenc efr o m Tur key.Butt henBr i t ai nandFr anc edi dno twi s ht os eeRus s i aac t i ngal o net hus t heyas s i s t edRus s i a. 62 -Tur keywasdefeat edb yac o mb i nedfo r c eatNav ar i noBayi n1827.Thi swas o nc eag ai nadi r ec tv i o l at i o no ft heTr o ppauPr o t o c o lt hatdi dno tac c epta r ev o l ut i o nfr o mb el o w. -Thust hec o ng r es ss ys t emc o l l aps ed. THEBOURBONMONARCHY Res t o r at i o ni nFr anc e:1815–1830 Lo ui sXVI:1825–1824 -L o ui sXVIIIdi dno tfo r g ett hatar ev o l ut i o nhadt akenpl ac ei nFr anc e.Thus dur i nghi sr ei g nhedi dno tr ewi ndt hec l o c kb ac kt ot hepr e-1789per i o d. -Ev eno nhi sdeat hb ed,headv i s ed hi sb r o t herCo mt ed’ Ar t o i swhowast o s uc c eedno tt or ewi ndt hec l o c kb ac kt ot hepr e-1789per i o d. -Bec aus eo fhi spo l i c i esLo ui sXVIwass uc c es s fuli nmai nt ai ni nghi ms el fo nt he Fr enc ht hr o ne. Char t er -Lo ui sXVIIIr ul edb yt hec har t ert hathadb eens ug g es t edb yt heEur o pean s t at es menatt heVi ennaS et t l ement . -Itpr o v i dedfo requal i t yb efo r et hel aw,l i b er t y,andl andg uar ant eefo rt he peas ant s ,afr anc hi s e,anas s emb l yandc ab i netmi ni s t er sappo i nt edb yt heki ng , appo i nt mentb ymer i tandafr eepr es s . -Bec aus eo ft hes epr o v i s i o nsFr anc ehadper hapst hemo s tl i b er alg o v er nment i nEur o pewi t ht heex c ept i o no fEng l and. Cho i c eo fChi efMi ni s t er s 63 -Lo ui sXVIIIhadag o o dc ho i c eo fmi ni s t er s .Inhi sr ei g nhehadt woMi ni s t er s , Ri c hel i euandVi l l el ewhos har edt hes o meai msashi m. -Theyb o t hai medatmai nt ai ni ngt hel i b er t i esg uar ant eedb yt hec har t er .L i ke t hei rki ngt heyb o t hr ec o g ni z edt hatar ev o l ut i o nhadt akenpl ac e. Co nt ai nedt heFo r c eso fReac t i o n -Res t o r at i o ni nFr anc emeantt her et ur no ft heémi g r ésunderCo mt ed’ Ar t o i s . Lo ui sXVIII c ame underpr es s ur e fr o m t hes e fo r merémi g r ésdemandi ng r ev eng eag ai ns tt her ev o l ut i o nar i esandt heBo napar t i s t s . -Theyas s as s i nat eds o meBo napar t i s t sl i keNey,Car no t ,andMar s halBr une. Theyal s odemandedt her et ur no fas ys t em o fpr i v i l eg es ,pr es sc ens o r s hi pand Cat ho l i cChur c hi nfl uenc ei ns t at e. -Lo ui sXVIIIr eal i z edt hedang er so fg i v i ngi nt ot hes edemands .Mo s to ft hes e demandswer eb ei ngdo nei nt heas s emb l ydo mi nat edb yt heul t r a-r o yal i s t sdue t ot hefr anc hi s es ys t em. -Lo ui sXVII Ir eac t edb ydi s s o l v i ngt heas s emb l yandc al l edfo rfr es hel ec t i o ns i n1816t hatr et ur nedamaj o r i t yi nt heas s emb l yt hatfav o ur edt heki ng ’ spo l i c y. Re-i nt eg r at i o no fFr anc ei nt oaGr eatPo werAl l i anc e -Lo ui sXVIIIpo l i c i esenab l edFr anc et ob er e-i nt eg r at edi nt ot heal l i anc eo f t heg r eatpo wer satt hec o ng r es so ft heAi xl aChapel l e. - Thi swasaft erLo ui sXVIIIfo l l o wed a mo der at efo r ei g n po l i c yt hatwas ac c ept ab l et ot heg r eatpo wer s . -Fr anc ehadpai do fft hewari ndemni t yandt heo c c upat i o nfo r c eo ft heg r eat po wer shadt ob ewi t hdr awn. -Thust heg r eatpo wer swer ec o nv i nc ed t hatat hr eato fafur t herFr enc h ag g r es s i o nnol o ng erex i s t ed. 64 Co nt ai nedt heFo r c eso fChang e -The1819el ec t i o nsb r o ug htmo der at el i b er al sandex t r emer epub l i c ansi nt ot he as s emb l yi nl ar g enumb er s . - Taki ng adv ant ag eo ft hei rg r eat er numb er st hey demanded ex t r eme meas ur es .Tomaket hei rdemandsmo r es er i o ust heymur der edDucdeBer it he s o no fCo mt ed‘ Ar t o i s . -S uc hamo v ewasv i ewedasanat t emptt oex t i ng ui s ht heBo ur b o nl i ne.Ino r der t odealwi t ht hi sc hal l eng eLo ui sal t er edt hefr anc hi s et og i v et hel ando wner s t wov o t esi ns t eado fo ne. -Int hi swayamaj o r i t yo ft her o yal i s t swasb r o ug hti nt ot heas s emb l y. CHARLESX:1824–1830 -Char l esXs uc c eededhi sb r o t herLo ui sXVIIIast henex tFr enc hKi ng .Hewas t hel eadero ft hefo r merémi g r ésfo r mer l yc al l edCo mt ed’ Ar t o i s . -Onhi sent hr o nementhet o o kt het i t l eChar l esX.Ast heki ngChar l esXl ear nt no t hi ngab o utt her ev o l ut i o n.Thi swashar dl ys ur pr i s i ngc o ns i der i ngt hefac t t