EUROPEANHIS
TORY
TheFr
enc
hRev
o
l
ut
i
o
no
f1789
Caus
es
TheFr
enc
hpeo
pl
er
ev
o
l
t
edi
n1789ag
ai
ns
tt
heg
o
v
er
nmento
fLo
ui
sXVIasa
r
es
ul
to
fac
o
mb
i
nat
i
o
no
ffac
t
o
r
ss
uc
hast
heex
i
s
t
i
ngs
ys
t
emo
fg
o
v
er
nment
,an
i
nc
o
mpet
entki
ng
,fi
nanc
i
alc
r
i
s
es
,andt
hes
y
s
t
em o
fpr
i
v
i
l
eg
esamo
ngo
t
her
fac
t
o
r
s
.Thatt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nb
r
o
kei
n 1789and no
tear
l
i
eri
sb
ec
aus
et
he
s
i
t
uat
i
o
ni
nFr
anc
ehaddet
er
i
o
r
at
ed.Thepeo
pl
eo
fFr
anc
ec
o
ul
dno
twai
tany
l
o
ng
er
.
Po
l
i
t
i
c
al
Po
l
i
t
i
c
al
l
yt
her
ev
o
l
twast
r
i
g
g
er
edo
fb
yfac
t
o
r
ss
uc
hast
heex
i
s
t
i
ngs
ys
t
em o
f
g
o
v
er
nment
,an i
nc
o
mpet
entki
ng aswel
lasv
ar
i
o
usi
nfl
uenc
esfr
o
m t
he
Amer
i
c
anWaro
fIndependenc
e,Eng
l
andandt
hePhi
l
o
s
o
pher
s
.
1.
TheEx
i
s
t
i
ngS
ys
t
emo
fGo
v
er
nment
-Theex
i
s
t
i
ngs
ys
t
em o
fg
o
v
er
nmenti
nFr
anc
el
ac
kedpo
l
i
t
i
c
alpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
n
andr
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
no
ft
hepeo
pl
e.
-Thi
si
si
nv
i
ewo
ft
hefac
tt
hatal
lt
hepo
werwasc
ent
r
edi
nt
hehandso
fo
ne
per
s
o
n-t
heFr
enc
hKi
ng
.Hewasr
es
po
ns
i
b
l
efo
ral
lt
hepo
l
i
t
i
c
alappo
i
nt
ment
s
andhewast
heo
newi
t
ht
hefi
nals
ayo
nal
ls
t
at
ei
s
s
ues
.Thi
si
sc
o
nfi
r
medb
yhi
s
wo
r
ds“
Thes
t
at
ei
smys
el
f.Thet
hi
ngi
sl
eg
alb
ec
aus
eIwi
s
hi
t
.
”
-t
hi
sc
l
ear
l
yi
ndi
c
at
edt
hathet
r
eat
edFr
anc
eashi
sper
s
o
nalpr
o
per
t
yandi
t
c
l
ears
ho
wshi
sdi
c
t
at
o
r
i
alt
endenc
i
esaswel
lasab
s
o
l
ut
ear
r
o
g
anc
e.
- Fur
t
her
mo
r
eFr
anc
edi
d no
thav
ea par
l
i
ament
.Ofc
o
ur
s
et
her
ewasa
pl
at
fo
r
mi
nt
hefo
r
mo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
ali
nwhi
c
ht
hepeo
pl
epr
es
ent
ed
1
t
hei
rg
r
i
ev
anc
esandpr
o
po
s
al
st
ot
heki
ng
.Butt
hent
hes
el
as
tmeti
n1614yet
t
heyearwasno
w1789.
- Thusal
lt
hedec
i
s
i
o
nmaki
ngpr
o
c
es
swasl
efti
nt
hehandso
ft
heKi
ngandt
he
Ro
yalCo
unc
i
l
.ThusFr
anc
ewasl
eftwi
t
ho
utc
hec
ksandb
al
anc
esmaki
ngLo
ui
s
XVIadi
c
t
at
o
r
.
-In addi
t
i
o
n al
lt
hepo
l
i
t
i
c
alpo
s
t
swer
emo
no
po
l
i
z
ed b
yag
r
o
upo
fafew
i
ndi
v
i
dual
s
,t
heno
b
i
l
i
t
y.Thi
swasapr
i
v
i
l
eg
edc
l
as
st
hatb
el
o
ng
edt
ot
hes
ec
o
nd
es
t
at
e.Theyal
o
nec
o
ul
db
eappo
i
nt
edt
oc
ab
i
netpo
s
t
sasamb
as
s
ado
r
sab
r
o
ad
andt
oc
o
mmi
s
s
i
o
nedr
anksi
nt
henav
yandt
hear
my.Theb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
efel
tt
hat
t
hei
reduc
at
i
o
nandweal
t
hmadet
hemqual
i
fyfo
rt
heappo
i
nt
ment
s
.
-Thel
eg
als
ys
t
em o
fFr
anc
ewaspat
het
i
candi
ns
hamb
l
es
.Fr
anc
ehadab
o
ut
360di
ffer
entfeudalc
o
des
.Theg
o
v
er
nmento
fLo
ui
sXVIwasi
nv
o
l
v
edi
nt
he
appo
i
nt
ment o
f l
o
c
al c
o
unc
i
l
si
n t
o
wns
hi
ps and meddl
ed i
n par
i
s
h
admi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
n.
- Asar
es
ul
tt
her
ewast
hes
el
ec
t
i
v
eappl
i
c
at
i
o
no
ft
hel
awi
nfav
o
uro
ft
he
No
b
i
l
i
t
yandt
hec
l
er
g
y
.
- Inv
i
ewo
ft
heab
o
v
es
ys
t
em o
fg
o
v
er
nmentt
heFr
enc
hpeo
pl
e,par
t
i
c
ul
ar
l
y
t
heThi
r
d Es
t
at
es
t
ag
ed a r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
n May1789i
no
r
dert
oc
o
r
r
ec
tt
he
s
i
t
uat
i
o
n.Thei
rai
m wast
oac
hi
ev
epo
l
i
t
i
c
alpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
nb
yb
ei
ngi
nv
o
l
v
edi
n
t
heaffai
r
so
ft
hes
t
at
eandb
ei
ngr
epr
es
ent
edpo
l
i
t
i
c
al
l
yt
hr
o
ug
hanas
s
emb
l
y.
2
TheInc
o
mpet
entKi
ng
-TheFr
enc
hKi
ngLo
ui
sXVIwasdi
r
ec
t
l
yr
es
po
ns
i
b
l
efo
rt
heo
ut
b
r
eako
ft
he
Fr
enc
hRev
o
l
ut
i
o
nb
ec
aus
eo
fhi
si
nc
o
ns
i
s
t
entpo
l
i
c
i
es
.Hehadaweak-wi
l
l
ed
c
har
ac
t
ert
hatc
aus
ed hi
m no
tt
ofo
l
l
o
wupo
nr
efo
r
mst
hathewo
ul
d hav
e
i
ni
t
i
at
ed.
-Thi
si
sb
ec
aus
eLo
ui
sXVIwo
ul
di
ni
t
i
at
ear
efo
r
m pr
o
g
r
ammeandt
henfai
lt
o
c
o
mpl
et
ei
t
.Fo
r ex
ampl
ei
nt
he 1780she i
ni
t
i
at
ed an ec
o
no
mi
cr
efo
r
m
pr
o
g
r
ammedes
i
g
nedt
os
t
ab
i
l
i
z
et
heFr
enc
hec
o
no
my.
- Heappo
i
nt
ed a numb
ero
fec
o
no
mi
s
t
sl
i
keTur
g
o
t
,Nec
ker
,Br
i
enneand
2
Cal
o
nnewhoal
lpr
o
po
s
ed t
hatFr
anc
edoawaywi
t
ht
heex
i
s
t
i
ngs
ys
t
em o
f
pr
i
v
i
l
eg
est
hathi
nder
edec
o
no
mi
cdev
el
o
pment
.Inpar
t
i
c
ul
art
heypr
o
po
s
eda
s
ys
t
em o
ffai
r
ert
ax
at
i
o
nandt
her
emo
v
alo
ft
ar
i
ffsi
nb
et
weent
heFr
enc
h
di
s
t
r
i
c
t
si
no
r
dert
ofac
i
l
i
t
at
et
hemo
v
emento
fg
o
o
ds
.
- Tur
g
o
tadv
o
c
at
edo
nho
nes
t
yandeffi
c
i
enc
yandpr
o
po
s
edt
oc
hec
ko
nt
he
po
wero
ft
hec
hur
c
h,adv
o
c
at
edfo
rj
us
t
i
c
ei
nt
ax
at
i
o
nandt
hec
i
r
c
ul
at
i
o
no
f
g
o
o
dses
pec
i
al
l
yc
o
r
n.
- Nec
keradv
o
c
at
ed fo
rt
he mai
nt
enanc
eo
ft
he s
t
at
usquob
utb
ec
ame
unpo
pul
arwi
t
ht
heKi
ngandt
heno
b
i
l
i
t
ywhenhei
s
s
uedas
t
at
emento
nt
he
fi
nanc
i
alpo
s
i
t
i
o
no
fFr
anc
eatat
i
mewhent
hepar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
no
fFr
anc
ei
nt
he
Amer
i
c
an War o
f Independenc
e had l
eft t
he c
o
unt
r
yo
nt
he v
er
g
eo
f
b
ankr
upt
c
y.
- Cal
o
nnewhot
o
o
ko
v
erfr
o
m Nec
kerdi
dno
ts
eekt
oc
ur
bt
heex
t
r
av
ag
anc
eat
t
hec
o
ur
tb
uts
o
o
nb
ec
ameunpo
pul
aramo
ngt
heno
b
i
l
i
t
ywhenheadv
o
c
at
edfo
r
al
andt
axt
ob
epai
db
yev
er
yo
net
oi
mpr
o
v
eo
ns
t
at
er
ev
enue.
-Thepr
o
po
s
al
st
heec
o
no
mi
s
t
swer
eo
ppo
s
edb
yt
heno
b
i
l
i
t
y,c
l
er
g
y,andt
he
Queen.TheKi
ngfai
l
edt
os
uppo
r
tt
heec
o
no
mi
s
t
sandg
av
ei
nt
opr
es
s
ur
eand
had eac
ho
ft
heec
o
no
mi
s
t
sdi
s
mi
s
s
ed o
neaft
erano
t
her
.Fr
anc
el
o
s
tt
he
o
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yt
os
t
ab
i
l
i
z
et
heec
o
no
my.
- Thedi
s
mi
s
s
alo
ft
heec
o
no
mi
s
t
st
hr
ew awayan ex
c
el
l
ento
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yt
o
di
ffus
et
ens
i
o
nb
et
ween t
hepeas
ant
sand t
hec
l
er
g
yand t
heno
b
i
l
i
t
yo
v
er
t
ax
at
i
o
n.
- Thec
i
r
c
ul
at
i
o
no
fg
o
o
dses
pec
i
al
l
yc
o
r
nc
o
ul
dhav
ehel
pedt
oal
l
ev
i
at
et
he
dev
as
t
at
i
ngeffec
t
so
ft
heb
adhar
v
es
t
so
f1789.
- Thedi
s
mi
s
s
al
sal
s
odemo
ns
t
r
at
edt
hatt
heg
o
v
er
nmento
fLo
ui
sXVIl
ac
ked
anyfo
r
mo
fs
er
i
o
us
nes
st
o
war
dss
o
l
v
i
ngt
hefi
nanc
i
alc
r
i
s
eso
fFr
anc
e.
- Thes
edi
s
mi
s
s
al
sal
s
os
ho
wed t
hatt
heec
o
no
mi
s
t
swer
et
o
l
er
at
ed b
yt
he
g
o
v
er
nmento
fLo
ui
sXVIasl
o
ngast
heydi
d no
tpo
ket
hei
rno
s
esi
nt
ot
he
affai
r
so
ft
heNo
b
i
l
i
t
yandt
heCl
er
g
y.
-Mo
r
eo
v
ert
heki
ng
’
si
nc
o
mpet
enc
eandi
nc
o
ns
i
s
t
enc
ewasc
l
ear
l
yev
i
dentwhen
c
al
l
edfo
rt
hemeet
i
ngo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
ali
nMay1789i
no
r
dert
oc
har
tt
he
3
wayfo
r
war
dfo
rFr
anc
e.
-Theex
pec
t
at
i
o
no
ft
heThi
r
dEs
t
at
ewast
hati
two
ul
dmeetj
o
i
nt
l
ywi
t
ht
he
Fi
r
s
tandS
ec
o
ndEs
t
at
esc
o
mpr
i
s
i
ngo
ft
hec
l
er
g
yandt
heno
b
i
l
i
t
yr
es
pec
t
i
v
el
y
andt
hendr
aftt
hei
rpr
o
po
s
al
sfo
rt
heKi
ngt
oc
o
ns
i
der
.
-Butt
hent
heki
ngat
t
empt
edt
ob
l
o
c
kt
hi
sr
efo
r
m pr
o
c
es
sb
yo
r
der
i
ngt
he
es
t
at
est
omeets
epar
at
el
y.Itwashi
g
hl
ypr
o
b
ab
l
et
hatt
hepr
o
po
s
al
sfr
o
mt
he
Thi
r
dEs
t
at
ewo
ul
dno
tr
eac
ht
heki
ngs
i
nc
et
hepr
o
c
edur
ewast
hatt
heThi
r
d
Es
t
at
ewo
ul
dpr
es
entt
hei
rpr
o
po
s
al
st
ot
heFi
r
s
tandS
ec
o
ndEs
t
at
esb
efo
r
et
hey
ar
efo
r
war
dedt
ot
heki
ng
.
-Itwast
heki
ng
’
sac
t
i
o
nt
hatt
r
i
g
g
er
edt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
i
nc
et
heThi
r
dEs
t
at
e
r
eac
t
ed b
yt
aki
ngamo
r
er
adi
c
almo
v
eand dec
l
ar
ed i
t
s
el
fast
heNat
i
o
nal
as
s
emb
l
yt
her
eb
ys
et
t
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nt
omo
t
i
o
n.
-Lo
ui
sXVIwasdi
c
t
at
o
r
i
al
.Thr
o
ug
ht
hel
awo
f“
Let
t
er
sdeCac
het
s
”t
hatal
l
o
wed
i
mpr
i
s
o
nmentwi
t
ho
utt
r
i
al
.Thel
awunder
mi
nedt
hefr
eedo
mo
ft
heFr
enc
h
peo
pl
e.
- Lo
ui
sXVIhadaweak-wi
l
l
edc
har
ac
t
er
.Heal
l
o
wedhi
ms
el
ft
os
uc
c
umbt
ot
he
i
nfl
uenc
eo
ft
ho
s
ear
o
undhi
m iehi
swi
fe,No
b
i
l
i
t
yandt
heCl
er
g
y.Itwast
hi
s
t
r
i
ot
hatb
l
o
c
ked t
heec
o
no
mi
cr
efo
r
m pr
o
c
es
so
ft
he1780sand hav
et
he
ec
o
no
mi
s
t
sfi
r
edb
yt
heKi
ng
.
-Theyar
eal
s
ot
heo
nest
hatper
s
uadedt
heki
ngt
oo
r
dert
hemeet
i
ngo
ft
he
es
t
at
ess
epar
at
el
y
.Itwast
hi
sfat
efulmo
v
et
hatt
r
i
g
g
er
ed o
fft
heFr
enc
h
Rev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Lo
ui
sXVIwasc
ar
el
es
s
.Heal
l
o
wedt
heex
t
r
av
ag
antex
pendi
t
ur
eatt
hec
o
ur
tat
at
i
mewhent
hec
o
unt
r
ywasnear
l
yo
ni
t
skneesec
o
no
mi
c
al
l
y.
-Heo
ft
enwenthunt
i
ngwi
t
ht
hememb
er
so
ft
heCo
ur
tatat
i
mewhenhi
s
pr
es
enc
ewasg
r
eat
l
yneeded.Thi
sappr
o
ac
ht
hathet
o
o
kwast
o
or
el
ax
edfo
r
s
uc
hac
r
i
t
i
c
almo
ment
.
- Fur
t
her
mo
r
et
hes
endi
ngo
ft
heFr
enc
hs
o
l
di
er
sb
yLo
ui
sXVIt
opar
t
i
c
i
pat
ei
n
t
heAmer
i
c
anWaro
fIndependenc
eal
s
odemo
ns
t
r
at
edt
hei
nc
o
mpet
enc
eo
f
t
heFr
enc
hki
ng
.
-Thi
smo
v
eb
ac
kfi
r
edb
ec
aus
ei
ti
nc
r
eas
edt
heFr
enc
hnat
i
o
naldeb
ts
i
nc
et
he
4
warwasfi
nanc
edfr
o
mb
o
r
r
o
wi
ng
sfr
o
mt
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
e.