hathewasanémi g r ésl eaderwhohadfo ug htag ai ns tt her ev o l ut i o n. -Inanyc as edur i ngt her ei g no fhi sb r o t herLo ui sXVIIIheb ec amet hel eader o f t he Ul t r a- r o yal i s t s who amo ng o t her t hi ng s demanded r ev eng e, c o mpens at i o nandt her es t o r at i o no ft hes ys t emo fpr i v i l eg es . -Fur t her mo r ehewasamo ngt ho s et hato r g ani z ed t heas s as s i nat i o no ft he Bo napar t i s t sieMar s hal sBr uneandCar no t . TheReas o nsfo rt hefai l ur eo fRes t o r at i o nunderChar l esX 1. Refus alt or ul et hr o ug haChar t er -Char l esXdi dno tfo l l o wt headv i c eo fhi sb r o t herLo ui sXVIIIo fno tr ewi ndi ng t hec l o c kb ac kt ot hepr e-1789per i o d. 65 -Her efus edt or ul eb yac har t erpo i nt i ngo ut“ Iwo ul dr at herc ho pwo o dt han r ul ei nt hes t yl eo ft heki ngo fEng l and. ” -Int heendChar l esXr ul edb ydec r ee. 2. Reac t i o nar yPo l i c i es -Upo nhi sent hr o nementChar l esXado pt edar eac t i o nar yr ul e.Hes t ar t edo ff b yc o mpens at i ngt hefo r merémi g r ésfo rt hei rl o s s esdur i ngt her ev o l ut i o nus i ng mo neyr ai s edamo ngt hemi ddl ec l as s . - He r ev i v ed t he Cat ho l i c Chur c hi nfl uenc ei ns t at e affai r s .Co r o nat i o n c er emo ni eswer er ev i v edandpr es i dedo v erb yt hec hur c h. - Mo nas t i co r der swer er ei nt r o duc ed and t heJes ui ts o c i et ywasal l o wed t o r et ur nt hec hur c hwasg r ant edt hec o nt r o lo fel ement ar yeduc at i o n. -TheNat i o nalGuar dwasdi s b anded.Ithadb eenc r eat eddur i ngt her ev o l ut i o n asag uar ant o ro fr ev o l ut i o nar yg ai ns .It sdi s b andb yt heki ngwass eenb yt he peo pl eass i g nalt hatt hedayso ft her ev o l ut i o nwer ec o mi ngt oanend. -Vi l l el e,whowast hec hi efMi ni s t err es i g nedb ec aus ehec o ul dno ts t andt he r at eatwhi c ht her eac t i o nar ypo l i c i eswer eb ei ngi mpl ement edb yt heki ng . -Mar t g nacwhos uc c eededVi l l el east heC hi efMi ni s t erwass o o ndi s mi s s ed b ec aus ehewasc o ns i der edno tr eac t i o nar yeno ug h. -Heappo i nt edar eac t i o nar yMi ni s t er ,Po l i g nacwhohadt hes amepo l i c i es ashi ms el f. -Po l i g nacai medatc r eat i ngapo wer fular i s t o c r ac yandt hens ur r o undsi t wi t hpr i v i l eg eshenc ewant edt or ewi ndt hec l o c kb ac kt o1789. -Char l esXado pt edar ul eb ydec r ee.Theel ec t i o nso f1829b r o ug hta maj o r i t yo ft hel i b er al si nt ot heas s emb l y . - Char l esX r eac t ed t ot hi sb yi s s ui nga dec r eei nt hefo r mo ft he Or di nanc eo fS tCl o udt hats etas i det heel ec t i o nr es ul t s .Thi swasafi nal s t r awt hats pannedt hepeo pl ei nt oac t i o n. -Ar ev o l ut i o nb r o keo uti nJul y1830andr emo v edChar l esXfr o m po wer t her eb ymar ki ngt heend o fr es t o r at i o nand t heBo ur b o nMo nar c hyi n 66 Fr anc e. THEORLEANSMONARCHY( THEJULYMONARCHY) :1830-1848 Int r o duc t i o n -Lo ui sPhi l i ppe,t heOr l eansMo nar c h,hadami ddl ec l as sb ac kg r o und.Hewas uns pec t ac ul arandl edas i mpl el i fe.Hemi x edfr eel ywi t ht hepeo pl ewal ki ng do wnt hes t r eet swi t hanumb r el l ai nhand.Hei ndeedwasaCi t i z enKi ng . -HewasFr anc e’ sfi r s tel ec t edki ngb yanas s emb l yt hatwasdo mi nat edb yt he mi ddl ec l as s .Hewasac o mpr o mi s ec andi dat eashewasl i kel yt ob eac c ept edb y t hel i b er al so nt heo nehandandt her o yal i s t so nt heo t her . -Bei nganel ec t edpl ac edLo ui sPhi l i ppei nadi ffi c ul tpo s i t i o n.Hav i ngb een el ec t edb yt hemi ddl ec l as shewasex pec t edt odanc et ot hei rt une. -Thi spr o v eddi ffi c ul tc o ns i der i ngt hefac tt hatFr anc ewaspo l i t i c al l ydi v i ded. Thel i b er al sdemandedfr eedo mt hr o ug hamo r er adi c alr efo r mpr o g r amme,t he s o c i al i s t swant edas o c i al i s tg o v er nment ,t her epub l i c answant edar epub l i c an fo r mo fg o v er nment ,t hel eg i t i mi s t swant ed t her es t o r at i o no ft heBo ur b o n Mo nar c hy,t heBo napar t i s t swi s hed fo rt her et ur no fBo napar t i s m and t he Cat ho l i c sai medt heful lr et ur no ft heCat ho l i cChur c hi nt os t at eaffai r sandi n educ at i o n. Do mes t i cPo l i c y -Inhi sdo mes t i cpo l i c yLo ui sPhi l i ppepr o mo t edt hei nt er es t so ft hemi ddl e c l as so fFr anc e.Thi sr es ul t ed i n hi mb ei ngal i enat ed fr o mt her es to ft he Fr enc hment husl eadi ngt ohi sdo wnfal l . TheChar t er -Lo ui sPhi l i pper ul edt hr o ug hac har t er .Itpr o v i dedfo ranel ec t edas s emb l y,a 67 fr anc hi s e,g uar ant eeo nl andg ai neddur i ngt her ev o l ut i o n,t henat i o nalg uar d andt heequal i t yo fal lFr enc hpeo pl e. TheMi ddl eCl as sDo mi nat i o n - Ther ul eo fLo ui sPhi l i ppewasmo s t l yc har ac t er i z ed b yt hemi ddl ec l as s do mi nat i o no fhi sdo mes t i candfo r ei g npo l i c i es . -Bei nganel ec t edki ngi tmeanthehadt ofo l l o wapo l i c ypr es c r i b edb yt he mi ddl ec l as s .Thi shadaneffec to fant ag o ni z i ngt her es to ft heg r o upst hat ex i s t edi nFr anc e. -Thefr anc hi s es ys t em fav o ur edt hemi ddl ec l as shenc et heywer eel ec t eda l ar g enumb er si nt ot heas s emb l yandc o mmandedamaj o r i t y. -Us i ngt hei rmaj o r i t yi nt heas s emb l yt hemi ddl ec l as sg ai nedt hec o nt r o lo ft he Nat i o nalGuar dt hatb ec ameami ddl ec l as si nc o mpo s i t i o n.Thusi twaso ft en us edt os er v et hei nt er es t so ft hemi ddl ec l as s . -Fo rex ampl et heNat i o nalGuar dwasus edo ns ev er alo c c as i o nst os uppr es s r ev o l t sag ai ns tt hemi ddl ec l as sdo mi nat i o nie1834s t r i keb yt heLyo nwo r ker s . TheLawo fAs s o c i at i o n -Lo ui sPhi l i ppepas s edt heLawo fAs s o c i at i o nt hatb annedpo l i t i c alas s o c i at i o n o ranydi s c us s i o no fanal t er nat i v efo r mo fg o v er nment . -S uc hal awwasev i dent l ydi r ec t edag ai ns tt hel eg i t i mi s t s ,s o c i al i s t sandt he r epub l i c ans . Refus alt oEx t endt heFr anc hi s e -Theex i s t i ngfr anc hi s emo s t l ys ui t edt hemi ddl ec l as sanddi s adv ant ag edt he wo r ki ngc l as sandt hepeas ant s . -Ont hr eeo c c as i o nst hedi s adv ant ag edg r o uppet i t i o nedt heas s emb l yfo rt he 68 ex t ens i o no ft hefr anc hi s e.Onal lo c c as i o nst hepet i t i o nswer er ej ec t ed. - TheChi efMi ni s t erGui z o to ppo s ed t heex t ens i o n po i nt i ngo utt hatt ho s e demandi nganex t ens i o nmus two r khar dandear nands av emo neyi no r dert o qual i fyasv o t er s . TheFo r ei g nPo l i c y -Itwast hemi ddl ec l as st hatdi c t at edt hefo r ei g npo l i c yo fLo ui sPhi l i ppe.The po l i c ywaspeac efulandc aut i o uses pec i al l yt oBr i t ai n. -S uc hapo l i c yr es ul t edi nFr anc epo l i c ypl ayi ngs ec o ndfi ddl et ot heBr i t i s h. Thi sant ag o ni z edt heBo napar t i s t swhowi s hedfo rag l o r i o usfo r ei g npo l i c yand t hel i b er al swhoex pec t edt heki ngt oc hampi o nt hel i b er alc aus ei nEur o pe. TheRev o l ut i o nsi nBel g i um,It al yandPo l and -Ac aut i o usandpeac efulpo l i c yb yLo ui sPhi l i ppeo nt her ev o l ut i o nsi nBel g i um, It al yandPo l andant ag o ni z eds o mes ec t i o nso fFr anc e. -Ant ag o ni z edwer et hel i b er al st hatex pec t edt heki ngt oas s i s tal i b er alc aus e i nt hes ec o unt r i est hatdr ewi ns pi r at i o nfr o m as uc c es s fulr ev o l ut i o ni nFr anc e i n1830t hatr emo v edChar l esXar eac t i o nar yr ul erfr o mpo wer . -TheBo napar t i s t sho pedt hatLo ui sPhi l i ppewo ul dr ev i v et heFr enc hg l o r yand b r i ngb ac kt heg l o r i o usdayso fBo napar t i s m. -Butt henLo ui sPhi l i ppewaswel lawar et hatfo l l o wi ngt hewi s heso ft hel i b er al s andt heBo napar t i s t smeantadi r ec tc hal l eng eo nt heVi ennas et t l ementand i t sar c hi t ec t sandi twasal s oc o nt r ar yt ot hewi s heso ft hemi ddl ec l as st hat want ed t omai nt ai n peac efulr el at i o nswi t ht heEur o pean po wer ses pec i al l y Br i t ai n. -Thusi nt heLo ui sPhi l i ppeo pt edfo rpeac efulandc aut i o usfo r ei g npo l i c yt hat r es ul t edi nFr anc epl ayi ngas ec o ndfi ddl et ot heBr i t i s h. -TheBel g i ans ,ho pi ngfo rt heFr enc hs uppo r to ffer edt het hr o net ot hes o no f 69 Lo ui sPhi l i ppe.Br i t ai nwasag ai ns tt hi so ffers i nc ei two ul dr ev i v et heo l duni o n b et weenBel g i umandFr anc e. -Tomai nt ai npeac efulr el at i o nswi t hBr i t ai nLo ui sPhi l i ppet ur neddo wnt he o ffer .Int heendi twasBr i t ai nt hathadadec i s i v ei nfl uenc eo nt het er mso f t heBel g i