-Thi
si
nt
ur
nc
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
edt
ob
ankr
upt
c
y
.Att
hes
amet
hepar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
no
ft
he
Fr
enc
ht
r
o
o
psi
nt
hewarex
po
s
edt
hem t
or
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
deas
.Fo
rex
ampl
et
he
Amer
i
c
anDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
fIndependenc
epo
i
nt
ed o
utt
hatmanwer
ec
r
eat
ed
wi
t
ht
heal
i
enab
l
er
i
g
ht
snamel
yl
i
feandl
i
b
er
t
y
.
-Thi
sex
pl
ai
nswhyLafayet
t
ewhowast
hev
et
er
ano
ft
heAmer
i
c
anWaro
f
Independenc
eb
ec
ameo
neo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yl
eader
s
.
-Inv
i
ewo
ft
heab
o
v
ei
ti
sc
l
eart
hatt
hepeo
pl
er
ev
o
l
t
edag
ai
ns
tt
hei
rki
ng
b
ec
aus
ehi
si
nc
o
mpet
enc
eands
t
anc
ewasc
o
s
t
i
ngt
hec
o
unt
r
ydear
l
y.
Infl
uenc
es
1.
ThePhi
l
o
s
o
pher
s
- The phi
l
o
s
o
pher
senl
i
g
ht
ened t
he peo
pl
e and made t
hem r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
t
hr
o
ug
ht
hei
rwr
i
t
i
ng
s
.
- Fo
ri
ns
t
anc
eVo
l
t
ai
r
ewr
o
t
epl
ays
,no
v
el
s
,hi
s
t
o
r
yandl
ampo
o
nsi
nwhi
c
hhe
at
t
ac
kedt
hepo
werandt
hei
nfl
uenc
eo
ft
heC
at
ho
l
i
cChur
c
handat
t
ac
kedal
l
t
hefaul
t
swi
t
hi
nt
heFr
enc
hs
o
c
i
et
y.Heal
s
opr
eac
hed t
hei
deao
fr
el
i
g
i
o
us
t
o
l
er
anc
e.
- TheEnc
yc
l
o
pedi
as
t
spr
o
duc
ed ac
o
l
l
ec
t
i
o
no
fal
lwo
r
ksi
nt
hefo
r
mo
fa
s
ummar
yo
nal
lt
heex
i
s
t
i
ngkno
wl
edg
efr
o
m phi
l
o
s
o
phy,hi
s
t
o
r
yands
c
i
enc
e.
S
uc
hwo
r
kshadt
heeffec
to
fenl
i
g
ht
eni
ngt
hepeo
pl
e.
- Ano
t
herphi
l
o
s
o
pherMo
nt
es
qui
euadv
o
c
at
edfo
rt
hel
i
mi
t
i
ngo
ft
hepo
wer
so
f
t
hemo
nar
c
handt
hepr
i
v
i
l
eg
eso
ft
heno
b
i
l
i
t
y
.Heal
s
oadv
o
c
at
edfo
rt
her
i
g
ht
t
odeb
at
eandamendl
awb
efo
r
ei
ti
spas
s
ed.
-Fur
t
her
mo
r
eRo
us
s
eauwr
o
t
et
heS
o
c
i
alCo
nt
r
ac
ti
nwhi
c
hhear
g
uedt
hatt
he
Gener
alwi
l
lo
ft
hepeo
pl
es
ho
ul
db
et
her
ul
i
ngfo
r
c
ei
nanys
o
c
i
et
y.Hefur
t
her
ar
g
uedt
hatg
o
v
er
nment
sar
et
her
eb
ec
aus
eo
ft
hepeo
pl
e’
sc
o
ns
ent
.
-
Theyal
s
opr
o
duc
ed wo
r
kst
hatat
t
ac
ked ev
er
yt
hi
ngi
nFr
anc
ehat
ed b
y
phi
l
o
s
o
pher
s
. It
sc
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
o
r
si
nc
l
uded Vo
l
t
ai
r
e,Mo
nt
es
qui
euand Ro
us
s
eau.
Thei
rat
t
ac
kswer
emo
s
t
l
ydi
r
ec
t
edt
ot
heChur
c
handt
heS
t
at
e.
5
- Thust
hr
o
ug
ht
hei
rwr
i
t
i
ng
s
,t
hephi
l
o
s
o
pher
senl
i
g
ht
enedt
hepeo
pl
et
her
eb
y
c
r
eat
i
ngar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yat
mo
s
pher
ei
nFr
anc
e.Thi
swasmai
nl
yt
r
ueamo
ngt
he
i
nt
el
l
ec
t
ual
sandt
heweal
t
hi
ert
hathadac
c
es
st
ot
hewr
i
t
i
ng
s
.
2.
Eng
l
and
-TheEng
l
i
s
hwr
i
t
i
ng
sandi
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
nspr
o
v
i
dedFr
anc
ewi
t
hapr
ac
t
i
c
alex
ampl
e
o
fapar
l
i
ament
ar
ydemo
c
r
ac
y.
- Thi
si
si
nv
i
ewo
ft
hefac
tt
hatt
heFr
enc
hpeo
pl
ehad ac
c
es
st
oEng
l
i
s
h
wr
i
t
i
ng
s
.S
o
mev
i
s
i
t
edEng
l
andandex
per
i
enc
edt
heEng
l
i
s
hfo
r
mo
fdemo
c
r
ac
yi
et
heFr
enc
hphi
l
o
s
o
pher
sl
i
keVo
l
t
ai
r
eandMo
nt
es
qui
euwer
eg
r
eat
l
yi
nfl
uenc
ed
b
yt
heEng
l
i
s
hwr
i
t
i
ng
s
.
- Ro
us
s
eau’
swr
i
t
i
ng
shadmanyi
deasfo
undi
nt
hewr
i
t
i
ng
so
ft
heJo
hnLo
c
ke,
anEng
l
i
s
hphi
l
o
s
o
pher
.
- Al
lt
hes
ei
nfl
uenc
esfr
o
m Eng
l
andr
es
ul
t
edi
nt
hes
pr
eado
fdi
s
c
o
nt
entand
fr
eet
ho
ug
hti
nFr
anc
eandmanys
c
ho
l
ar
sr
eg
ar
dt
hem ast
hev
er
yfi
r
s
tc
aus
es
o
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
- Itc
ant
henb
es
ai
dt
hatt
hes
ei
nfl
uenc
esc
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
edfundament
al
l
yt
ot
he
c
o
l
l
aps
eo
ft
heo
l
ds
ys
t
em.
3.
-
TheAmer
i
c
anWaro
fIndependenc
e
The par
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
no
ft
he Fr
enc
hs
o
l
di
er
si
nt
he Amer
i
c
an War o
f
i
ndependenc
ehadag
r
eateffec
to
fex
po
s
i
ngt
hes
o
l
di
er
st
odemo
c
r
at
i
cand
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
deast
hati
nt
ur
nmadet
hem r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yupo
nr
et
ur
ni
ngt
o
Fr
anc
e.
- Thewarex
po
s
edt
hes
o
l
di
er
st
odemo
c
r
at
i
ci
deasegt
hes
o
l
di
er
sg
o
tex
po
s
ed
t
ot
heAmer
i
c
anDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
fIndependenc
et
hatpo
i
nt
edo
utt
hatal
lmen
wer
ec
r
eat
edwi
t
hi
nal
i
enab
l
er
i
g
ht
snamel
yl
i
feandl
i
b
er
t
y.
- Att
hes
amet
i
met
hes
o
l
di
er
sfo
ug
hto
nt
heAmer
i
c
ans
i
defi
g
ht
i
ngag
ai
ns
t
t
heBr
i
t
i
s
ht
hatt
ax
edt
heAmer
i
c
anpeo
pl
et
hatl
ac
kedr
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
ni
nt
he
6
Br
i
t
i
s
hpar
l
i
ament
.
- Aft
ert
hewart
hes
o
l
di
er
sr
et
ur
nedt
oaFr
anc
ewho
s
epeo
pl
ehadnoc
o
nt
r
o
l
o
v
ert
heFr
enc
ht
ax
at
i
o
ns
i
nc
et
her
ewasnopar
l
i
ament
.
- Thatt
he Fr
enc
hs
o
l
di
er
sg
o
tex
po
s
ed t
o demo
c
r
at
i
ci
deashasb
een
demo
ns
t
r
at
edb
yt
hefac
tt
hatGener
alLafayet
t
e,av
et
er
ano
ft
heAmer
i
c
an
Waro
fIndependenc
e,b
ec
ameo
neo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yl
eader
s
.
Ec
o
no
mi
c
TheFi
nanc
i
alCr
i
s
es
1.
TheFr
enc
hfi
nanc
eswer
ec
hao
t
i
candt
hec
o
unt
r
ywaso
nt
hev
er
g
eo
f
b
ankr
upt
c
y.Thi
si
si
nv
i
ewo
ft
hefac
tt
hatFr
anc
ehadhug
epr
o
duc
t
i
v
e
l
andsb
utl
eg
g
ed b
ehi
nd t
he o
t
herEur
o
pean c
o
unt
r
i
esi
nt
er
mso
f
ec
o
no
mi
cdev
el
o
pment
.
- S
uc
has
c
enar
i
owasduet
ot
hes
ys
t
em o
ft
ax
at
i
o
ni
n whi
c
ht
he
weal
t
hi
erwer
eex
empt
edfr
o
m payi
ngt
ax
esandt
heb
ur
deno
ft
ax
at
i
o
n
fel
lo
nt
hepo
o
r
ers
ec
t
i
o
nso
fFr
anc
e.
- Thust
her
ev
enuer
ai
s
edfr
o
mt
ax
at
i
o
nwasno
teno
ug
hfo
rFr
anc
et
o
meeti
t
sl
i
ab
i
l
i
t
i
esegt
hepeas
ant
shadt
oc
ar
r
yt
heb
ur
deno
fb
o
t
ht
he
di
r
ec
tand i
ndi
r
ec
tt
ax
esyett
heywer
epo
o
r
.Theyhad t
opayt
ax
es
namel
yt
ai
l
l
e,po
l
landt
axo
nal
lpr
o
per
t
yasdi
r
ec
tt
ax
eswhi
l
et
heypai
d
as
al
tt
axandfeudalduesasi
ndi
r
ec
tt
ax
es
.
- Thepeas
ant
swer
eno
tal
l
o
wedt
oo
wnmi
l
l
so
rwi
nepr
es
s
es
.Theyhadt
o
depend o
nt
hei
rl
andl
o
r
dsfo
rs
uc
hs
er
v
i
c
esand had t
opayt
ax
est
o
t
hes
el
andl
o
r
ds
.
-S
uc
has
ys
t
emwasdi
s
c
r
i
mi
nat
o
r
yt
ot
heThi
r
dEs
t
at
et
hathadt
oc
ar
r
y
t
heb
ur
denfo
rt
ax
at
i
o
n.Iti
st
her
efo
r
eno
ts
ur
pr
i
s
i
ngt
hats
o
meev
aded
t
ax
at
i
o
n
- Heav
ypuni
s
hment
swer
ei
mpo
s
edo
nal
lt
ho
s
et
hatfel
tt
omeett
hei
r
t
axo
b
l
i
g
at
i
o
nsegi
nt
heyear1783,11000peo
pl
ewer
ear
r
es
t
edands
o
me
7
o
ft
hemwer
ehang
ed.
-
The Bo
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
ec
o
mpr
i
s
i
ng o
ft
r
ader
s and i
ndus
t
r
i
al
i
s
t
s wer
e
ex
empt
edfr
o
mt
ax
at
i
o
n.Thes
ameappl
i
edt
ot
heno
b
i
l
i
t
yes
pec
i
al
l
yt
he
Gr
eat
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
ywhoo
wnedt
hel
ar
g
es
tandweal
t
hi
es
tl
andedes
t
at
esi
n
Fr
anc
e.
2.
Ther
ewasahug
eex
pendi
t
ur
eatt
heKi
ng
’
spal
ac
e.Thepal
ac
eex
pens
es
ac
c
o
unt
ed fo
ro
net
wel
ft
ho
ft
henat
i
o
nalb
udg
et
.TheQueen Mar
i
e
Ant
o
i
net
t
ewast
hec
hi
efc
ul
pr
i
to
fex
t
r
av
ag
anc
y.Iti
ss
ai
dt
hats
he
o
wned500pai
r
ss
ho
es
.
-Theo
t
herc
ul
pr
i
t
swer
et
hec
l
er
g
ywhol
i
v
edi
nl
ux
ur
yatt
hepal
ac
eand
s
pentmo
s
to
ft
het
i
meb
anquet
i
ngandhunt
i
ng
.
- S
pendi
ngmo
neyex
t
r
av
ag
ant
l
yata t
i
mewhen t
hes
i
t
uat
i
o
n was
ex
t
r
emel
yb
addemo
ns
t
r
at
edal
ac
ko
fc
o
mmi
t
mentb
yt
her
ul
er
st
ot
he
pl
i
g
hto
ft
hepeo
pl
e.Att
hes
amet
i
mes
pendi
ngpr
ec
i
o
ust
i
mehunt
i
ng
b
ear
sdemo
ns
t
r
at
edat
o
t
aldi
s
r
eg
ar
do
ft
hewel
far
eo
ft
hepeo
pl
e.
3.
Thefai
l
ur
eo
ft
heec
o
no
mi
cr
efo
r
msal
s
oac
c
o
unt
edfo
rt
heb
ankr
upt
c
y
o
ft
hes
t
at
e.Theki
nghadappo
i
nt
edanumb
ero
fec
o
no
mi
s
t
so
neaft
er
ano
t
her l
i
ke Tur
g
o
t
,Nec
ker
,Br
i
enne and Cal
o
nne t
os
t
ab
i
l
i
z
et
he
ec
o
no
my.
- Butal
lt
hei
rpr
o
po
s
al
st
oi
mpr
o
v
et
her
ev
enueb
as
eb
yi
nt
r
o
duc
i
nga
s
ys
t
em o
fafai
r
ert
ax
at
i
o
nandr
emo
v
i
ngt
hes
ys
t
em o
fpr
i
v
i
l
eg
eswer
e
b
l
o
c
kedb
yt
het
r
ag
i
cc
o
mb
i
nat
i
o
no
ft
heno
b
i
l
i
t
y,Cl
er
g
yandt
heQueen.
- Nec
kerat
t
empt
edt
or
educ
et
heex
pendi
t
ur
eatt
hepal
ac
ewhenhe
per
s
uadedt
heki
ngt
or
educ
et
heg
r
ant
so
ffav
o
ur
sandpens
i
o
ns
.
- Li
keal
lo
t
herec
o
no
mi
s
t
swhohadmadepr
o
po
s
al
st
hatwer
ec
ent
r
al
l
y
t
ot
hewi
s
heso
ft
heno
b
i
l
i
t
y
,c
l
er
g
yandt
heQueen,Nec
kerwasdi
s
mi
s
s
ed
b
yt
heki
ng
.
- WhenNec
kerwasr
ec
al
l
edt
og
o
v
er
nmenti
nAug
us
t1788he admi
t
t
ed
t
hati
twast
o
ol
at
et
or
es
c
uet
hes
i
t
uat
i
o
no
fb
ankr
upt
c
yi
nt
owhi
c
ht
he
g
o
v
er
nmenthadfal
l
en.
8
- Thust
hefai
l
ur
eb
yt
heki
ngt
os
o
l
v
et
hefi
nanc
i
alc
r
i
s
i
si
nFr
anc
edr
o
v
e
t
hes
t
at
edeeperi
nt
ob
ankr
upt
c
y.Itwast
hi
ss
i
t
uat
i
o
nt
hatfo
r
c
edLo
ui
s
XVIt
oag
r
eet
ot
hemeet
i
ngo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
ali
nMay1789t
hat
mar
kedt
heb
eg
i
nni
ngo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
Fami
ne
-Thefami
neo
fMay1789t
r
i
g
g
er
edo
fft
heFr
enc
hRev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Itwasar
es
ul
t
o
fav
er
yb
adhar
v
es
to
f1788t
hatwasag
g
r
av
at
edb
yt
hehar
s
hwi
nt
ert
hat
fr
o
z
et
heFr
enc
hr
i
v
er
s
.
- Thi
smadet
r
ans
po
r
t
at
i
o
no
ffo
o
ddi
ffi
c
ul
t
.Fami
nec
aus
eddi
s
o
r
derand
di
s
t
r
es
si
nt
hec
o
unt
r
ys
i
de.