ani ndependenc eatt heLo ndo nCo nfer enc ei n1839. -Fur t her mo r e,o nt her ev o l ut i o ni nIt al yandPo l andt hel i b er al si nFr anc e, It al yandPo l andwer el o o ki ngfo r war dt oFr anc eg i v i ngas s i s t anc e. -Butg r ant i ngt hel i b er al st hei rwi s hwo ul dhav er es ul t edi nFr anc ec l as hi ng wi t ht heGr eatPo wer ses pec i al l yBr i t ai n. TheAffai ro fMehemetAl i ,1839 -Thel i b er al sandBo napar t i s t sex pec t edLo ui sPhi l i ppet oas s i s tMehemetAl ii n hi ss t r ug g l e ag ai ns tTur key.Thi er s ,t he Chi ef Mi ni s t erwant ed Fr anc et o i nt er v eneandhel pAl i . -ButBr i t ai ndi dno twi s ht os eet hei nt er v ent i o no fFr anc et hatwo ul dr es ul ti n t hei nc r eas eo ft heFr enc hi nfl uenc ei nt heMedi t er r anean.ASar es ul tLo ui s Phi l i ppe r es t r ai ned hi sChi ef Mi ni s t erfr o m i nt er v eni ng ashe want ed t o mai nt ai napeac efulpo l i c ywi t ht heGr eatPo wer ses pec i al l yBr i t ai n. - Thus o nc e ag ai n Fr anc e pl ayed s ec o nd fi ddl et ot he Br i t i s ht her eb y ant ag o ni z i ngt hel i b er al sandBo napar t i s m. ThePo l i c yo nS pani s hMar r i ag es -Unt i l1846t hepo s i t i o no fLo ui sPhi l i ppeaski ngwass ec ur e.Whatt henl edt o hi sdo wnfal lwashi spo l i c yo nt heS pani s hmar r i ag est hatr es ul t edi nhi ml o s i ng t hes uppo r tfr o mt hemi ddl ec l as s . - TheQueen o fS pai n and hers i s t erwer eb o t h unmar r i ed.An ag r eement b et ween Fr anc eand Br i t ai ns t i pul at ed t hatQueen wo ul d mar r ya Ger man Pr i nc ewhi l et heyo ung ers i s t ermar r i est hes o no fLo ui sPhi l i ppe. 70 -Itwasfur t herag r eedt hatt hes ec o ndmar r i ag eo ft hes o no fLo ui sPhi l i ppe wo ul do nl yt akepl ac eaft ert hato ft heQueenandt heGer manPr i nc eand aft ert heypr o duc edanhei r . -Int hi swayBr i t ai nho pedt opr ev entano l duni o nb et weenFr anc eandS pai n. Fr anc e,ho wev er ,v i o l at edt hemar r i ag eb yc el eb r at i ngt hemar r i ag eo nt hes ame day . -Itl at eremer g edt hatt heGer manPr i nc ewasunab l et opr o duc ec hi l dr en. ThusLo ui sPhi l i ppeac hi ev edt hev er yt hi ngt hatBr i t ai nwant edt opr ev ent ,a uni o nb et weenFr anc eandS pai n. -TheBr i t i s hg o v er nmentr eac t edb yendi ngi t sfr i ends hi pwi t hFr anc e.Wi t h t hatLo ui sPhi l i ppel o s tt hes uppo r to ft hemi ddl ec l as s . TheCi v i lWari nS wi t z er l and - An at t emptb yLo ui sPhi l i ppe t os wi t c ho v ert ot he Cat ho l i c st hr o ug ha s uc c es s fuli nt er v ent i o ni nt he c i v i lwari nS wi t z er l and o nt he s i de o ft he Cat ho l i c sag ai ns tt hel i b er al sfai l ed. -Br i t ai ns c o r edyetano t herdi pl o mat i cv i c t o r yo v erFr anc et her eb yens ur i ng t hev i c t o r yo ft hel i b er al s . -Hi si nt er v ent i o nant ag o ni z edt hel i b er al sb ec aus ehi sac t i o nwasanat t emptt o b l o c kt hel i b er alc aus e. Heal s oant ag o ni z edt heCat ho l i c sashefai l edt oens ur eaCat ho l i cv i c t o r yi n S wi t z er l and. Co nc l us i o n -ThusLo ui sPhi l i ppe’ sdo mes t i cpo l i c yandfo r ei g npo l i c yb y1846meantt hathe di dno thav es uppo r ti nFr anc e.ThusFr anc ewasb o r ed. -Unt i lno wo ppo s i t i o nt ohi spo l i c i eshadb eendr i v enunder g r o und.Thi st i mei t emer g edi nt hefo r mo fr efo r mb anquet so r g ani z edb yt hes o c i al i s t sunderLo ui s Bl anc . 71 -Thust heFr enc ht o o kac o l l ec t i v eeffo r tag ai ns tt heOr l eansMo nar c hyb et ween Feb r uar y20and22i n1848. -TheNat i o nalGuar dt hatwass entt os uppr es st her ev o l tfr at er ni z edwi t ht he r ev o l ut i o nar i es . -Theki ngab di c at edt het hr o neandfl edt oEng l and.Thust her ei g no f18 year so ft heOr l eansMo nar c hyc amet oendt hr o ug har ev o l ut i o n. THEUNIFICATIONOFITALY Int r o duc t i o n -Theuni fi c at i o no fIt al ywasc o nt r i b ut i o no fMaz z i ni ,Cav o ur ,Fo r ei g npo wer s , Gar i b al di ,Pi edmo ntandt heIt al i anpeo pl e. -Maz z i nii ns pi r edt hemo v ementfo rt heuni fi c at i o no fIt al y.Cav o urwast he b r ai nb ehi ndt heuni fi c at i o npr o c es s ,Gar i b al diwast heb o dyiet hes o l di ert hat fo ug htfo runi fi c at i o n,t hes t at eo fPi edmo ntpr o v i dedt hel eader s hi p,mi l i t ar y andec o