- Thepeo
pl
ei
nt
hec
o
unt
r
ys
i
defl
edt
ot
het
o
wnsho
pi
ngt
ofi
ndwo
r
kast
he
fami
nes
pr
ead.Thei
ndus
t
r
i
al
i
s
t
ss
uffer
edt
heeffec
t
so
fc
o
mpet
i
t
i
o
nfr
o
mt
he
i
mpo
r
t
sfr
o
mEng
l
andundert
heCo
mmer
c
i
alt
r
eat
yo
f1786.
- Thust
her
ewasani
nc
r
eas
ei
nunempl
o
yment
.Tho
s
efl
eei
ngt
hec
o
unt
r
ys
i
de
c
o
ul
dno
tfi
ndempl
o
ymentasar
es
ul
tt
het
o
wnsl
i
kePar
i
sendedupwi
t
hani
dl
e
po
pul
at
i
o
nt
hatl
at
erb
ec
amet
hefamo
usmo
bdur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
- Itwast
hi
smo
bt
hatc
aus
edr
i
o
t
sanddi
s
o
r
der
.Theg
o
v
er
nmentr
eac
t
edb
y
t
hr
o
wi
ngt
hemi
nt
opr
i
s
o
ns
.Thi
swasev
i
dent
l
yanac
to
fdes
per
at
i
o
nt
hatfai
l
ed
t
oi
mpr
o
v
et
hes
i
t
uat
i
o
n.
- Byt
het
i
meLo
ui
sXVIc
al
l
edfo
rt
hemeet
i
ngo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
ali
nMay
1789ar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yat
mo
s
pher
ehadb
eenc
r
eat
edi
nFr
anc
e.
- Themo
bt
hatwast
opl
ayani
ns
t
r
ument
alr
o
l
edur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nwas
al
r
eadyi
npl
ac
e.
S
o
c
i
al
-Thes
ys
t
em o
fpr
i
v
i
l
eg
est
hatfav
o
ur
edt
heFi
r
s
tandS
ec
o
ndEs
t
at
eswasa
g
r
eats
o
ur
c
eo
fang
eramo
ngt
heBo
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
eandt
hepeas
ant
s
.Ital
i
enat
edt
he
Thi
r
d Es
t
at
e fr
o
m o
t
heres
t
at
esand t
he mo
nar
c
hy t
her
eb
yl
eadi
ngt
oa
9
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
- Thi
sb
ec
aus
et
he Fi
r
s
tand s
ec
o
nd Es
t
at
esenj
o
yed and mo
no
po
l
i
z
ed
pr
i
v
i
l
eg
esegt
heGr
eat
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
yc
o
mpr
i
s
edo
f100fami
l
i
est
hato
wnedt
he
l
ar
g
es
tandt
heweal
t
hi
es
tl
andes
t
at
esi
nFr
anc
e.Theywer
eac
c
o
r
dedpr
i
v
i
l
eg
es
t
hatpl
ac
edt
hemab
o
v
et
heo
t
herc
l
as
s
esi
nt
hes
t
at
e.
- Thehi
g
hes
tc
o
mmandsi
nt
hear
mywer
eandnav
ywer
er
es
er
v
edfo
rt
hem
andt
heyal
o
newer
eappo
i
nt
edasamb
as
s
ado
r
s
.
- Theywer
eex
empt
edfr
o
m payi
ngt
ax
at
i
o
n.Theywer
ev
er
yi
nfl
uent
i
alatt
he
pal
ac
eandc
o
ul
daffo
r
db
ei
ngab
s
ent
eel
andl
o
r
dsiel
eftt
hei
rl
andedes
t
at
es
t
ol
i
v
ei
nt
het
o
wns
.
- Al
s
ob
enefi
t
i
ngfr
o
mt
hepr
i
v
i
l
eg
esi
st
heLes
s
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
yc
o
mpr
i
s
i
ngo
f99
fami
l
i
es
.They had l
anded es
t
at
es b
ut c
o
ul
d no
t affo
r
dt
he l
ux
ur
yo
f
ab
s
ent
eei
s
m asc
o
mpar
edt
ot
heGr
eat
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
y
.Theyhadl
i
t
t
l
epo
l
i
t
i
c
alpo
wer
andenv
i
edt
hepr
i
v
i
l
eg
eso
ft
heGr
eat
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
yandwer
eg
r
eat
l
yfr
us
t
r
at
ed
fr
o
mb
ei
ngex
c
l
udedfr
o
mt
hehi
g
her
,s
o
c
i
alandpo
l
i
t
i
c
all
i
feo
fFr
anc
e.
- Al
s
ob
i
t
t
erwi
t
ht
hes
ys
t
em o
fpr
i
v
i
l
eg
eswer
et
heNo
b
i
l
i
t
yo
ft
heRo
b
ewho
s
e
pr
i
v
i
l
eg
ewaso
nl
yt
het
i
t
l
e.Theyenv
i
edt
hepr
i
v
i
l
eg
eso
ft
heGr
eat
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
y.
- Thi
sex
pl
ai
nswhyt
her
ewer
eanumb
ero
fs
uppo
r
t
er
so
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
namo
ng
t
heLes
s
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
yandt
heNo
b
i
l
i
t
yo
ft
heRo
b
e.
- Realb
i
t
t
er
nes
swi
t
ht
hes
ys
t
em wasamo
ngt
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
eandt
hepeas
ant
s
.
Fo
ri
ns
t
anc
eatt
het
i
meo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
hepeas
ant
snumb
er
ed23000000
o
uto
fat
o
t
alpo
pul
at
i
o
n25mi
l
l
i
o
n.
- Thi
swast
hel
ar
g
es
tg
r
o
upb
utl
andl
es
swhi
l
eo
t
her
so
wneds
mal
lpat
c
heso
f
l
andfr
o
mwhi
c
ht
heys
c
r
apedav
er
yb
ar
el
i
v
i
ng
.Itwast
hi
spo
o
rg
r
o
upt
hatwas
b
ur
denedwi
t
hdi
r
ec
tandi
ndi
r
ec
tt
ax
at
i
o
nwi
t
hheav
ypuni
s
hmentfo
rfai
l
i
ng
t
opay.
- Thi
sg
r
o
upwasc
o
ndemned t
os
av
ei
nt
hemi
l
i
t
i
a wi
t
h nopo
s
s
i
b
i
l
i
t
yfo
r
ex
empt
i
o
ns
.Theywer
edeni
edpo
l
i
t
i
c
alr
i
g
ht
s
.Theywer
es
ub
j
ec
t
edt
oc
o
nt
r
o
lb
y
t
heno
b
i
l
i
t
yo
nwho
s
el
andt
heyl
i
v
edandwer
es
ub
j
ec
t
edt
ov
ar
i
o
usfo
r
mso
f
feudaldues
.
-Inv
i
ewo
ft
hi
ss
c
enar
i
ot
hepeas
ant
sl
o
o
kedfo
r
war
dt
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nfo
r
10
i
ndependenc
eandfr
eedo
m fr
o
m unfai
randt
heo
v
er
b
ur
deni
ngt
ax
at
i
o
nand
t
hec
o
nt
r
o
lb
yt
hel
andl
o
r
ds
.
- The b
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
e had a s
er
i
o
usc
aus
eo
f di
s
c
o
nt
ent
.They wer
e al
mo
s
t
c
o
mpl
et
el
yex
c
l
udedfr
o
mt
heg
o
v
er
nmento
fFr
anc
edes
pi
t
et
hei
reduc
at
i
o
n
andweal
t
hy.
- Theyhadnopr
o
s
pec
t
sfo
rpr
o
mo
t
i
o
ni
nt
heFr
enc
har
myandnav
ywher
e
c
o
mmi
s
s
i
o
nedr
ankswer
epr
es
er
v
edfo
rt
heNo
b
i
l
i
t
y.
- Theyal
s
ohad ec
o
no
mi
cg
r
i
ev
anc
es
.Thei
rec
o
no
mi
cac
t
i
v
i
t
i
eswer
eb
ei
ng
fr
us
t
r
at
edb
yt
heeno
r
mo
usex
t
r
av
ag
anc
yandl
ux
ur
yatt
hepal
ac
es
uc
ht
hatas
at1789Fr
anc
ewaso
nt
hev
er
g
eo
fb
ankr
upt
c
y.
- Fr
o
mt
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
epo
i
nto
fv
i
ewt
heeno
r
mo
uspr
i
v
i
l
eg
esenj
o
yedb
yt
he
no
b
i
l
i
t
yac
c
o
unt
edfo
rt
heFr
enc
hb
ankr
upt
c
y
.
- Thatt
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
ewer
es
uffi
c
i
ent
l
yeduc
at
ed and uni
t
ed t
ol
ead t
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
heyb
ec
amet
hefer
t
i
l
es
eedb
edfo
rt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
deas
.
- Duet
ot
heab
o
v
efac
t
si
ti
sno
ts
ur
pr
i
s
i
ngt
hatmo
s
to
ft
hel
eader
s
hi
po
ft
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nwasdr
awnfr
o
mt
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
ec
l
as
s
.
- TheCat
ho
l
i
cChur
c
henj
o
yedapr
i
v
i
l
eg
edpo
s
i
t
i
o
nwi
t
hi
nFr
anc
e.Itwast
he
es
t
ab
l
i
s
hedc
hur
c
ho
fFr
anc
ehenc
ei
twast
heo
nl
ypub
l
i
cwo
r
s
hi
pal
l
o
wedand
r
ec
o
g
ni
z
edb
yl
aw.
- Thev
ar
i
o
usfo
r
mso
fpr
o
t
es
t
antfai
t
ht
hatex
i
s
t
ed i
n Fr
anc
ewer
eno
t
r
ec
o
g
ni
z
ed.
- Wi
t
hi
nt
hec
hur
c
hi
t
s
el
ft
her
ewer
eg
r
eat
eri
nequal
i
t
i
eso
fi
nc
o
mehenc
et
her
e
wast
heg
r
o
upo
fpo
o
rpar
i
s
hpr
i
es
t
l
yandt
hehi
g
herc
l
er
g
y.
- Themaj
o
r
i
t
yo
ft
hes
i
xt
ho
us
andpar
i
s
hpr
i
es
t
sr
ec
ei
v
edanannuals
al
ar
yo
f
30and70po
undswhi
l
et
he134Ar
c
hb
i
s
ho
psr
ec
ei
v
edar
o
und2500po
unds
.
- Fur
t
her
mo
r
et
hehi
g
herc
l
er
g
ywer
eappo
i
nt
edt
owel
l
-pai
dpo
l
i
t
i
c
alpo
s
t
sand
t
heyl
i
v
edi
nt
hepal
ac
ei
nl
ux
ur
yands
pendmuc
ho
ft
hei
rt
i
mei
nt
hepl
eas
ur
es
o
fhunt
i
ng
.Muc
ho
ft
hedayt
odaywo
r
ki
nt
hec
o
unt
r
ys
i
dewasl
eftt
ot
he
par
i
s
hpr
i
es
t
s
.
- Att
hes
amet
i
met
hec
hur
c
hhadeno
r
mo
usweal
t
h.Ito
wnedo
nefi
ft
ho
ft
he
l
andi
nFr
anc
ewi
t
hayear
l
yi
nc
o
meo
f500000000fr
anc
so
fwhi
c
ho
nl
ys
o
me30
11
mi
l
l
i
o
nwer
eus
edt
omai
nt
ai
nho
s
pi
t
al
s
,s
c
ho
o
l
sando
t
heri
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
ns
.
- Iti
st
her
efo
r
eno
ts
ur
pr
i
s
i
ngt
hatt
hepar
i
s
hpr
i
es
t
swhower
efr
us
t
r
at
edwi
t
h
t
hepr
i
v
i
l
eg
edpo
s
i
t
i
o
no
ft
hehi
g
herc
l
er
g
yj
o
i
nedi
nt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nal
o
ng
s
i
det
he
peas
ant
sandt
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
ewhoal
s
og
r
eat
l
yr
es
ent
edt
hepr
i
v
i
l
eg
edpo
s
i
t
i
o
n
o
ft
heCat
ho
l
i
cChur
c
h.
TheCo
ur
s
eo
ft
heRev
o
l
ut
i
o
n
TheMeet
i
ngo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
alMay1789
-Themeet
i
ngo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
almar
ked t
heb
eg
i
nni
ngo
ft
heFr
enc
h
Rev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Thi
si
si
nv
i
ewo
ft
hefac
tt
hatt
heki
ng
’
sac
t
i
o
npr
ec
i
pi
t
at
edt
heo
ut
b
r
eako
f
t
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Wheni
tb
ec
ameappar
entt
hatt
hec
o
ndi
t
i
o
nswi
t
hi
nFr
anc
ehad
t
akenfo
rt
hewo
r
s
eLo
ui
sXVIag
r
eedt
ot
hemeet
i
ngo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
al
t
hathadl
as
tmeti
n1614.
-Themeet
i
ngwasex
pec
t
edt
oc
har
tt
hewayfo
r
war
di
ns
o
l
v
i
ngt
heFr
enc
h
pr
o
b
l
ems
.Theki
ngi
nt
er
fer
edwi
t
ht
hepr
o
c
es
sb
yo
r
der
i
ngt
hatt
hees
t
at
esmeet
s
epar
at
el
y.
-TheThi
r
d Es
t
at
ehad ho
ped fo
rj
o
i
ntmeet
i
ngwi
t
ht
heFi
r
s
tand S
ec
o
nd
Es
t
at
es
.Undert
henewar
r
ang
ementi
tb
ec
amec
l
eart
ot
heThi
r
dEs
t
at
et
hat
t
hei
rpr
o
po
s
al
swo
ul
db
eb
l
o
c
kedb
yo
t
heres
t
at
ess
i
nc
et
heywer
eex
pec
t
edt
o
pr
es
entt
hei
rpr
o
po
s
al
st
ot
heFi
r
s
tandS
ec
o
ndEs
t
at
esb
efo
r
eb
ei
ngpr
es
ent
ed
t
ot
heki
ng
.
-Iti
satt
hi
spo
i
ntt
hatt
heThi
r
dEs
t
at
et
o
o
kamo
r
er
adi
c
almo
v
eo
fdec
l
ar
i
ng
t
hems
el
v
esast
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
y.Undert
hel
eader
s
hi
po
ft
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
e
t
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yt
o
o
kano
at
hi
nwhi
c
hi
tv
o
wednev
ert
odi
s
b
andunt
i
la
newc
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
ni
sag
r
eed.
-Thust
hemeet
i
ngo
ft
heEs
t
at
es
-Gener
ali
n1789c
anb
er
eg
ar
dedast
he
b
eg
i
nni
ngo
ft
heFr
enc
hr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nundert
hel
eader
s
hi
po
ft
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
e.It
wast
her
eac
t
i
o
nar
yac
t
i
o
nso
ft
heki
ngt
hati
nfl
uenc
edt
hemt
or
i
s
efo
rt
heki
ng
12
want
edt
ob
l
o
c
kt
her
efo
r
mpr
o
c
es
s
.
TheRi
s
i
ng
s
-Ther
i
s
i
ng
sb
yt
hepeas
ant
si
nt
hec
o
unt
r
ys
i
dehel
ped i
ns
peedi
ngupt
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
ypr
o
c
es
s
.Thi
smakest
hemt
hemedi
umo
fc
hang
e.
-Thepeas
ant
sr
o
s
es
o
o
naft
ert
henewso
ft
hedi
s
mi
s
s
alo
fNec
kerfo
rt
he
s
ec
o
ndt
i
mer
eac
hedt
hem i
nJul
y1789.Tot
hem Nec
kerwast
hel
as
tho
pei
n
s
o
l
v
i
ngt
heFr
enc
hpr
o
b
l
ems
.
-Al
s
oj
o
i
ni
ngi
nt
her
i
s
i
ngwast
hemo
bi
nt
het
o
wnst
hatdemo
ns
t
r
at
edi
nt
he
s
t
r
eet
so
fPar
i
s
,o
t
hert
o
wnsandt
hepr
o
v
i
nc
es
.
-Theywer
es
o
o
nj
o
i
nedb
yt
hes
o
l
di
er
sands
t
o
r
medt
heBas
t
i
l
l
eo
n14Jul
y.The
Bas
t
i
l
l
ewasapr
i
s
o
nfamo
usfo
rho
us
i
ngt
hepo
l
i
t
i
c
alo
ppo
nent
so
fLo
ui
sXVI.To
t
heFr
enc
ht
heBas
t
i
l
l
es
ymb
o
l
i
z
edt
her
eac
t
i
o
nar
yr
ul
eo
fLo
ui
sXVI.
-It
sc
apt
ur
eb
yt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
ess
i
g
nal
edt
hedemi
s
eo
ft
her
eac
t
i
o
nar
yr
ul
e
o
ft
he ki
ng
.The ev
ent
so
f 14 Jul
yi
nt
ur
ni
ns
pi
r
ed t
he peas
ant
si
nt
he
c
o
unt
r
ys
i
de.Theys
ei
z
edl
andfr
o
mt
heno
b
i
l
i
t
y,c
apt
ur
edt
hemans
i
o
nsand
c
as
t
l
esb
el
o
ng
i
ngt
ot
heno
b
i
l
i
t
yandt
henel
ec
t
edc
o
mmunesandc
o
unc
i
l
st
o
r
epr
es
entt
hemo
nl
o
c
all
ev
el
.
-Fac
edb
yt
hi
sdi
ffi
c
ul
ts
i
t
uat
i
o
nLo
ui
sXVIag
r
eedt
owi
t
hdr
awhi
st
r
o
o
psfr
o
m
t
he s
t
r
eet
s
,r
ec
o
g
ni
z
et
he newl
yc
r
eat
ed Nat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
y and t
ot
he
es
t
ab
l
i
s
hmento
faNat
i
o
nalGuar
d.Nat
i
o
nalGuar
dwasafo
r
c
ec
r
eat
edb
yt
he
Nat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yt
og
uar
ant
eet
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
ai
ns
.
- Ther
efo
r
et
her
i
s
i
ng
sb
yt
hepeas
ant
sr
es
ul
t
ed i
nt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
ai
ns
namel
yl
and fo
rt
he peas
ant
s
,po
l
i
t
i
c
alpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
n and r
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
n
t
hr
o
ug
ht
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yand t
heCo
mmunesand Co
unc
i
l
so
nb
o
t
ht
he
nat
i
o
nalandl
o
c
all
ev
el
s
.Al
lt
hes
eg
ai
nsandt
ho
s
et
oc
o
mewer
eg
uar
ant
eedb
y
t
henewl
yc
r
eat
edNat
i
o
nalg
uar
d.
13
TheS
es
s
i
o
nso
ft
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
y
a)
TheAug
us
tS
es
s
i
o
n
-Att
hi
ss
es
s
i
o
nt
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yundert
hel
eader
s
hi
po
ft
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
e
ac
hi
ev
edequal
i
t
yo
fal
lFr
enc
hpeo
pl
eb
yab
o
l
i
s
hi
ngfeudal
i
s
m.
-TheFr
enc
hfeudals
t
r
uc
t
ur
ewasab
o
l
i
s
hedb
yat
o
t
alo
f32r
es
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
.The
di
s
g
r
unt
l
edel
ement
samo
ngt
heno
b
i
l
i
t
yes
pec
i
al
l
yt
heLes
s
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
yandt
he
No
b
i
l
i
t
yo
ft
heRo
b
ewer
ei
nv
i
t
edt
oj
o
i
nt
heas
s
emb
l
y.
-Eac
hno
b
l
eman,o
neaft
erano
t
herr
o
s
eg
i
v
i
ngupt
hei
rpr
i
v
i
l
eg
es
.Thust
he
feudals
ys
t
em c
o
l
l
aps
edast
hepeas
ant
swer
efr
eedfr
o
mt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
he
no
b
i
l
i
t
y.Al
lfeudaldueswer
eab
o
l
i
s
hed b
utt
heki
ngr
efus
ed t
oac
c
eptt
he
r
es
o
l
ut
i
o
nso
ft
he Aug
us
tS
es
s
i
o
no
ft
he Nat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yt
hatab
o
l
i
s
hed
feudal
i
s
m.
-Fr
o
mt
heab
o
v
ei
tc
anb
ear
g
uedt
hatt
heAug
us
tS
es
s
i
o
nb
r
o
ug
htequal
i
t
y
wi
t
hi
nFr
anc
eb
yt
heab
o
l
i
t
i
o
no
ft
hefeudals
ys
t
emandi
t
ss
ys
t
emo
fpr
i
v
i
l
eg
es
.
Iti
sho
wev
eri
mpo
r
t
antt
or
eal
i
z
et
hatt
her
eac
t
i
o
nar
yt
endenc
i
eso
ft
heki
ng
wer
epr
es
ents
i
nc
eher
efus
edt
oac
c
eptt
her
es
o
l
ut
i
o
nso
ft
hes
es
s
i
o
n.
b
)TheDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
fRi
g
ht
so
fMan
- The Nat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
y undert
he l
eader
s
hi
po
ft
he b
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
e pr
es
s
ed
fo
r
war
d wi
t
ht
he r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n b
yi
s
s
ui
ng a s
o
c
i
o
-po
l
i
t
i
c
aldo
c
ument t
hat
g
uar
ant
eedt
her
i
g
ht
sandl
i
b
er
t
yo
ft
heFr
enc
hpeo
pl
e.
- Thi
st
heyac
hi
ev
ed b
ymo
del
i
ngt
hei
rdo
c
umento
nt
heAmer
i
c
an waro
f
Independenc
et
hatdec
l
ar
edt
hatal
lmanwer
ec
r
eat
edequalwi
t
hi
nal
i
enab
l
e
r
i
g
ht
snamel
yl
i
fe,l
i
b
er
t
yandfr
eedo
m.
-Ag
ai
nLo
ui
sXVIr
efus
edt
os
i
g
nt
hedo
c
umenti
nt
ol
aw.TheThi
r
dEs
t
at
e,i
n
par
t
i
c
ul
ari
t
swo
menr
eac
t
edb
ydemo
ns
t
r
at
i
ngt
o
war
dst
hepal
ac
edemandi
ng
t
hatt
heki
ngac
c
eptt
heAug
us
tS
es
s
i
o
nr
es
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
,s
i
g
nt
heDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
ft
he
14
Ri
g
ht
so
fMani
nt
ol
awandi
nc
r
eas
et
hes
uppl
yo
fb
r
eadwi
t
hi
nt
hec
o
unt
r
y.
-Fac
edwi
t
hs
uc
hav
o
l
at
i
l
es
i
t
uat
i
o
nt
heki
ngg
av
ei
n,ac
c
ept
edt
her
es
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
o
ft
heAug
us
tS
es
s
i
o
n,t
heDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
ft
heRi
g
ht
so
fManandpr
o
mi
s
edt
o
i
nc
r
eas
et
hes
uppl
yo
fb
r
ead.
-Thust
hr
o
ug
ht
hec
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
i
o
nso
ft
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
eandt
hewo
ment
her
i
g
htso
f
t
hepeo
pl
ewer
eg
r
ant
edandg
uar
ant
eedandt
her
es
o
l
ut
i
o
nso
ft
heAug
us
t
s
es
s
i
o
nwer
ec
o
nfi
r
med.
c
)
TheCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
y
-Per
hapst
hemo
s
ti
mpo
r
t
antc
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
i
o
no
ft
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yt
ot
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nwast
hes
epar
at
i
o
no
ft
hec
hur
c
hfr
o
ms
t
at
eaffai
r
s
.
-Thi
swasac
hi
ev
edt
hr
o
ug
ht
her
emo
v
alo
ft
hec
hur
c
hi
nfl
uenc
efr
o
m po
l
i
t
i
c
s
t
hr
o
ug
ht
heCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
y.Thenewc
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
nc
o
o
r
di
nat
ed
t
headmi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
no
ft
hec
hur
c
h,pai
dt
hes
al
ar
i
eso
ft
heCl
er
g
y,c
utt
i
eswi
t
h
t
hePo
peandmadet
heCl
er
g
yt
ot
akeano
at
ho
fl
o
yal
t
y.
- Ag
ai
nt
heki
ngr
efus
ed t
oac
c
eptt
hec
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n po
i
nt
i
ngo
utt
hatt
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
eshad g
o
ne t
o
o far
.Lo
ui
sXVI had t
he s
uppo
r
to
ft
he i
n
c
o
ndemni
ngt
hec
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n.
-Lo
ui
sXVIandmemb
er
so
ft
her
o
yalfami
l
yat
t
empt
edt
ofl
eefr
o
m Par
i
st
o
Var
ennesandt
henes
c
apet
oes
c
apet
onei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
est
oj
o
i
nt
heémi
g
r
és
,
t
heno
b
i
l
i
t
ywhohadfl
edfr
o
mFr
anc
e.
-Thei
nt
entwast
ofi
g
htt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nfr
o
mo
ut
s
i
dewi
t
ht
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ng
fr
i
endl
ys
t
at
es
.Theywer
edet
ec
t
edo
nt
hei
rway,ar
r
es
t
edandr
et
ur
nedt
o
Par
i
saspr
i
s
o
ner
s
.
-Theki
ngwass
us
pendedfr
o
mc
ar
r
yi
ngo
uthi
sdut
i
esandi
twasr
es
o
l
v
edt
hat
hi
sfut
ur
ewo
ul
db
edec
i
dedo
nupo
nt
hec
o
mpl
et
i
o
no
nt
hec
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
he
c
o
unt
r
y.
-Thust
heCi
v
i
lc
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
ys
epar
at
ed t
hec
hur
c
hfr
o
ms
t
at
e
affai
r
st
her
eb
yput
t
i
ngt
oan end t
heeno
r
mo
usi
nfl
uenc
et
hatt
hec
hur
c
h
enj
o
yeddur
i
ngt
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
me.Att
hes
amet
i
met
heCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
f
15
t
he Cl
er
g
y ex
po
s
ed t
he r
eac
t
i
o
nar
yt
endenc
i
eso
ft
he ki
ng who
s
e ac
t
i
o
ns
i
dent
i
fi
edhi
mwi
t
ht
heenemi
eso
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
d)
Ec
o
no
my
-Thenex
tt
as
ko
ft
heAs
s
emb
l
ywast
os
t
ab
i
l
i
z
et
heec
o
no
myt
hatwasi
nc
hao
s
andatt
hev
er
g
eo
fb
ankr
upt
c
y.
-Theyat
t
empt
edt
oac
hi
ev
et
hi
sb
yi
s
s
ui
ngpaperc
ur
r
enc
yc
al
l
edt
heAs
s
i
g
nat
s
.
Thi
sc
ur
r
enc
ywasg
uar
ant
eedb
yt
hec
hur
c
hl
andst
hathadb
eennat
i
o
nal
i
z
ed.
S
o
meo
ft
henat
i
o
nal
i
z
edl
andswer
eputo
nauc
t
i
o
n.Int
hi
swayt
hel
andl
es
s
peas
ant
swer
eg
r
ant
edl
and.
-Wi
t
ht
i
met
heas
s
i
g
nat
sendedupl
o
s
i
ngt
hei
rv
al
ueandt
hees
t
ab
l
i
s
hmento
f
t
heFr
enc
hec
o
no
mywasno
twel
lac
hi
ev
ed.
-Byat
t
empt
i
ngt
os
t
ab
i
l
i
z
et
heec
o
no
myt
hr
o
ug
hmo
neyt
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
y
wasat
t
empt
i
ngt
oac
hi
ev
es
o
meo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yai
ms
.Thenat
i
o
nal
i
z
at
i
o
n
o
ft
hec
at
ho
l
i
cl
andsenab
l
edt
hel
andl
es
st
oac
qui
r
el
and.
Émi
g
r
és
-Thes
ewer
et
hefo
r
merno
b
i
l
i
t
yegt
heGr
eat
erNo
b
i
l
i
t
y.Theyel
ec
t
edt
ol
eav
e
Fr
anc
eands
et
t
l
ei
nt
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
ess
uc
hasPr
us
s
i
aandAus
t
r
i
a.
-Theyv
o
wedno
tt
ol
i
v
ei
naFr
anc
eundert
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
es
.
They i
nt
ended t
og
et hel
p fr
o
m s
ympat
het
i
c nei
g
hb
o
ur
st
o fi
g
ht t
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esandr
es
t
o
r
et
hemo
nar
c
hwi
t
hful
lpo
wer
s
.
TheCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n
- Thewo
r
ko
ft
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yc
ul
mi
nat
ed i
nt
hedr
aft
i
ngo
fa new
c
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
fFr
anc
e.Thepr
o
v
i
s
i
o
nso
ft
henewc
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
nwer
e:
16
1.
Leg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eAs
s
emb
l
y
-el
ec
t
edmemb
er
s
2.
Mo
nar
c
h
-Wi
t
hl
i
mi
t
edpo
wer
s
,as
us
pens
i
v
eno
tab
s
o
l
ut
ev
et
opo
wer
,c
o
nt
r
o
lo
ffo
r
ei
g
n
po
l
i
c
y,appo
i
nt
i
ngt
hec
ab
i
net
.
-s
har
edpo
werwi
t
ht
heas
s
emb
l
y
.
3.
El
ec
t
i
o
ns
-Fo
rt
heLeg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eb
as
edo
nafr
anc
hi
s
e(
qual
i
fi
c
at
i
o
nasav
o
t
ero
rt
ob
e
v
o
t
edfo
r
)
4.
LandGuar
ant
ee
- Al
l
o
wed t
hepeas
ant
st
or
et
ai
nt
hel
andsg
ai
n dur
i
ngt
hec
o
ur
s
eo
ft
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
5.
Equal
i
t
y
-Equal
i
t
yb
efo
r
et
hel
awandi
nt
er
mso
fappo
i
nt
ment
s
.
6.
Ri
g
ht
so
fMan
-Guar
ant
eedb
yt
heDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
fRi
g
ht
so
fMan
7.
Lo
c
alGo
v
er
nment
17
-Co
mmunesandCo
unc
i
l
ses
t
ab
l
i
s
hedfo
l
l
o
wi
ngt
her
i
s
i
ngi
nt
hec
o
unt
r
ys
i
deand
t
hepr
o
v
i
nc
esr
et
ai
nedt
or
epr
es
entpeo
pl
eo
nl
o
c
all
ev
el
.
8.
TheCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
y
-Itwasi
nc
o
r
po
r
at
edi
nt
ot
hec
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n.
9.
TheNat
i
o
nalGuar
d
-r
et
ai
nt
opr
es
er
v
et
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
ai
ns
.
TheJac
o
b
i
nEr
a:1791–1794
TheJac
o
b
i
ns
-Thes
ewer
et
heb
o
ur
g
eo
i
s
i
eands
o
mes
ec
t
i
o
no
ft
hepeas
ant
s
.Theywer
et
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esandwer
et
hes
ec
o
ndmo
s
ti
mpo
r
t
antg
r
o
upi
nt
henewl
yel
ec
t
ed
l
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
yaft
ert
hefeul
l
ai
nt
s(
t
her
o
yal
i
s
t
s–fo
r
merno
b
i
l
i
t
y)
.
-Wi
t
hi
nt
heas
s
emb
l
yt
heJac
o
b
i
nswer
ehi
g
hl
yo
r
g
ani
z
ed.Amo
ngt
hem t
her
e
wer
es
o
mes
ec
t
i
o
ns
,TheCo
r
del
i
er
sc
o
ns
i
s
t
i
ngo
ft
hewo
r
ki
ngc
l
as
sundert
he
l
eader
s
hi
po
fMadameRo
l
and,t
heGi
r
o
ndi
nst
hatwant
edt
ous
ewart
odeal
wi
t
ht
heant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yel
ement
si
nando
ut
s
i
deFr
anc
eandt
heHer
b
er
t
i
s
t
s
underHer
b
er
twhowant
edt
odoawaywi
t
hChr
i
s
t
i
ani
t
y.
TheThr
eatt
ot
heRev
o
l
ut
i
o
n
-Fr
o
mt
heo
ns
ett
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nFr
anc
ewasundert
hr
eatfr
o
mt
heant
i
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y el
ement
si
n and o
ut
s
i
de Fr
anc
e. The ai
m o
ft
he ant
i
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yel
ement
swast
oo
v
er
t
hr
o
wt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
o
v
er
nmentand
r
es
t
o
r
et
hemo
nar
c
hywi
t
hi
t
sful
lpo
wer
s
.
18
Int
er
nalThr
eat
s
1.
Ro
yal
i
s
t
s
-Theywant
edt
oo
v
er
t
hr
o
wt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nandr
es
t
o
r
et
hemo
nar
c
hyt
ot
he
t
hr
o
newi
t
hi
t
sful
lpo
wer
s
.
-Theywer
et
hefo
r
merno
b
i
l
i
t
ywhoc
ho
s
et
or
emai
ni
nr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yFr
anc
e.
Theyhadt
hemaj
o
r
i
t
yi
nt
hel
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
ywher
et
heywer
ekno
wnast
he
feul
l
ai
nt
s
.Theex
i
s
t
i
ngfr
anc
hi
s
eb
as
edo
no
ne’
si
nc
o
meenab
l
edt
hemt
og
ai
na
maj
o
r
i
t
yi
nt
heas
s
emb
l
y
.
- Thes
er
o
yal
i
s
t
sai
med atr
emo
v
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
o
v
er
nmentand t
he
l
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
yanddoawaywi
t
hal
lt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yc
hang
est
hatwer
e
ens
hr
i
nedi
nt
hec
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
fS
ept
emb
er1791.