no mi cr es o ur c esfo runi fi c at i o nandt hepeo pl eo fIt al ys uppo r t edal l effo r t st og etuni t ed. Bac kg r o und -TheVi ennas et t l emento f1815deni edIt al yt heo ppo r t uni t yt og etuni fi ed.It l eftt heIt al i ansdi v i dedi nt os epar at es t at es ,i nt heno r t hwast hes t at eo f Pi edmo ntandLo mb ar dyandVenet i a. -Att hec ent r ewer et hePapalS t at esandt heDuc hi eso fPar ma,Mo denaand Tus c ar nyandi nt hes o ut hwast heki ng do mo fNapl esandS i c i l y. - Of al lt hes es t at esPi edmo ntwasfr ee fr o m Aus t r i an do mi nat i o n whi l e Lo mb ar dyandVenet i awer eunderdi r ec tc o nt r o lo fAus t r i aandt her es to f c ent r alands o ut her nIt al yi ndi r ec t l yc o nt r o l l ed. Ear l yAt t empt st oUni fyIt al y 72 -At t empt st ouni fyIt al yt hr o ug hr ev o l ut i o nsandr ev o l t si n1819,1820,1830 and1848fai l ed. - Thi swasb ec aus euni fi c at i o nl ac ked po pul ars uppo r tasmo s tpeo pl ewer e unawar eo ft her ev o l ut i o nar yi deal s .Ther ev o l ut i o nar yl eader shadl i t t l ei dea o f ho wt oc o nduc t an effec t i v er ev o l ut i o n.Al s ol o c alr i v al r y pr ev ent ed uni fi c at i o n.Mo denaandBo l o g nac o ul dno two r kt o g et her . -Thepo l i c yo f“ It al i afar adas e! ”meani ngIt al ywi l ldoi tal o nefai l edasIt al y wasno ts t r o ngeno ug ht ouni fyi t s el fwi t ho utfo r ei g nhel p. -Aus t r i awast o os t r o ngfo rIt al yhenc ec r us hedal lt her ev o l ut i o ns . -Thepeo pl eo fS i c i l ywer emo r ec o nc er nedwi t ht hei rl o c alneedst hanat o t al uni fi c at i o no fIt al y. -Maz z i nihadanunc o mpr o mi s i ngat t i t udet hatmadei tdi ffi c ul t yfo ro t her st o wo r kwi t hhi m. -ThePo pe,ani nfl uent i alfi g ur e,c o ndemnedt he1848waro nAus t r i at hat c o ul dhav er es ul t edi nt heuni fi c at i o no fIt al y. Maz z i ni -Hewast hes o ulo ft hemo v ementhenc ei ns pi r edt hemo v ement .Heac hi ev ed t hi sb ypr eac hi ngt hei deao funi fi c at i o nt hr o ug hwr i t t enands po kenwo r d. -Hefo undednumer o uss o c i et i esandnews paper sandus edt hem t oi nv o ket he s pi r i to funi fi c at i o namo ngt heIt al i anpeo pl e. -Heb el i ev edi nt heus eo ft heo r di nar ypeo pl ei nt hepr o c es so funi fi c at i o n. Thushe fo unded t he Yo ung It al yS o c i et yt ol ead t he mo v ementfo rt he uni fi c at i o no fIt al y. -It spr o g r ammei nv o l v edac o ns t antr i s i ngt hatwo ul duns et t l eAus t r i aands t i r t hepeo pl et ob ec o menat i o nal i s tanddr i v et heAus t r i anso uto fIt al y. -Hear g uedt hatt heIt al i anpeo pl ehav es pi r i t ualfai t hi nuni fi c at i o nandt hat i twasGo d’ swi l lfo rIt al yt ob euni t ed. -Hi ss l o g anwas“ It al i afar adas e! ”Thefo r ei g npo wer shadnor o o mt opl ayi n 73 t heuni fi c at i o no fIt al y. -Heb el i ev edt hatt hei nv o l v emento ft hefo r ei g ner swo ul db r i ngwi t hi tpo l i t i c al b ar g ai nss i nc et heywo ul dnev eras s i s tIt al yfo rno t hi ng . Ac t i v i t i es -1830sand1840sMaz z i niandhi sfo l l o wer seng ag edi nc o ns t antr i s i ng st hat wer eeas i l yc r us hedb yAus t r i a. -S o meo fhi sfo l l o wer sg o tc o nc er nedt hatb l o o dwasb ei ngs pl i tunnec es s ar i l y. Maz z i nii ns i s t edt hatt hemo r et hepeo pl edi et hemo r et hemo v ementwo ul db e t akens er i o us l y.S uc hanunc o mpr o mi s i ngat t i t uder es ul t edi nhi ml o s i ngahug e fo l l o wi ngi nt he1840s . -Maz z i niwasac t i v ei nt he1848r ev o l ut i o nsal o ngwi t hGar i b al diwhent heyl eda r ev o l ut i o ni nCent r alIt al y.Theydepo s edt hePo peandt o o ko v ert hePapal S t at esandpr o c l ai medt heRo manr epub l i c . -TheRepub l i cwass ho r tl i v ed.Maz z i niandGar i b al didi dno tappr ec i at et he fac tt hatt hePo pewasani nt er nat i o nall eader . -Thusac o mb i ned fo r c eo fRus s i aand t heCat ho l i cpo wer snamel yFr anc e, Aus t r i aandS pai nwi t hRus s i ac r us hedt heRepub l i candr es t o r edt hePo pet ohi s t hr o newi t hful lpo wer s . -ThusMaz z i nifai l edi nhi so b j ec t i v et ouni fyIt al y.Hi spo l i c yo f“ It al i afar a das e! ”wasac o mpl et efai l ur es i nc eIt al ywasec o no mi c al l yandmi l i t ar i l yweak anddi v i ded.Ex t er nalhel pwasev i dent l yr equi r ed. Leg ac