-Amo
ngt
hec
hang
eswer
epo
l
i
t
i
c
alpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
nandr
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
h
t
heas
s
emb
l
y,c
o
mmunesandc
o
unc
i
l
s
;equal
i
t
y;r
i
g
ht
so
fmanandt
hel
and
g
ai
nsfo
rt
hel
andl
es
s
.
-Ther
o
yal
i
s
t
sho
pedt
or
es
t
o
r
et
hemo
nar
c
hywi
t
hful
lpo
wer
s
.Theyenj
o
y
ed
s
uppo
r
tfr
o
mt
heki
ngwhowass
ympat
het
i
ct
ot
heFr
enc
hs
i
t
uat
i
o
n.
-Thefac
tt
hatt
her
o
yal
i
s
t
swer
eag
ai
ns
tt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nex
pl
ai
nwhyt
heyl
ac
ked
z
ealdur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
2.
Cl
er
g
y
-Theyenj
o
yedeno
r
mo
uspr
i
v
i
l
eg
esdur
i
ngt
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
meandt
heywant
ed
t
oo
v
er
t
hr
o
wt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nandhel
pr
es
t
o
r
et
heki
ngi
no
r
dert
or
eg
ai
nt
hei
r
pr
i
v
i
l
eg
edpo
s
i
t
i
o
n.
-Theyl
i
v
edatt
hepal
ac
eandhadmuc
hi
nfl
uenc
ei
nt
heFr
enc
hpo
l
i
t
i
c
s
.They
b
ec
ameal
i
enat
edfr
o
mt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nb
ec
aus
ei
tt
o
o
kawayt
hei
rpr
i
v
i
l
eg
es
.
-Thec
o
nfl
i
c
tb
et
weent
hec
l
er
g
yandt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
eswaswo
r
s
enedb
yt
he
pr
o
v
i
s
i
o
nso
ft
heCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
yt
hats
epar
at
edt
hec
hur
c
hfr
o
m
19
t
hes
t
at
e.
-Thec
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
nr
equi
r
edt
hatt
hec
l
er
g
yt
akeano
at
h.Dur
i
ngt
het
i
meo
ft
he
l
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
yando
nwar
dsmo
s
tc
l
er
g
ymenr
efus
edt
ot
aket
heo
at
h.
-Tho
s
er
efus
edt
ot
aket
heo
at
hb
ec
amekno
wnast
heno
n-j
ur
i
ngpr
i
es
t
s
.The
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esv
i
ewedt
hei
rac
t
i
o
nsasant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y.
3.
Lo
ui
sXVI
-Hi
sr
eac
t
i
o
nar
yt
endenc
i
esmadehi
mt
heb
i
g
g
es
tt
hr
eatt
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Fr
o
mt
heo
ns
etLo
ui
sXVI’
si
dent
i
fi
ed hi
ms
el
fwi
t
ht
heant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
el
ement
s
.Wel
lb
efo
r
et
heo
ut
b
r
eako
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nLo
ui
sXVIal
l
o
wedhi
ms
el
f
t
ob
ei
nfl
uenc
edb
yt
heant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yel
ement
ss
uc
hashi
swi
fe,no
b
i
l
i
t
y
andt
hec
l
er
g
yt
ob
l
o
c
kt
heec
o
no
mi
cr
efo
r
mpr
o
c
es
sb
ydi
s
mi
s
s
i
ngt
heec
o
no
mi
s
t
s
o
neaft
erano
t
her
.
-Ini
t
i
al
l
yher
efus
ed t
oac
c
eptt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yr
es
o
l
ut
i
o
nso
ft
heAug
us
t
S
es
s
i
o
no
ft
heNat
i
o
nalAs
s
emb
l
yt
hatb
r
o
ug
htequal
i
t
yt
oFr
anc
easwel
last
he
Dec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
ft
heRi
g
ht
so
fMan.Heo
nl
yag
r
eedaft
erawo
mendemo
ns
t
r
at
i
o
n
ag
ai
ns
thi
m.
-Refus
edt
oac
c
eptt
heCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
ypo
i
nt
i
ngo
utt
hatt
hat
t
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nhadg
o
net
o
ofar
.
- He ev
en at
t
empt
ed t
ofl
ee Fr
anc
ei
n 1791 t
oj
o
i
nt
he émi
g
r
ési
nt
he
nei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
esi
nt
endi
ngt
ofi
g
htt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nfr
o
mo
ut
s
i
de.
- Dur
i
ngt
heper
i
o
do
ft
hel
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
yheus
ed hi
ss
us
pens
i
v
ev
et
o
po
wer
st
ob
l
o
c
kt
hemeas
ur
esi
nt
r
o
duc
edb
yt
hel
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
yt
odealwi
t
h
t
hr
eat
st
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Thel
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
y
,o
nt
woo
c
c
as
i
o
nsi
s
s
ueddec
r
eeso
r
der
i
ngt
heémi
g
r
és
t
or
et
ur
nt
oFr
anc
eo
rfac
edeat
handt
heno
nj
ur
i
ngpr
i
es
t
st
ot
akeano
at
ht
o
t
heCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
y.Inb
o
t
hc
as
est
heki
ngv
et
o
edt
hedec
r
ees
.
- The ki
ng
’
s ac
t
i
o
ns wer
ei
nt
er
pr
et
ed b
yt
he r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
es as ant
i
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y.
-Fur
t
her
mo
r
et
hepaper
st
hatwer
el
at
erdi
s
c
o
v
er
edatt
heTul
l
er
i
esPal
ac
ei
n
20
192i
ndi
c
at
edt
hatt
heki
ngc
o
r
r
es
po
ndedwi
t
ht
heémi
g
r
ésandev
enfi
nanc
ed
t
hei
rac
t
i
v
i
t
i
es
.
Ex
t
er
nalThr
eat
s
1.
Émi
g
r
és
-Or
g
ani
z
edanar
mywi
t
ht
hehel
po
fs
ympat
het
i
cnei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
ess
uc
has
Aus
t
r
i
aandPr
us
s
i
awi
t
ht
heai
mo
fr
emo
v
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esfr
o
m po
wer
andr
es
t
o
r
et
hemo
nar
c
hy.
-Thes
efo
r
merno
b
i
l
i
t
yhad el
ec
t
ed t
ol
eav
eFr
anc
eb
ec
aus
et
heywer
eno
t
pr
epar
edt
ol
i
v
ei
naFr
anc
et
hatwasc
o
nt
r
o
l
l
edb
yt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
eshenc
e
t
heywer
ec
o
ns
i
der
edasenemi
eso
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
2.
Pr
us
s
i
aandAus
t
r
i
a
- Thes
ehab
o
ur
ed and s
uppo
r
t
ed t
heémi
g
r
ésmuc
ht
ot
hec
hag
r
i
no
ft
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
es
.
i
)
TheDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
fPi
l
ni
t
z
-Pr
us
s
i
aandAus
t
r
i
ai
s
s
uedt
hi
sdec
l
ar
at
i
o
npo
i
nt
i
ngo
utt
hatt
hec
aus
eo
f
Lo
ui
sXVIwasal
s
ot
hei
r
s
.Theyo
penl
ydec
l
ar
edt
hei
rs
uppo
r
tfo
rt
heFr
enc
h
Ki
ngi
nhi
ss
t
r
ug
g
l
et
or
eg
ai
nhi
spo
wer
.
i
i
)
TheBr
uns
wi
c
kMani
fes
t
o
-Thi
swasano
t
herdec
l
ar
at
i
o
nb
yt
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
esi
ns
uppo
r
to
fLo
ui
s
XVI
.Ini
tt
heywar
nedt
heFr
enc
hpeo
pl
eag
ai
ns
tdemo
ns
t
r
at
i
ngag
ai
ns
tt
hei
r
ki
ngwhowashi
nder
i
ngr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
ypr
o
g
r
es
sb
yus
i
nghi
sv
et
opo
wer
.
21
-TheFr
enc
hpeo
pl
ei
nt
er
pr
et
edt
hi
sdec
l
ar
at
i
o
nasadi
r
ec
tt
hr
eatt
oFr
anc
eas
awho
l
e.
i
i
i
)
TheDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
fWar1792
-Thewarwi
t
ht
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
eswasat
hr
eatt
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Thr
o
ug
h
t
hi
swart
he r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esho
ped t
odefeatt
he nei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
esand
neut
r
al
i
z
et
heémi
g
r
ést
hr
eat
.
-Tot
hem t
hedefeato
ft
hes
eel
ement
so
ut
s
i
deFr
anc
ewo
ul
denab
l
et
hem t
o
dealwi
t
ht
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yel
ement
swi
t
hi
nFr
anc
e.
Meas
ur
esTakenAg
ai
ns
tRev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yThr
eat
s
-TheJac
o
b
i
nspl
ayedani
mpo
r
t
antr
o
l
ei
ner
adi
c
at
i
ngt
het
hr
eat
sag
ai
ns
tt
he
Fr
enc
h Rev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Thi
st
hey ac
hi
ev
ed t
hr
o
ug
hl
eg
i
s
l
at
i
o
n,i
mpr
i
s
o
nment
,
ex
ec
ut
i
o
ns
,war
,t
her
emo
v
alo
ft
heKi
nganddec
l
ar
i
ngFr
anc
eaRepub
l
i
c
.
-Iti
si
mpo
r
t
antt
or
eal
i
z
et
hati
nt
hepr
o
c
es
so
fr
emo
v
i
ngt
hes
et
hr
eat
st
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esended up er
o
di
ngs
o
me o
ft
he r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
ai
nsnamel
y
demo
c
r
ac
y,equal
i
t
yandt
her
i
g
ht
so
fman.
Int
er
nalThr
eat
s
-TheJac
o
b
i
ns
,t
hr
o
ug
hl
eg
i
s
l
at
i
o
nat
t
empt
edr
emo
v
et
hr
eat
st
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
Thel
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eas
s
emb
l
yi
s
s
uedadec
r
eet
hatr
equi
r
edt
heémi
g
r
ést
or
et
ur
nt
o
Fr
anc
eo
rfac
edeat
h.
-Theyal
s
oi
s
s
uedano
t
herdec
r
eet
hato
r
der
edt
heno
nj
ur
i
ngpr
i
es
t
st
ot
ake
ano
at
ht
ot
heCi
v
i
lCo
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
ft
heCl
er
g
y.Theki
ngt
henr
es
po
nded b
y
v
et
o
i
ngt
hedec
r
ee.Theas
s
emb
l
yr
eac
t
edb
yr
ei
s
s
ui
ngt
hedec
r
eeb
utt
hent
he
ki
ngv
et
o
edi
tag
ai
n.
-Al
t
ho
ug
ht
hes
edec
r
eeswer
ev
et
o
edt
heJac
o
b
i
nshadt
akent
hefi
r
s
ts
t
ept
o
dealwi
t
ht
het
hr
eat
st
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
22
-Indeal
i
ngwi
t
ht
het
hr
eat
so
ft
her
o
yal
i
s
t
st
heJac
o
b
i
nst
hr
o
ug
ht
heas
s
emb
l
y
i
s
s
ued t
heLaw o
fS
us
pec
t
s
.Theas
s
emb
l
ywasawar
eo
fant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
el
ement
swi
t
hi
nFr
anc
e.
-Thi
swasc
l
ear
l
yev
i
dentdur
i
ngt
heLaVandeepeas
antr
ev
o
l
t
.TheNat
i
o
nal
Guar
dt
hatwass
entt
os
uppr
es
si
tado
pt
edanant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yat
t
i
t
ude.It
wasr
o
yal
i
s
ti
nc
o
mpo
s
i
t
i
o
n.
-Thust
hi
sl
awwasai
med att
her
o
yal
i
s
t
s
.Al
lt
ho
s
es
us
pec
to
fb
ei
ngant
i
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
ywer
ear
r
es
t
edandi
mpr
i
s
o
ned.Al
s
oi
nc
l
udedwer
eal
lt
ho
s
efo
und
t
ob
el
ac
ki
ngz
eali
nt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yeffo
r
t
.
Ex
ec
ut
i
o
ns
- Wer
eus
ed b
yt
heJac
o
b
i
nst
oer
adi
c
at
er
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yt
hr
eat
s
.A Jac
o
b
i
n
l
eaderc
al
l
edMar
atc
ameupwi
t
ht
hei
deaaft
err
eal
i
z
i
ngt
hatt
hepr
i
s
o
nswer
e
o
v
er
fl
o
wi
ngwi
t
hpr
i
s
o
ner
s
.
-Thepr
i
s
o
ner
swer
edi
s
po
s
edb
yb
ei
ngmur
der
edi
nt
hes
t
r
eet
sb
ys
o
l
di
er
si
n
whatb
ec
amefamo
us
l
ykno
wnast
heS
ept
emb
erMas
s
ac
r
es
.
TheRemo
v
alo
ft
heKi
ngandt
heDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
ft
heFr
enc
hFi
r
s
tRepub
l
i
c
-Per
hapst
hemo
s
ti
mpo
r
t
antc
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
i
o
nb
yt
heJac
o
b
i
nswast
her
emo
v
alo
f
t
hemo
nar
c
handt
hedec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
ft
heFi
r
s
tFr
enc
hr
epub
l
i
c
.
-Thi
swasaft
ers
i
ng
l
i
ngo
utt
hemo
nar
c
hast
hemai
no
b
s
t
ac
l
eo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
Itwasaft
ert
heKi
ngus
edhi
sv
et
opo
weri
namo
v
et
ob
l
o
c
kt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
pr
o
c
es
s
.
-Afo
r
c
ec
al
l
edt
heCo
mmuneunderDant
o
n,aJac
o
b
i
nl
eaderwasc
r
eat
ed.It
s
t
o
r
med t
heKi
ng
’
spal
ac
eatt
heTul
l
er
i
es
.Theki
ngwasdepo
s
ed fr
o
mt
he
t
hr
o
nei
n1792andex
ec
ut
edi
n1793aft
ert
r
i
al
.
-Themo
nar
c
hywasab
o
l
i
s
hed and Fr
anc
ewasdec
l
ar
ed aRepub
l
i
c
.A new
c
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n wasag
r
eed o
n and a new as
s
emb
l
yc
al
l
ed t
hec
o
nv
ent
i
o
n was
el
ec
t
ed.
23
- Amo
ngo
t
herpr
o
v
i
s
i
o
nst
he new c
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n dec
l
ar
ed a uni
v
er
s
almal
e
s
uffr
ag
eandat
t
empt
edt
oi
nt
r
o
duc
eanumb
ero
fdemo
c
r
at
i
cmeas
ur
est
hat
i
nc
r
eas
edt
hefr
eedo
mandequal
i
t
yo
ft
heFr
enc
hpeo
pl
e.
TheRei
g
no
fTer
r
o
r
-TheJac
o
b
i
nsus
edt
er
r
o
rt
odealwi
t
ht
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yt
hr
eat
swi
t
hi
nFr
anc
e.
Co
mmi
t
t
eess
uc
h ast
heCo
mmi
t
t
eeo
fPub
l
i
cs
afet
y,Co
mmi
t
t
eeo
fGener
al
S
ec
ur
i
t
yandt
heRev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yTr
i
b
unalwer
ees
t
ab
l
i
s
hedt
odealwi
t
hpr
o
b
l
ems
wi
t
hi
nFr
anc
e.
- The Co
mmi
t
t
ee o
f Pub
l
i
cS
afet
y wasr
un b
y 12 memb
er
si
nc
har
g
eo
f
g
o
v
er
nmentdepar
t
ment
s
.
-TheCo
mmi
t
t
eeo
fGener
als
ec
ur
i
t
ywasr
es
po
ns
i
b
l
efo
rt
hei
nt
er
nals
ec
ur
i
t
yo
f
Fr
anc
e.Thes
ec
o
mmi
t
t
eesi
dent
i
fi
edt
heenemi
eso
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nandal
lt
ho
s
e
peo
pl
es
us
pec
t
edo
fwo
r
ki
ngag
ai
ns
tt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-TheRev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yTr
i
b
unalwo
r
kedasac
o
ur
to
fl
aw.Itv
er
di
c
t
swer
efi
nal
,
t
her
ewasnoappeal
.
-UnderRo
b
es
pi
er
r
e,o
neo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yl
eader
s
,t
het
woc
o
mmi
t
t
eesand
t
het
r
i
b
unalwer
eus
edt
oer
adi
c
at
eo
ppo
s
i
t
i
o
nt
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Heex
ec
ut
e,i
n
t
hr
eemo
nt
hso
fhi
sr
ei
g
n,mo
r
epeo
pl
et
hant
ho
s
eki
l
l
edi
nt
heent
i
r
eper
i
o
do
f
t
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
Ex
t
er
nalThr
eat
s
1.
Leg
i
s
l
at
i
o
nwasal
s
ous
edb
yt
heJac
o
b
i
nswi
t
hi
nt
heLeg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eAs
s
emb
l
y
t
odealwi
t
ht
heex
t
er
nalt
hr
eat
st
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Adec
r
eewasi
s
s
uedb
yt
heLeg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eAs
s
emb
l
yag
ai
ns
tt
heémi
g
r
éswho
wer
ewo
r
ki
ngwi
t
ht
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
est
oo
v
er
t
hr
o
wt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nand
r
es
t
o
r
et
hemo
nar
c
hy.
-Thedec
r
eeo
r
der
edt
hem t
or
et
ur
nt
oFr
anc
eo
rfac
edeat
h.Ho
wev
er
t
hi
smeas
ur
ewasb
l
o
c
kedb
yt
heKi
ngwhov
et
o
edt
hedec
r
eeo
nal
lt
wo
24
o
c
c
as
i
o
nst
hati
twasi
s
s
ued.
2.
TheJac
o
b
i
nsr
es
po
ndedt
ot
heex
t
er
nalt
hr
eat
sfr
o
mt
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ng
s
t
at
esb
yi
s
s
ui
ngt
heEdi
c
to
fFr
at
er
ni
t
yt
hatunder
t
o
o
kt
og
i
v
es
uppo
r
tt
o
anyr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
ymo
v
ementwi
t
hi
nt
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
est
hatwer
e
hab
o
ur
i
ngt
heémi
g
r
és
.
-Itwasho
pedt
hatt
hes
pr
eado
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
ymo
v
ement
st
hr
o
ug
h
o
utEur
o
pewo
ul
dhel
per
adi
c
at
et
hr
eat
so
nt
heFr
enc
hRev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
3.
TheJac
o
b
i
nsr
es
o
r
t
edt
ot
heus
eo
fwart
opr
o
t
ec
tt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Dur
i
ng
o
neo
ft
hes
es
s
i
o
nso
ft
heLeg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eAs
s
emb
l
yas
ec
t
i
o
no
ft
heJac
o
b
i
ns
c
al
l
edt
heGi
r
o
ndi
nspus
hedfo
rawarwi
t
ht
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
es
.
-Theyho
pedt
hatt
hedefeato
ft
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
eswo
ul
denab
l
e
t
hem t
odealdi
r
ec
t
l
ywi
t
ht
heémi
g
r
és
.Thec
o
mmi
t
t
eesc
ameupwi
t
ha
numb
ero
fmeas
ur
est
oi
mpr
o
v
eo
nt
hewareffo
r
t
.
-Thr
o
ug
ht
heLawo
fPer
manentAc
qui
s
i
t
i
o
nal
lFr
enc
hmenwer
et
ob
e
c
o
ns
c
r
i
pt
edper
manent
l
yi
nt
ot
heFr
enc
har
my.
-Al
luns
uc
c
es
s
fulGener
al
swer
edi
s
mi
s
s
edandex
ec
ut
ed.Thr
o
ug
ht
he
meas
ur
esi
nt
r
o
duc
edb
yGener
alCar
no
tt
heFr
enc
har
mywasr
et
r
ai
ned
andequi
pped.
- Al
lt
ho
s
el
ac
ki
ngz
eali
nt
hewareffo
r
ts
uc
hast
her
o
yal
i
s
t
swer
e
ar
r
es
t
edands
entb
efo
r
et
het
r
i
b
unalt
hats
ent
enc
edt
hemt
oex
ec
ut
i
o
ns
.
-Thr
o
ug
ht
hes
eeffo
r
t
st
heJac
o
b
i
nswer
eab
l
et
opo
s
tv
i
c
t
o
r
i
eso
nt
he
warfr
o
ntt
her
eb
ypr
es
er
v
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
 Ho
wev
eri
nt
hepr
o
c
es
so
fer
adi
c
at
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yt
hr
eat
st
he
Jac
o
b
i
nsendedupdes
t
r
o
yi
ngs
o
meo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
ai
ns
.
-Theac
t
i
o
nso
ft
heJac
o
b
i
nswer
eadi
r
ec
tv
i
o
l
at
i
o
no
ft
heDec
l
ar
at
i
o
no
f
t
heRi
g
ht
so
fManegt
heLawo
fS
us
pec
t
si
mpr
i
s
o
nedar
b
i
t
r
ar
yal
lt
ho
s
e
s
us
pec
t
edo
fb
ei
ngant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
.
-Theywer
el
at
ermur
der
edi
nt
hes
t
r
eet
si
nwhatl
at
erb
ec
amekno
wnas
25
t
heS
ept
emb
ermas
s
ac
r
eso
r
c
hes
t
r
at
ed b
yMar
ato
neo
ft
heJac
o
b
i
n
l
eader
s
.
-Theac
t
i
v
i
t
i
eso
ft
heJac
o
b
i
nsc
o
mpr
o
mi
s
edt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
deal
s
.Al
l
t
ho
s
epeo
pl
et
hatwer
eo
ppo
s
edt
ot
hepo
l
i
c
i
eso
fDant
o
nandRo
b
es
pi
er
r
e
wer
es
ummar
i
l
yex
ec
ut
edb
yt
het
r
i
b
unalwho
s
ev
er
di
c
twasfi
nal
.
-Ro
b
es
pi
er
r
ec
hang
edt
hepr
o
c
edur
eso
ft
het
r
i
b
unalb
ypac
ki
ngt
hej
ur
y
wi
t
h hi
ss
uppo
r
t
er
s
,us
i
ngo
nemo
r
alr
eput
at
i
o
ni
ns
t
ead t
oc
har
g
ea
s
us
pec
tanddenyi
ngl
eg
alr
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
ndur
i
ngt
hepr
o
c
eedi
ng
s
.
-Thusdur
i
ngt
her
ei
g
no
ft
er
r
o
rnumb
ero
fex
ec
ut
i
o
nsex
c
eededt
ho
s
eo
f
t
heent
i
r
er
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yper
i
o
d.
-Thi
smeanst
hatt
her
ewasag
r
o
s
shumanr
i
g
ht
sv
i
o
l
at
i
o
n.Theac
t
i
v
i
t
i
es
o
ft
heJac
o
b
i
nsc
o
mpr
o
mi
s
edt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
deal
ss
uc
haspo
l
i
t
i
c
al
par
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
nandr
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
no
ft
hepeo
pl
e.
-Thefo
r
mat
i
o
no
ft
heCo
mmi
t
t
eeso
fPub
l
i
cS
afet
yandGener
alS
ec
ur
i
t
y
aswel
last
heRev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yt
r
i
b
unall
ed t
ot
hees
t
ab
l
i
s
hmento
fa
di
c
t
at
o
r
s
hi
pi
nFr
anc
e.
-Po
werb
ec
amec
ent
r
edo
nafewi
ndi
v
i
dual
swi
t
hi
nt
heJac
o
b
i
nCl
ubeg
Dant
o
nandRo
b
es
pi
er
r
eendedupc
o
nt
r
o
l
l
i
ngt
woo
ft
hemo
s
tpo
wer
ful
i
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
nsi
nFr
anc
enamel
yt
heCo
mmi
t
t
eeo
fPub
l
i
cS
afet
yandt
he
Co
nv
ent
i
o
n.
TheDi
r
ec
t
o
r
y
Thees
t
ab
l
i
s
hmento
ft
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yg
o
v
er
nmentwasar
es
po
ns
et
os
o
meo
ft
he
pr
o
b
l
emst
hatt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nhadex
per
i
enc
edb
efo
r
e.
26
Les
s
o
nsfr
o
mt
heRev
o
l
ut
i
o
n
1.
The r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n Fr
anc
e ex
per
i
enc
ed a di
c
t
at
o
r
s
hi
pb
yt
he l
eader
s
hi
p
dr
awnfr
o
mt
heJac
o
b
i
nCl
ubegDant
o
n,Mar
atandRo
b
es
pi
er
r
e.Thes
e
l
eader
spas
s
edl
awsanddi
dt
hi
ng
st
hatendedupdes
t
r
o
yi
ngt
hei
deal
s
andac
hi
ev
ement
so
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
2.
As
t
r
ug
g
l
efo
rpo
weramo
ngt
heJac
o
b
i
nsr
es
ul
t
edi
ns
er
i
eso
fex
ec
ut
i
o
ns
ast
hel
eader
s
hi
pat
t
empt
edt
odo
mi
nat
et
hes
c
eneegMadameRo
l
and
o
fas
ec
t
i
o
no
ft
heJac
o
b
i
nswasel
i
mi
nat
edb
yDant
oandMar
atwhower
e
i
nt
ur
nel
i
mi
nat
edb
yRo
b
es
pi
er
r
e.
3.
Ther
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nwi
t
nes
s
edal
o
to
fev
ent
sb
ei
ngc
o
nt
r
o
l
l
edb
yt
hemo
bb
as
ed
i
nPar
i
s
.Thes
emo
bg
r
o
upswer
eas
o
ur
c
eo
ft
heJac
o
b
i
ns
t
r
eng
t
h.
4.
TheRo
yal
i
s
t
sdemo
ns
t
r
at
edt
hatt
heywer
eant
i
-r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yegt
he
Nat
i
o
nalg
uar
dt
hatwasdo
mi
nat
ed b
yt
hem ado
pt
ed a c
o
unt
er
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yat
t
i
t
udedur
i
ngt
hes
uppr
es
s
i
o
no
fapeas
antr
ev
o
l
ti
nt
he
LaVandeedi
s
t
r
i
c
t
.Themai
nc
ul
pr
i
t
swer
et
heémi
g
r
ést
hats
o
ug
htt
he
as
s
i
s
t
anc
eo
ft
henei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
est
or
emo
v
et
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esfr
o
m
po
wer
.Thust
heRo
yal
i
s
t
swer
ei
nful
ls
uppo
r
to
ft
hemo
nar
c
hy.
TheDi
r
ec
t
o
r
at
e
-TheCo
nv
ent
i
o
nr
es
po
ndedt
ot
heab
o
v
el
es
s
o
nsb
yes
t
ab
l
i
s
hi
ngadi
r
ec
t
o
r
at
et
o
r
ul
eFr
anc
e.
-Itwasag
o
v
er
nmentheadedb
yfi
v
epeo
pl
ec
al
l
eddi
r
ec
t
o
r
s
.Thi
smeantt
hat
t
hedayso
ft
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
heaffai
r
so
ft
hes
t
at
eb
yo
neper
s
o
nwer
eo
v
er
.
- Thusg
o
newer
et
hedayso
fRo
b
es
pi
er
r
ewhoended updo
mi
nat
i
ngs
t
at
e
affai
r
sb
yhi
ms
el
f.
-Onedi
r
ec
t
o
rwasex
pec
5t
edt
or
et
i
r
eeac
hyear
,c
o
nt
i
nui
t
yi
nnat
i
o
nalpo
l
i
c
y
27
wasac
hi
ev
ed t
hr
o
ug
ht
her
emai
ni
ngfo
urdi
r
ec
t
o
r
sand att
hes
amet
i
me
av
o
i
di
ngac
o
nt
i
nuo
usr
ei
g
no
fani
ndi
v
i
dual
.
- Toav
o
i
di
ndi
v
i
dual
sdo
mi
nat
i
nga new c
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n wases
t
ab
l
i
s
hed t
hat
c
r
eat
edanas
s
emb
l
ywi
t
ht
woc
hamb
er
s
.Thefi
r
s
tc
hamb
erwasaCo
unc
i
lo
f500
t
hatpr
o
po
s
edl
aws
.It
smemb
er
shadanag
el
i
mi
to
f30year
sandab
o
v
e.
-Thes
ec
o
nd c
hamb
er
,t
heCo
unc
i
lo
fEl
der
sdeb
at
ed l
awspr
o
po
s
ed b
yt
he
Co
unc
i
lo
f500.It
sag
el
i
mi
twas45year
sandab
o
v
e.
-Theag
el
i
mi
t
swer
emeantt
oc
o
nfi
neg
o
v
er
nanc
et
omat
ur
ei
ndi
v
i
dual
s
.By
hav
i
ngat
woc
hamb
eras
s
emb
l
y
,t
henewc
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
ni
nt
r
o
duc
edas
ys
t
em o
f
c
hec
ksandsb
al
anc
esi
nt
hepo
l
i
t
i
c
so
fFr
anc
e.
-Themo
bi
nfl
uenc
ewasr
educ
edb
yl
i
mi
t
i
ngv
o
t
i
ngt
ot
het
axpayer
st
her
eb
y
r
emo
v
i
ngel
ec
t
i
v
epo
wer
sfr
o
mt
hemo
b
.
-Topr
ev
entt
her
es
ur
g
enc
eo
ft
heRo
yal
i
s
tb
ec
aus
eo
ft
henewel
ec
t
i
v
el
aws
b
as
edo
nafr
anc
hi
s
et
wot
hi
r
dso
ft
hedeput
i
esi
nt
hec
hamb
er
swer
eel
ec
t
edb
y
t
heCo
nv
ent
i
o
ni
t
s
el
f.
-TheCo
nv
ent
i
o
nv
o
t
edt
omai
nt
ai
naRepub
l
i
c
anfo
r
mo
fg
o
v
er
nmentt
her
eb
y
r
emo
v
i
nganyho
peso
ft
heRo
yal
i
s
tr
es
ur
g
enc
e.
-TheJac
o
b
i
nCl
ubwasc
l
o
s
eddo
wnt
her
eb
ymar
ki
ngt
heendo
ft
heJac
o
b
i
ner
a.
Thi
si
nc
l
udedal
lo
t
herc
l
ub
st
hatex
i
s
t
edi
nFr
anc
e.
Ac
hi
ev
ement
s
1.
Thedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yr
educ
eddi
c
t
at
o
r
s
hi
pb
yt
hei
ndi
v
i
dual
s
.
- Ins
t
ead o
f hav
i
ng ex
t
r
eme v
i
ewsb
y an i
ndi
v
i
duals
uc
h aswhat
Ro
b
es
pi
er
r
ehaddemo
ns
t
r
at
edapanelo
ffi
v
edi
r
ec
t
o
r
swasg
i
v
ent
he
c
o
nt
r
o
lo
fg
o
v
er
nment
.
Thedi
r
ec
t
o
r
swi
l
lc
hec
kandb
al
anc
eeac
ho
t
her
’
spo
wer
.
2.
Byes
t
ab
l
i
s
hi
ngat
woc
hamb
eras
s
emb
l
y
,as
ys
t
em o
fc
hec
kandb
al
anc
es
wasi
nt
r
o
duc
ed.Dec
i
s
i
o
nmaki
ngwasdec
ent
r
al
i
z
ed.
28
3.
Themo
bt
hathaddi
c
t
at
edt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
npr
o
c
es
supt
o1794wass
i
l
enc
ed.
Itnol
o
ng
erhad anys
ayi
ns
t
at
ei
s
s
ues
.Thuspo
l
i
t
i
c
als
t
ab
i
l
i
t
ywas
ac
hi
ev
ed.
4.
Thedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yc
o
nt
i
nuedwi
t
ht
hewareffo
r
tag
ai
ns
tnei
g
hb
o
ur
i
ngs
t
at
ese
g Pr
us
s
i
a, Eng
l
and, and Aus
t
r
i
a. Thi
s hel
ped i
n pr
es
er
v
i
ng t
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
ai
ns
.
-Itwast
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yt
hatg
av
eNapo
l
eo
nBo
napar
t
et
he c
o
mmand o
f
t
hear
myi
nt
hehi
g
hl
ys
uc
c
es
s
fulIt
al
i
anc
ampai
g
no
f1796.
-Hi
sv
i
c
t
o
r
ys
ec
ur
edfo
rFr
anc
eami
l
i
t
ar
yandmo
r
al
eb
o
o
s
t
er
,t
er
r
i
t
o
r
y
fo
rFr
anc
eo
nt
hel
eftb
anko
ft
heRhi
neand Venet
i
at
hatenab
l
ed
Fr
anc
et
oc
r
eat
et
heCi
s
al
pi
neRepub
l
i
c
.
5.
Thedi
r
ec
t
o
r
ymadeat
t
empt
st
oi
mpr
o
v
et
heFr
enc
hec
o
no
myb
ymaki
ng
at
t
empt
st
or
educ
ei
nfl
at
i
o
n.Thei
nt
r
o
duc
t
i
o
no
ft
heas
s
i
g
nat
sdur
i
ng
t
hei
ni
t
i
als
t
ag
eso
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nhadr
es
ul
t
edi
ni
nfl
at
i
o
n.ThatFr
anc
e
wasatwarmeantt
hatt
he r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esc
o
ul
d no
tfo
c
uso
nt
he
ec
o
no
my.
TheWeaknes
s
es
1.