y - Tho ug h a fai l ur ei nt hes ho r tt er m,Maz z i nil efta l eg ac yt hatpr o v ed s i g ni fi c antdur i ng t he per i o d.Thr o ug h hi si ns pi r at i o n,t he It al i an peo pl e par t i c i pat edwi t hg r eatent hus i as mi nt heuni fi c at i o no fIt al y. -Theeffo r t so fMaz z i niar es eenb yt heg r eat erpar t i c i pat i o no ft heIt al i an peo pl ei nt her i s i ng si nc ent r alIt al y,i nt heAus t r o -Pi edmo nt es eWaro f1859 74 andt heAus t r o -Pr us s i anWaro f1866. -Thepeo pl eal s ov o t edpo s i t i v el yi nt hepl eb i s c i t eo f1860t hatb r o ug htIt al y i nt oauni o nwi t hPi edmo nt . -Maz z i ni ’ si ns pi r at i o nmadeat ho us andpeo pl ev o l unt eert oj o i nGar i b al dii na r i s i ngt hatb r o ug htt heKi ng do mo fNapl esandS i c i l yi nt ouni fi c at i o n. Cav o ur -Pl ay edac ent r alr o l ei nt heuni fi c at i o npr o c es s .Hes t r eng t henedPi edmo nt ec o no mi c al l yandmi l i t ar i l ys oast ot hel eadi nuni fi c at i o n.Heal s ob r o ug hti n t hefo r ei g npo wer st og i v es uppo r tandas s i s t anc e. Refo r msi nPi edmo nt -Pi edmo ntwast heo nl ys t at et hatwasfr eeo fAus t r i ando mi nat i o nb ei tdi r ec t o ri ndi r ec t .Thi smade t he s t at eo f Pi edmo nta nat ur all eader o ft he uni fi c at i o npr o c es s . -Cav o urwasawar et hatt heeffo r t st ouni fyIt al yi n1848fai l edb ec aus eIt al y wast o oweakt ouni fyi t s el f.Thusheemb ar ked o nar efo r m pr o g r ammet o s t r eng t henPi edmo nt . Co mmer c eandIndus t r y -Hepr o mo t edt hei nt er es t so ft hemi ddl ec l as smanufac t ur er sandt r ader s .He es t ab l i s hed s t at eb ankst hati nv es t ed i nr ai l ways ,s hi ppi ng l i nesand i n ag r i c ul t ur e. - Fr eet r adet r eat i eswer es i g ned wi t h Eur o pean s t at ess uc h asEng l and. Infr as t r uc t ur aldev el o pmentwasi ni t i at edt hr o ug ht hec o ns t r uc t i o no fr o ads 75 andr ai l ways . Mi l i t ar yRefo r ms -As t r o ngand pr o fes s i o nalar my wasb ui l t .Itwasr eequi pped and t he pr o mo t i o no ft hemi ddl ec l as so ffi c er swasmadeeas i er . Ai msandAc t i v i t i eso fCav o ur -Or i g i nal l yCav o urai medatuni fyi ngIt al yi nt heNo r t hunderPi edmo nt .Hi s pl anwast odr i v eAus t r i ao uto fLo mb ar dyandVenet i aandt henuni t et hes e t wos t at eswi t hPi edmo nt . - To ac hi ev et hi sCav o urr el i ed o n pl anni ng .Hi smet ho dswer e warand di pl o mac y. WarandDi pl o mac y -Par t i c i pat edi nt heCr i meanWaro f1853-5.Thi swarpr o v i dedhi m wi t han o ppo r t uni t yt omaket heIt al i anc aus ekno wnt ot heGr eatpo wer s .Hefo ug hto n t hes i deo ft heGr eatpo wer sag ai ns tRus s i a.ThePi edmo nt es ear mywasv er y i mpr es s i v e.Att hePar i sPeac eCo nfer enc e,Cav o urmadet heIt al i an c aus e kno wnt ot heGr eatpo wer sandear nedt hes ympat hyo fBr i t ai n. -Us eddi pl o mac ywhenhemetNapo l eo nIIIatPl o mb i er esi n1815.Thet wo l eader s ag r eed t o dr i v e Aus t r i ao ut o f It al yt oc r eat ea l o o s e It al i an Co nfeder at i o n madeup o f Pi edmo nt( t hatwo ul db eg i v en Lo mb ar dyand Venet i a) ,Tus c any ,t hePapalS t at es ,t heKi ng do mso fNapl esandS i c i l yandt he Duc hi eso fPar maandMo dena -TheCo nfeder at i o nwast ob eheadedb yt hePo pe.Fr anc ewo ul dg etNi c eand S av o yfo ri t seffo r t s . -Cav o urand Napo l eo nIIIus ed wart odr i v eAus t r i ao uto fIt al yi n1859. 76 Aus t r i awaspr o v o kedi nt odec l ar i ngwaro nPi edmo nti n1859t her eb ymaki ngi t t heag g r es s o ri nt heeyeso ft heEur o peanpo wer s .Fr anc ej o i nedt hewaro nt he s i deo fPi edmo nt .Aus t r i awasdr i v eno uto fLo mb ar dyfo l l o wi ngi t sdefeatat t heb at t l eo fMag ent aandS o l fer i no .Butt hent heFr enc hs uddenl ywi t hdr ew fo r mt hewarb efo r et heful li mpl ement at i o no ft heag r eementwi t hCav o ur . Cav o urfel tb et r ayedandr es i g nedast hePr i meMi ni s t ero fPi edmo nt . Nev er t hel es sPi edmo ntg ai ned Lo mb ar dy fo runi fi c at i o n wi t ht he hel po f Fr anc e. . -Thenex tt ob euni t edunderPi edmo ntwasCent r alIt al yc o mpr i s i ngo ft he Duc hi eso fPar ma,Mo denaandTus c anyandpar to ft hePapalS t at eso fUmb r i a andMar c hes .Cent r alIt al ywasno tpar to fCav o ur ’ so r i g i nalpl anasheo