Thec
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
ni
nt
r
o
duc
edb
yt
hec
o
nv
ent
i
o
nwasfl
awed.Thi
swasdue
t
ot
hefac
tt
hatput
t
i
ngfi
v
epeo
pl
et
or
ul
eatt
hes
amet
i
mec
r
eat
eda
b
ur
eauc
r
ac
y
.
-Thi
so
ft
enr
es
ul
t
edIt
o
omuc
hb
i
c
ker
i
ngo
ni
mpo
r
t
anti
s
s
ues
.Hav
i
ng
o
neper
s
o
nr
et
i
r
i
ngeac
hyearwasi
ni
t
s
el
fani
ns
i
g
ni
fi
c
ants
t
epo
nhav
i
ng
effec
t
i
v
ec
hec
ksandb
al
anc
es
-Ther
emai
ni
ngfo
urdi
r
ec
t
o
r
swer
el
i
kel
yt
oj
el
lt
o
g
et
herandc
o
nt
i
nue
wi
t
hpo
l
i
c
i
eso
t
her
wi
s
ei
neffec
t
i
v
e.
29
2.
Byl
i
mi
t
i
ngt
hev
o
t
i
ngt
ot
het
axpayer
st
heCo
nv
ent
i
o
nhadi
neffec
t
depr
i
v
ed t
he peas
ant
sand t
he wo
r
ki
ngc
l
as
sfr
o
m par
t
i
c
i
pat
i
ngi
n
po
l
i
t
i
c
s
.
-Thi
swasc
o
nt
r
ar
yt
ot
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
deal
st
hatadv
o
c
at
edfo
rt
he
po
l
i
t
i
c
alpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
nandr
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
no
ft
hepeo
pl
e.
-Inanyc
as
ei
twast
hepeas
ant
sandt
hewo
r
ki
ngc
l
as
st
hatfo
r
medt
he
Thi
r
dEs
t
at
et
hatpl
ayedani
mpo
r
t
antr
o
l
edur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
- Thes
e meas
ur
es meant t
os
i
l
enc
et
he mo
b wer
ei
neffec
t
i
v
e.It
c
o
nt
i
nued t
oc
aus
epr
o
b
l
ems
.Itat
t
empt
ed t
or
emo
v
et
heCo
nv
ent
i
o
n
t
hr
o
ug
hanar
medi
ns
ur
r
ec
t
i
o
ni
nOc
t
o
b
er1795.Itwaso
nl
yt
hr
o
ug
ht
he
effo
r
t
so
fNapo
l
eo
nBo
napar
t
et
hatt
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
ys
ur
v
i
v
ed.
3.
Byhav
i
ngt
wot
hi
r
dso
ft
hememb
er
so
fb
o
t
hc
hamb
er
so
ft
heas
s
emb
l
y
el
ec
t
edb
yt
heCo
nv
ent
i
o
ndemo
ns
t
r
at
edt
hedi
c
t
at
o
r
i
alnat
ur
eo
ft
he
Co
nv
ent
i
o
n.Ot
heras
pi
r
ant
si
ns
o
mes
ec
t
i
o
nso
fFr
anc
ewer
eex
c
l
uded.
4.
Ont
heec
o
no
mi
cfr
o
nti
nfl
at
i
o
nwasno
teffec
t
i
v
el
yt
amed.Itc
o
nt
i
nued
t
or
eari
t
sug
l
yfac
eaffec
t
i
ngt
heec
o
no
my.
- Po
v
er
t
yr
emai
ned t
heg
r
eat
es
tc
hal
l
eng
eass
ho
wn b
yt
her
ag
-t
ag
nat
ur
eo
ft
hear
myt
hatNapo
l
eo
nBo
napar
t
ec
o
mmandedi
nt
heIt
al
i
an
Campai
g
ni
n1796.
5.
Att
hewarfr
o
ntt
her
ewass
t
ag
nat
i
o
nev
ent
ho
ug
hNapo
l
eo
nBo
napar
t
e
hads
ec
ur
edav
i
c
t
o
r
yfo
rFr
anc
ei
nIt
al
y
.
- Fr
anc
er
emai
ned at war wi
t
h Br
i
t
ai
n.Rus
s
i
a and Pr
us
s
i
a had
wi
t
hdr
awnno
ts
omuc
hasar
es
ul
to
ft
heFr
enc
hv
i
c
t
o
r
i
esb
utt
hei
ro
wn
c
hal
l
eng
es
.
6.
Thedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yl
ac
ked c
har
i
s
mat
i
cl
eader
swhoc
o
ul
d pul
lt
hepeo
pl
et
o
t
hei
rs
i
deandal
o
ngwi
t
ht
hei
ri
deas
.
-Buthav
i
ngadi
c
t
at
o
r
s
hi
po
ffi
v
epeo
pl
emeantadi
l
ut
i
o
no
fi
ndi
v
i
dual
30
ab
i
l
i
t
y.Thust
her
ewasnoo
net
ob
ei
dent
i
fi
edwi
t
hanyt
hi
ngi
nc
r
edi
t
.
- Ther
efo
r
e any mi
s
fo
r
t
une s
uc
h ast
he fai
l
ur
et
o make pr
o
g
r
es
s
ec
o
no
mi
c
al
l
yandatt
hewarfr
o
ntwasb
l
amedo
nal
lt
hefi
v
ememb
er
so
f
t
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
y.
TheNapo
l
eo
ni
cEr
a:1799-1815
Int
r
o
duc
t
i
o
n
-Ther
i
s
eo
fNapo
l
eo
nBo
napar
t
ei
sl
ar
g
el
yex
pl
ai
nedb
ya
c
o
mb
i
nat
i
o
no
ffac
t
o
r
ss
uc
hast
heweaknes
s
eso
ft
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
y,
t
heab
i
l
i
t
yo
fNapo
l
eo
nasas
o
l
di
erandal
eaderandt
he
pr
ev
ai
l
i
ngs
i
t
uat
i
o
nwi
t
hi
nFr
anc
e
 Theweaknes
s
eso
ft
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
y(
s
eeno
t
eso
nt
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
y)
 Theab
i
l
i
t
yo
fNapo
l
eo
nasas
o
l
di
er
.Hewasab
r
i
l
l
i
ants
o
l
di
er
.Ac
c
o
r
di
ng
t
oDenni
sRi
c
har
d Napo
l
eo
n’
spr
es
enc
ei
nb
at
t
l
ewaswo
r
t
hahundr
ed
menegt
he1796It
al
i
anCampai
g
nr
emar
kab
l
e,het
r
ans
fo
r
medar
ag
t
agar
myi
nt
oas
t
r
o
ngfo
r
c
et
hatwasab
l
et
odefeatt
heAus
t
r
i
anar
my
.
-Napo
l
eo
ndemo
ns
t
r
at
ed hi
smi
l
i
t
ar
ys
ki
l
lb
yo
ut
-mar
c
hi
ngando
ut
maneuv
er
i
ngt
heenemyandt
hens
t
r
i
keatt
heweakes
tpo
i
nt
.
-Thec
ampai
g
nb
r
o
ug
htb
enefi
t
sfo
rFr
anc
ei
nt
hefo
r
mo
ft
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
al
g
ai
ns
.Thr
o
ug
ht
heTr
eat
yo
fCampoFo
r
mi
oo
fOc
t
o
b
er1797Aus
t
r
i
ag
av
e
upi
t
sc
l
ai
mo
nBel
g
i
um.
-Fr
anc
eg
o
tt
er
r
i
t
o
r
yo
nt
heRhi
nel
and.Thr
o
ug
ht
hes
eg
ai
nsNapo
l
eo
n
c
r
eat
edt
heCi
s
al
pi
neRepub
l
i
ct
hati
nc
l
udedVenet
i
a.
- Thes
ec
o
nques
t
sb
r
o
ug
hta s
eto
fb
enefi
t
sfo
rNapo
l
eo
n.Napo
l
eo
n
fo
r
c
ed t
hedefeat
ed po
wer
st
opayi
ndemni
t
i
est
her
eb
yr
el
i
ev
i
ngt
he
Nat
i
o
nalTr
eas
ur
yt
heb
ur
deno
ffundi
ngwar
s
.
-Thefundswer
eus
ed t
ofeed and c
l
o
t
het
hear
myand t
odev
el
o
p
Fr
anc
e.Inaddi
t
i
o
nNapo
l
eo
nl
o
o
t
edt
hewo
r
kso
far
tfr
o
mt
hec
o
nquer
ed
31
t
er
r
i
t
o
r
yandpl
ac
edt
hemi
nt
heFr
enc
hmus
eumshenc
eb
r
o
ug
htpr
es
t
i
g
e
asFr
anc
eb
ec
ameani
mpo
r
t
antc
ul
t
ur
alc
ent
r
e.
-Inv
i
ewo
ft
heab
o
v
et
hepeo
pl
eo
fFr
anc
ei
dent
i
fi
edNapo
l
eo
nasa
per
s
o
n whowo
ul
db
r
i
ngg
l
o
r
yt
oFr
anc
ei
n manyr
es
pec
t
s
.Henc
ehi
s
po
pul
ar
i
t
ywasg
r
eat
l
yenhanc
ed.
 Napo
l
eo
nfur
t
herenhanc
edhi
spo
pul
ar
i
t
yb
yhel
pi
ngi
ns
uppr
es
s
i
ngt
he
Bab
eufc
o
ns
pi
r
ac
yt
hatai
medatr
emo
v
i
ngt
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yi
nac
o
upd’
t
at
.
Bab
eufai
medatab
o
l
i
s
hi
ngpr
i
v
at
epr
o
per
t
yandnat
i
o
nal
i
z
et
hel
and.
-S
uc
h a mo
v
e wo
ul
d hav
e under
mi
ned t
he mi
ddl
ec
l
as
st
hathad
ac
qui
r
edl
andfo
l
l
o
wi
ngt
heauc
t
i
o
ni
ngo
ft
hec
hur
c
hl
ands
.
-Thi
sc
o
ul
dhav
epl
ac
edFr
anc
eb
ac
kt
ot
hedo
mi
nanc
eo
ft
hemo
band
t
hepeas
ant
s
,at
hi
ngt
hathadb
eenr
emo
v
edb
yt
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
y.
- Her
eNapo
l
eo
n’
sr
o
l
ewast
oex
po
s
et
hec
o
ns
pi
r
ac
yand as
s
i
s
t
ed i
n
s
uppr
es
s
i
ngi
t
.Bab
eufand hi
sl
eadi
ngs
uppo
r
t
er
swer
eex
ec
ut
ed and
Fr
anc
ewass
av
edfr
o
myetano
t
herwav
eo
fr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Thi
smadeNapo
l
eo
npo
pul
ari
nFr
anc
e.
 Napo
l
eo
nwento
nt
os
av
et
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yfr
o
m yetano
t
heri
ns
ur
r
ec
t
i
o
n,
t
hi
st
i
meo
r
g
ani
z
edb
yt
heRo
yal
i
s
t
s
.Byo
peni
ngfi
r
eanddi
s
per
s
i
ngt
he
c
r
o
wdsNapo
l
eo
ns
av
edt
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
y.
-Iti
st
her
efo
r
eno
ts
ur
pr
i
s
i
ngt
hatt
hedi
r
ec
t
o
r
yfel
tt
hati
to
wedi
t
s
s
ur
v
i
v
alt
oNapo
l
eo
nandel
ev
at
edhi
mt
ot
hec
o
mmando
ft
hear
my.
 Napo
l
eo
nal
s
or
o
s
et
opo
werc
i
r
c
ums
t
ant
i
al
l
ywhenher
et
ur
nedfr
o
mt
he
Eg
ypt
i
anCampai
g
nfi
g
ht
i
ngt
heS
ec
o
ndCo
al
i
t
i
o
no
fBr
i
t
ai
n,Rus
s
i
aand
Eng
l
and.
-Thec
o
al
i
t
i
o
nhaddr
i
v
enFr
anc
eo
uto
fS
wi
t
z
er
l
andandt
heRhi
nel
and
t
her
eb
yer
o
di
ngt
heg
ai
nso
ft
heTr
eat
yo
fCampoFo
r
mi
o
.Att
hes
ame
t
i
meNapo
l
eo
n enj
o
yed t
hes
uppo
r
tfr
o
m amo
ngt
hememb
er
so
ft
he
Co
unc
i
lo
fEl
der
segAb
b
i
eS
i
eyeswhob
ac
kedNapo
l
eo
ni
nt
hec
o
up.
-Napo
l
eo
n’
sb
r
o
t
herLuc
i
enus
edanar
myt
oi
nv
adet
heas
s
emb
l
yand
32
dr
i
v
et
hememb
er
so
ut
.
- A newc
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n wasado
pt
ed.Fr
anc
ewasno
wr
ul
ed b
yat
hr
ee
c
o
ns
ul
s
.Napo
l
eo
nwast
heFi
r
s
tCo
ns
ulwi
t
heno
r
mo
uspo
wer
s
.Heal
o
ne
dec
l
ar
ed warand made t
he key appo
i
nt
ment
sand c
o
nt
r
o
l
l
ed t
he
l
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
epr
o
c
es
s
.
-Wi
t
ht
hes
ec
ent
r
al
i
z
edpo
wer
sNapo
l
eo
nc
o
ns
o
l
i
dat
edhi
spo
s
i
t
i
o
nand
dec
l
ar
edhi
ms
el
fast
heEmper
o
randt
o
o
kt
het
i
t
l
eNapo
l
eo
nI.
 Fr
o
mt
heab
o
v
ei
ti
sc
l
eart
hatt
her
i
s
eo
fNapo
l
eo
nt
opo
wert
ob
ec
o
met
he
Emper
o
rwasapr
o
duc
to
fav
ar
i
et
yo
ffac
t
o
r
st
hati
nt
er
ac
t
edt
opr
o
pel
hi
mt
opo
wer
.Wi
t
ht
hes
epo
wer
shewasab
l
et
odo
mi
nat
eb
o
t
ht
heFr
enc
h
andt
heEur
o
peanpo
l
i
t
i
c
sup1815.
TheNapo
l
eo
ni
cRefo
r
ms
Ai
ms
-Toc
o
ns
o
l
i
dat
ehi
spo
s
i
t
i
o
ni
nFr
anc
east
heEmper
o
r
.
-Toi
ns
t
i
t
ut
eab
enev
o
l
entdes
po
t
i
s
m,meani
ngt
ohav
epo
l
i
c
i
est
hatb
enefi
tt
he
peo
pl
e.
-Thepeac
eatAmi
enswi
t
ht
heBr
i
t
i
s
hi
n1802g
av
eNapo
l
eo
nab
r
eat
hi
ngs
pac
e
t
or
eo
r
g
ani
z
eFr
anc
e.
1.
Admi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
n
-AsEmper
o
ral
lpo
werwasc
ent
r
edi
nhi
shands
.Heal
o
nec
o
ul
ddec
l
ar
ewar
andmakepeac
e.
-Hemadet
hekeyappo
i
nt
ment
sieo
ft
hel
o
c
alo
ffi
c
i
al
ss
uc
hast
hepr
efec
t
s
,
s
ub
pr
efec
t
s
,mayo
r
sandt
hec
hi
efo
ffi
c
i
al
so
ft
hes
t
at
ei
nt
hemi
l
i
t
ar
yandc
i
v
i
l
po
s
t
s
.
-Pr
o
po
s
edl
awst
hatwer
edr
aft
edb
yas
pec
i
alc
o
unc
i
ls
t
at
eands
ub
mi
t
t
edt
o
33
t
hel
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eb
o
ar
dt
hatv
o
t
edwi
t
ho
utdi
s
c
us
s
i
o
n.
-Appr
o
v
edt
hel
i
s
to
fc
andi
dat
et
ob
ev
o
t
edfo
rasmemb
er
so
ft
hel
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
e
b
o
ar
d.
(
i
i
) TheLeg
i
s
l
at
i
v
eAs
s
emb
l
y
-t
hi
swasr
et
ai
nedfr
o
mt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nasi
tpr
o
v
i
dedfo
rpo
l
i
t
i
c
alpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
n
andr
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
n.i
tv
o
t
edo
nl
awss
ub
mi
t
t
edt
oi
tb
yt
hes
pec
i
alc
o
unc
i
l
.
-i
t
’
smemb
er
swer
ev
o
t
edfo
rb
yt
hepeo
pl
ei
nel
ec
t
i
o
ns.
-t
hel
i
s
to
ft
hec
andi
dat
eswasappr
o
v
edb
yt
heEmper
o
r
(
i
i
i
) Lo
c
alGo
v
er
nment
-t
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
o
v
er
nmentwasr
et
ai
ned t
ho
ug
h wi
t
ht
headdi
t
i
o
no
f
Napo
l
eo
ni
ci
deas
.