nl y want edt ouni t eNo r t her nIt al yunderPi edmo nt .Cent r alIt al ywasi nc l udedi nt o uni o n wi t h Pi edmo ntb y Cav o ur b yc hanc e.The defeatand t he fo r c ed wi t hdr awalo ft hemi g ht yAus t r i ao uto fLo mb ar dyi ns pi r ed t hepeo pl eo f Cent r alIt al yt or i s eag ai ns tt hei rr ul er swhower eal lc o nnec t edt oAus t r i a. -Cav o ur ,whohadb eenr ec al l edt oo ffi c e,t o o kadv ant ag eo ft her i s i ng st o i nc l udeCent r alIt al yi nt heuni o nunderPi edmo nt .Onc eag ai nheg o tt hehel p o ft hefo r ei g npo wer s .Br i t ai ns t o ppedAus t r i afr o mi nt er v eni ngt hr o ug hher “ handso ffIt al ypo l i c y”Thi swasb ec aus es hewass ympat het i ct ot heIt al i an c aus e.Napo l eo nIIal s og o ti nv o l v edandc ameupwi t ht hei deao fapl eb i s c i t ei n whi c ht heCent r alIt al i anpeo pl ewer eg i v enano ppo r t uni t yt odec i deo nt hei r fut ur e.Cav o urwo r dedt hepl eb i s c i t ei ns uc hawayt hatav o t efo rauni o nwi t h Pi edmo ntwasc er t ai n.Thepeo pl ewer eg i v ent woc ho i c es -t or ev er tt oAus t r i an r ul eo rt ouni t ewi t hPi edmo nt .Ther es ul twast hatt heyv o t edo v er whel mi ng l y fo rauni o nwi t hPi edmo nt .Thust heDuc hi eso fPar ma,Mo denaandTus c any, t hePapalS t at eso fUmb r i aandt heMar c hesal lj o i nedt heuni o nwi t hPi edmo nt i n1860. -Cav o ural s ob r o ug htt heKi ng do mo fNapl esandS i c i l yi nt ouni o nb yc hanc ei n 1861.Thi swasaft ert aki ngadv ant ag eo fGar i b al di ’ sc o nques to fNapl esand S i c i l yand hi ss ai li nt ot hemai nl and.Upo n hi sar r i v alo nt ot hemai nl and 77 Gar i b al dihandedo v erNapl esandS i c i l yo uto fl o yal t yt oKi ngVi c t o rEmmanuel fo rt hemt ob ei nc l udedi nt heuni o n.Whatr emai nedo uto ft heuni o nwasRo me. Unt i lCav o ur ’ sdeat hi n1861t hei s s ueo fRo meandt hato ft hePo pewass t i l la del i c at eo ne.Unl i ket henat i o nal i s t so f1848Cav o urav o i dedc o nfr o nt at i o n.He t o o kpr ec aut i o nar ymeas ur est opr ev entGar i b al difr o m at t ac ki ngRo medur i ng hi ss ai li nt ot hemai nl and.Gar i b al dii nt ended t oat t ac kRo meand po s s i b l y pr o c l ai maRepub l i c .Int hi swayCav o urwasab l et ouni fyIt al yi nawayt hatdi d no tat t r ac tt hei nt er v ent i o no ft heg r eatpo wer s . Ro l eo ft heFo r ei g nPo wer s Fr anc e -Pl ayedat wi nr o l eo fai di ngando b s t r uc t i ngt hepr o c es so funi fi c at i o n.In ai di ngFr anc eunderNapo l eo nIIIs i g nedanag r eementwi t hPi edmo nti nwhi c h t heyag r eet odr i v eAus t r i ao uto fIt al yandt henfo r m aCo nfeder at i o no ft he It al i an s t at es under t he pr es i denc yo ft he Po pe. The ag r eement was i mpl ement ed i n 1859 when Fr anc e and Pi edmo ntfo ug htag ai ns tAus t r i a. Aus t r i a wasdr i v en o uto fLo mb ar dyfo l l o wi ngi t sdefeatatt heb at t l eo f Mag ent aandS o l fer i no .Ho wev erduet os o mer eas o ns uc hast hefearo ft he g r eatpo wer sNapo l eo nIIIs uddenl ywi t hdr ewfr o mt hewar .Thi smo v ec anb e v i ewedasb ei ngano b s t ac l ei nt hatNapo l eo nIIIfai l edt oho no urhi spar to ft he b ar g ai nIet hec o mpl et ewi t hdr awo fAus t r i afr o mIt al i anaffai r s . -Fr anc eas s i s t edi nt heac qui s i t i o no fCent r alIt al yt ob epar to ft heuni o n. Fo l l o wi ngt her i s i ng si nCent r alIt al yi n1860,napo l eo nIIIc ameupwi t hani dea o ft hepl eb i s c i t efo rt hepeo pl eo fCent r alI t alt odec i deo nt hei rfut ur e. Napo l eo nIIIpr es i dedo v ert hepl eb i s c i t esandt hepeo pl ev o t edfo rauni o nwi t h Pi edmo nt . -Ho wev erFr anc epl ayedt her o l eo fb ei ngano b s t ac l et ot hepr o c es so ft he uni fi c at i o no fIt al y .In 1848,Fr anc eal o ngwi t hRus s i a and o t herc at ho l i c 78 po wer ss uc hasS pai nandAus t r i ac r us hedt heRo manRepub l i cpr o c l ai medb y Maz z i niandGar i b al didur i ngt he1848r ev o l ut i o ns .Theyr es t o r edt hePo peb ac k t o hi st hr o ne wi t h ful lpo wer s .A Fr enc hg ar r i s o n wast hen per manent l y s t at i o ned i n Ro me t opr o t ec thi m.The c o nt i nued pr es enc eo ft he Fr enc h g ar r i s o ni nRo met opr o t ec tt hePo per emai nedano b s t ac l et ot heuni fi c at i o no f It al yunt i l1848wheni twasev ent ual l ywi t hdr awn. Br i t ai n -S uppo r t edt heuni fi c at i o npr o c es st hr o ug hg i v i ngmo r als uppo r taswel lasher “ handso ffIt al y ”po l i c y.TheBr i t i s hpo l i c yo nIt al yb eg anatt he1856Par i s Peac eCo nfer enc eo nt heCr i mean War .Itwasaft erCav o urpr es ent ed t he It al i anc aus et ot hec o nfer enc e. -Br i t ai ns t o ppedAus t r i afr o ms uppr es s i ngt her i s i ng si nCent r alIt al y t hr o ug hher“ handso ffIt al y”po l i c y .S hewasal s oac t i v ei n1860pl eb i s c i t es fo rCent r alIt al yi nwhi c ht hepeo pl eo v er whel mi ng l yv o t edfo rauni o nwi t h pi edmo nt . -As s i s t edi nt heGar i b al di ‘ ss ai li nt ot hemai nl andb ypr o v i di nghi mwi t ha c o v eri nt hefo r mo ft heBr i t i s hfl eet .Thes ai lo fGar i b al dic ul mi nat edi n hi mhandi ngo v erNapl esandS i c i l yt ob edr aft edi nt ot heuni o n. Pr us s i a -Pr us s i aas s i s t edi nt heuni fi c at i o no fIt al yt hr o ug ht heac qui s i t i o no fVenet i a i n1866.Ithadear l i ero nent er edi nt oanag r eementwi t hPi edmo nti n1865i n whi c hi tpr o mi s edt og i v epi edmo ntVenet i ai fi t sar myfi g ht so nt hes i deo f Pr us s i ai nt hei mpendi ngwarb et weenPr us s i aandAus t r i a.Thusi nt heAus t r o Pr us s i anWaro f1866,t hePi edmo nt es ear myunderGar i b al difo ug hto nt he s i deo fPr us s i a.Aus t r i awasdefeat edandundert het r eat yo fPr ag ueVenet i a washandedo v ert oPi edmo nt . 79 -Pr us s i aal s ohadahandi nt heac qui s i t i o no fRo mei n1870.TheFr anc o Pr us s i anwaro f1870nec es s i t at edt hewi t hdr awalo ft heFr enc hg ar r i s o nfr o m Ro me.TheIt al i anst o o kadv ant ag eo ft hewi t hdr awalandi nc l udedRo mei nt he uni o n.Wi t ht heac qui s i t i o no f Venet i ai n 1866 and o f Ro mei n 1870 t he uni fi c at i o no fIt al ywasc o mpl et ed. Aus t r i a -I twasano b s t ac l et ot heuni fi c at i o no fIt al y .In1815t heVi ennas et t l ement g av eAus t r i at hedi r ec tc o nt r o lo fLo mb ar dyandVenet i aandi ndi r ec tc o nt r o l o fNapl es ,S i c i l yandCent r alIt al y. -Its uppr es s edal lt hemo v ement sfo rt heuni fi c at i o no fIt al yi n1819,1820, 1830,1840sand1848. Pi edmo nt -Itpr o v i dedt hel eader s hi pr o l e.Itpr o v i dedl eader ss uc hasCav o urandKi ng Vi c t o rEmmanuel .Thes el eader sus eddi pl o mac yt ob r i ngfo r ei g nai daswel las maki ngus eo fo ppo r t uni t i est hatc amet hei rwayiet heCr i meanwar ,r i s i ng si n Cent r alIt al y,Aus t r o -Pi edmo nt es eWaro f1866andt heFr anc o -Pr us s i anwar o f1870.Theyal s oado pt edac aut i o usappr o ac hwhendeal i ngwi t ht hedel i c at e c as eo ft hePapac y. - Pi edmo ntpr o v i ded an ar myt oenab l et heIt al i anst opar t i c i pat ei nt he Cr i mean Waro f1853-5atwho s epeac ec o nfer enc eCav o urhi g hl i g ht ed t he It al i anc aus eb efo r et heg r eatpo wer s .Thear myal s oenab l edPi edmo ntt ofi g ht i nt heAus t r o -Pi edmo nt es eWaro f1859t hatl edt ot heac qui s i t i o no fLo mb ar dy andt heAus t r o -Pr us s i anWaro f1866t hatr es ul t edi nt heac qui s i t i o no fVenet i a. -Pi edmo ntpr o v i dedt hefi nanc i alr es o ur c esfo runi fi c at i o n.Att hes amet i me i t si nfr as t r uc t ur ei nt hefo r mo ft r ans po r tand c o mmuni c at i o nenab l ed t he 80 mo v emento fg o o ds ,weapo ns ,t r o o psandi nfo r mat i o ndur i nguni fi c at i o n. Gar i b al di -Gar i b al diwast heb o dyo ft hemo v ementfo rt heuni fi c at i o no fIt al y.Hewas t hes o l di erneededi nt heuni fi c at i o npr o c es s .Hefo ug hti nt hewar st hatl edt o t heac qui s i t i o no fIt al i an t er r i t o r yt ob ei nc l uded i nt heuni o n.Hel ed t he Pi edmo nt es ear myi nt he1859warwi t hAus t r i at hatl edt ot heac qui s i t i o no f Lo mb ar dyand t heAus t r o -Pi edmo nt es eWart hatl ed t ot heac qui s i t i o no f Venet i a. -Gar i b al diwasi ns t r ument ali nt heac qui s i t i o no ft heKi ng do mo fNapl esand S i c i l yt hathet henhandedo v ert oKi ngVi c t o rEmmanuelt ob ei nc l udedi nt he uni o ni n 1861.He c o nquer ed Napl esand S i c i l y and t hen s ai l ed i nt ot he mai nl and.Upo nhi sar r i v alo nt ot hemai nl andGar i b al dihandedo v erNapl es andS i c i l yo uto fl o yal t yt oKi ngVi c t o rEmmanuelfo rt hemt ob ei nc l udedi nt he uni o n. 81