-Co
mmuneswer
er
et
ai
nedb
utundermayo
r
sappo
i
nt
edb
yt
heemper
o
r
.
-Ol
dc
o
unc
i
l
so
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yer
awher
er
et
ai
nedb
utasadv
i
s
o
r
yb
o
ar
ds
-Di
s
t
r
i
c
t
swer
ec
r
eat
edandpr
efec
t
sands
ub
-pr
efec
t
swer
eappo
i
nt
edt
ohear
Go
v
er
nmentdepar
t
ment
s
.
(
i
i
i
) Let
t
er
sdeCac
het
sandThePr
es
sCens
o
r
s
hi
p
-Thes
ewer
eado
pt
edfr
o
mt
heanc
i
entReg
i
meandwasi
nt
r
o
duc
edt
oc
hec
kt
he
l
ev
elo
fo
ppo
s
i
t
i
o
nt
ohi
spo
l
i
c
i
esandt
ob
r
i
ngo
r
der
-undert
hes
ys
t
emo
fl
et
t
er
sdec
ac
hest
hel
et
t
er
sent
er
i
ngandl
eav
i
ngFr
anc
e
hadc
o
nt
ent
smo
ni
t
o
r
edc
l
o
s
el
y.
-Cens
o
r
s
hi
pwasi
mpo
s
edo
nal
lpr
es
s
.Tho
s
et
ot
heEmper
o
rwer
ec
l
o
s
esdo
wn.
(
i
v
) Leg
i
o
no
fHo
no
ur
-t
hi
swasani
deab
o
r
r
o
wedfr
o
mt
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
me,Napo
l
eo
ni
nt
r
o
duc
eda
dec
o
r
at
i
o
nkno
wnast
heLeg
i
o
no
fHo
no
urfo
rt
hedi
s
t
i
ng
ui
s
heds
er
v
i
c
est
ot
he
s
t
at
e.
34
-al
lt
ho
s
eappo
i
nt
edo
nt
hemer
i
tt
oo
ffi
c
i
aldut
i
esandc
ar
r
yi
ngt
hem o
ut
effi
c
i
ent
l
ywer
er
ewar
dedandg
i
v
ent
i
t
l
es
.
-t
husanewt
ypeo
fNo
b
i
l
i
t
yemer
g
ed,c
o
mpr
i
s
i
ngo
ft
i
t
l
eho
l
der
si
.eDukes
,
Admi
r
al
s
,Co
unt
s
.
TheCo
nc
o
datTr
eat
y
-Thi
swasan ag
r
eementb
et
ween Napo
l
eo
n and t
heCat
ho
l
i
c
s
.Thr
o
ug
ht
hi
s
ag
r
eement Napo
l
eo
n ho
ped t
or
ec
o
nc
i
l
e wi
t
ht
he c
hur
c
ht
hat had b
een
al
i
enat
edfr
o
mt
heS
t
at
e.
-Dur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yer
aundert
heag
r
eementt
heCat
ho
l
i
c
sr
el
i
g
i
o
nwas
madet
heo
ffi
c
i
alS
t
at
er
el
i
g
i
o
nt
hatwasg
r
unt
edt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
feduc
at
i
o
n.
- TheBi
s
ho
pswer
et
oappo
i
ntt
hePar
i
s
h Cl
er
g
ywi
t
ht
heappr
o
v
alo
ft
he
Go
v
er
nment
.Inr
et
ur
nt
hec
hur
c
hr
ec
o
g
ni
z
est
hes
al
eo
ft
hec
hur
c
hl
andst
ot
he
peas
ant
s
.
-Napo
l
eo
nho
pedt
hatt
hi
sar
r
ang
ementwo
ul
dhealt
heb
r
eac
hwi
t
ht
hePo
pe
andPr
i
es
t
ho
o
dc
aus
edb
yt
heCCC.Fur
t
her
mo
r
eNapo
l
eo
nv
i
ewedac
hur
c
hasa
v
al
uab
l
eandes
s
ent
i
als
uppo
r
tt
ohi
spo
wer
.
- Heal
s
or
eal
i
z
ed t
hatt
hec
hur
c
h had b
ehi
nd i
ta v
as
tmaj
o
r
i
t
yo
ft
he
peas
ant
swho
s
el
o
yal
t
yheneededmo
s
t
.
7. Co
deNapo
l
eo
n
- Thi
swasawr
i
t
t
enc
l
as
s
i
fi
c
at
i
o
nands
ummar
yo
ft
hel
awso
fFr
anc
eo
nt
o
pi
c
s
s
uc
h asr
i
g
ht
sand dut
i
es
,mar
r
i
ag
e,di
v
o
r
c
e,par
ent
ag
e,i
nher
i
t
anc
e and
pr
o
per
t
y
- S
i
nc
ei
n 1789t
her
ewasc
o
nfus
i
o
no
nt
hel
awso
fFr
anc
eand es
pec
i
al
l
y
appo
i
nt
edl
awyer
swast
as
kedt
oc
o
di
fyt
hel
aw.
- ThusnoFr
enc
hwasi
nanydo
ub
tast
ohi
so
rherpo
s
i
t
i
o
nb
efo
r
et
hel
aw.The
r
ul
eswer
emadeuni
fo
r
mandequalfo
ral
l
.
- Underfami
l
yl
aw t
hec
o
deai
med ats
t
r
eng
t
heni
ngt
hefami
l
yast
he
35
fo
undat
i
o
no
ft
heS
t
at
e.Theaut
ho
r
i
t
yo
ft
hefat
herwasg
r
eat
l
yi
nc
r
eas
ed.
-Thes
o
nsc
o
ul
dno
tmar
r
yundert
heag
eo
f25wi
t
ho
utt
hec
o
ns
ento
ft
he
fat
herandi
nc
as
eo
ft
hedaug
ht
er
st
heag
ewas21.Thepo
s
i
t
i
o
no
ft
hewi
fewas
madei
nfer
i
o
rt
ot
hato
ft
hehus
b
andi
nt
hefami
l
y.
-Inhi
spr
i
v
at
ec
o
r
r
es
po
ndenc
eNapo
l
eo
nIi
ndi
c
at
edhi
si
ns
ens
i
t
i
v
i
t
yt
og
ender
.
Hepo
i
nt
edo
utt
hatt
hewo
men’
sb
r
ai
npo
werwasfari
nfer
i
o
rt
ot
hato
ft
hemen
andt
heywer
efi
t
t
edfo
rl
i
t
t
l
eeduc
at
i
o
n.
-Thec
o
dec
o
nfi
r
medt
hel
eg
alequal
i
t
yo
fal
lmal
ec
i
t
i
z
ens
.Thi
shel
pedt
ob
r
i
ng
s
o
c
i
alc
o
hes
i
o
nand enab
l
ed t
heFr
enc
hmanand o
t
her
st
ounder
s
t
and t
he
mai
npr
i
nc
i
pl
esunder
l
i
ni
ngt
hel
aws
.
-Thec
o
deb
r
o
ug
htt
o
l
er
at
i
o
no
fal
lr
eg
i
o
nsandat
r
i
ali
npub
l
i
cb
efo
r
et
hej
ur
y.
Thec
o
dewasv
er
ys
uc
c
es
s
fult
hati
twasado
pt
edb
ymanyc
o
unt
r
i
esi
nEur
o
pe
8. Mi
l
i
t
ar
yRefo
r
ms
-Napo
l
eo
nIr
eo
r
g
ani
z
edt
heFr
enc
har
myt
hatwasex
pec
t
edt
opl
ayadec
i
s
i
v
e
r
o
l
ei
nt
heNapo
l
eo
ni
cwar
s
.
-Hes
etupas
emi
-mi
l
i
t
ar
ys
quadc
al
l
edl
yc
ees
.Int
hi
ss
quadfut
ur
es
o
l
di
er
s
wer
epr
o
duc
ed.Theai
m wast
opr
o
duc
eab
s
o
l
ut
el
yl
o
yals
o
l
di
er
sdev
o
t
edt
ot
he
S
t
at
e.
-Thear
mywasr
eo
r
g
ani
z
ed,r
eequi
ppedandt
r
ai
ned.Int
hi
swayNapo
l
eo
nI
pr
o
duc
edadi
s
c
i
pl
i
nedl
o
yal
,s
t
r
o
ngandpr
o
fes
s
i
o
nalar
myt
hatwasent
i
r
el
y
dev
o
t
edt
ohi
mal
o
ne
9. Educ
at
i
o
n
-Napo
l
eo
nIi
nt
r
o
duc
ed meas
ur
est
hatpr
o
v
i
ded eac
hFr
enc
hmanwi
t
han
equalo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yt
og
eteduc
at
ed.El
ement
ar
ys
c
ho
o
l
swer
epl
ac
ed i
nt
he
c
hur
c
h.
- TheGr
antMas
t
ero
ft
heUni
v
er
s
i
t
yo
fFr
anc
ewasputi
nc
har
g
eo
fal
l
s
ec
o
ndar
yeduc
at
i
o
ni
nFr
anc
e.Muc
hemphas
i
swasputo
nMat
hsandS
c
i
enc
e.
36
-TheUni
v
er
s
i
t
ywasfo
undedundert
heGr
antMas
t
erwi
t
hb
r
anc
hest
hr
o
ug
ho
ut
t
heFr
enc
hdi
s
t
r
i
c
t
s
.
-Tec
hni
c
als
c
ho
o
l
swer
eal
s
oes
t
ab
l
i
s
hed.S
ub
j
ec
t
sc
o
ns
i
der
ed asdang
er
o
us
s
uc
hashi
s
t
o
r
y,ec
o
no
mi
c
sandphi
l
o
s
o
phywer
eb
anned.
-Muc
hemphas
i
swaspl
ac
edo
nmal
eeduc
at
i
o
n
Car
eer
sOpent
oTal
ent
-Thi
swasar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
dea.Napo
l
eo
nappo
i
nt
edandpr
o
mo
t
edment
ohi
g
h
o
ffi
c
esi
nt
heS
t
at
eo
nmer
i
to
rt
al
enti
r
r
eg
ar
dl
es
so
fo
ne’
so
r
i
g
i
no
rs
o
c
i
alc
l
as
s
.
-Fo
rex
ampl
emanyo
fNapo
l
eo
n’
sGener
al
swer
emeno
fl
o
wl
yb
i
r
t
he.gMur
at
whowasg
i
v
enc
har
g
eo
ft
heCi
s
al
phi
neRepub
l
i
cwast
hes
o
no
fani
nnkeeper
.
-Thepr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
ft
hec
ar
eero
penedt
ot
al
entundo
ub
t
edl
yac
c
o
unt
sfo
rmuc
h
o
ft
hes
t
r
eng
t
ho
fFr
anc
eatt
hi
st
i
me.
Ec
o
no
mi
cRefo
r
ms
Napo
l
eo
nIai
medatpr
o
mo
t
i
ngec
o
no
mi
cs
t
ab
i
l
i
t
yi
nFr
anc
e
(
a)Es
t
ab
l
i
s
hedmanyt
ec
hni
c
als
c
ho
o
l
swi
t
ht
heai
mo
fi
mpr
o
v
i
ngt
heFr
enc
h
i
ndus
t
r
i
alpr
o
c
es
s
esanddi
s
c
o
v
er
i
ngnewo
nes
.
(
b
)In i
ndus
t
r
yNapo
l
eo
n Ii
nc
r
eas
ed do
mes
t
i
cpr
o
duc
t
i
o
nb
yi
mpo
s
i
nghi
g
h
t
ar
i
ffso
ni
mpo
r
t
sandb
yenc
o
ur
ag
i
ngnewi
nv
ent
i
o
ns
(
c
)Ini
t
i
at
ed i
nfr
as
t
r
uc
t
ur
aldev
el
o
pmenti
n Fr
anc
ec
anal
sand po
r
t
swer
e
g
r
eat
l
yi
mpr
o
v
edandai
dedt
heex
pans
i
o
no
fi
ndus
t
r
y
(
d)Pr
o
mo
t
edb
us
i
nes
si
nt
er
es
t
sb
ys
t
ab
i
l
i
z
i
ngt
hev
al
ueo
ft
heFr
enc
hc
ur
r
enc
y
b
as
i
ngo
nGo
l
dands
et
t
i
ngupt
heb
anko
fFr
anc
et
oai
di
ndus
t
r
i
aldev
el
o
pment
.
(
e)Al
lt
he underut
i
l
i
z
ed ag
r
i
c
ul
t
ur
all
and wasr
ec
l
ai
med,i
r
r
i
g
at
i
o
n was
i
nt
r
o
duc
ed.
(
e)Peas
ant
swer
eal
l
o
wedt
or
et
ai
nl
andg
ai
neddur
i
ngt
heRev
o
l
ut
i
o
n
Anal
ys
i
so
fNapo
l
eo
ni
cRefo
r
ms
37
-Ther
efo
r
mso
fNapo
l
eo
nwer
ec
har
ac
t
er
i
z
edb
yami
x
t
ur
eo
fRev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
i
deas
,Napo
l
eo
ni
candanc
i
entr
eg
i
mei
deas
.
Rev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
- Ther
e was po
l
i
t
i
c
alpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
n and r
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
h el
ec
t
i
o
ns
l
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
ec
o
unc
i
landc
o
mpl
et
i
o
no
ft
hec
o
di
fi
c
at
i
o
no
ft
hel
aws
t
ar
t
edb
yt
he
Rev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Ther
ewasg
uar
ant
eeo
fr
i
g
ht
sandequal
i
t
y
-Equalo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
i
eswer
eg
r
ant
edi
neduc
at
i
o
n.
- Rev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y met
ho
dso
fr
et
r
ai
ni
ng
,r
ec
r
ui
t
mentand r
eequi
ppi
ngwer
e
ado
pt
edi
nt
hemi
l
i
t
ar
yr
efo
r
ms
.
-S
t
ab
i
l
i
z
i
ngt
heFr
enc
hec
o
no
my.
Anc
i
entReg
i
me
-Cent
r
al
i
z
at
i
o
no
fpo
werb
yNapo
l
eo
nj
us
tl
i
keL
o
ui
sXVIo
ft
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
me
-Theado
pt
i
o
no
fl
et
t
er
sdec
ac
hesandpr
es
sc
ens
o
r
s
hi
po
ft
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
me
-Theado
pt
i
o
no
ft
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
mes
ys
t
emo
fr
ewar
dt
heLeg
i
o
no
fHo
no
ur
.
-Ther
ev
i
v
alo
ft
heo
l
dS
t
at
ec
hur
c
hal
l
i
anc
et
hr
o
ug
hCo
nc
o
datTr
eat
y.
Napo
l
eo
ni
cIdeas
-Appo
i
nt
ment
so
fpr
efec
t
s
,s
ub
-pr
efec
t
sandmayo
r
si
nc
har
g
eo
fGo
v
er
nment
depar
t
ment
sandc
o
mmunesr
es
pec
t
i
v
el
yi
nadmi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
n.
-Genderi
ns
ens
i
t
i
v
i
t
yi
nt
hec
o
deNapo
l
eo
nandi
neduc
at
i
o
n
- Es
t
ab
l
i
s
hmento
fUni
v
er
s
i
t
yt
ec
hni
c
aleduc
at
i
o
n,emphas
i
so
n Mat
hsand
S
c
i
enc
e,t
heb
anni
ngo
fhi
s
t
o
r
y
,phi
l
o
s
o
phyandec
o
no
mi
c
s
-Thec
r
eat
i
o
no
fapr
o
fes
s
i
o
nalar
myl
o
yalt
oNapo
l
eo
nhi
ms
el
f.
-Thees
t
ab
l
i
s
hmento
fi
nfr
as
t
r
uc
t
ur
e,b
anko
fFr
anc
e,newc
ur
r
enc
y,i
ndus
t
r
i
al
38
r
efo
r
msands
c
ho
o
l
s
.
Mo
t
i
v
eo
ft
heRefo
r
ms
1
Co
ns
o
l
i
dat
ehi
spo
s
i
t
i
o
nasEmper
o
r
-Effi
c
i
enc
yando
r
deri
nadmi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
nenhanc
edhi
s
-Po
pul
ar
i
t
y
-Cent
r
al
i
z
at
i
o
nenhanc
edhi
spo
pul
ar
i
t
y
- Chec
ki
ngo
ppo
s
i
t
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
h pr
es
sc
ens
o
r
s
hi
p and l
et
t
er
sdec
ac
hes
enhanc
edhi
spo
pul
ar
i
t
y
-TheLeg
i
o
no
fho
no
urenhanc
edhi
spo
pul
ar
i
t
yamo
ngt
henewt
ypeo
f
no
b
i
l
i
t
y
.
-Thec
o
nc
o
r
datwo
nNapo
l
eo
ns
uppo
r
tandpo
pul
ar
i
t
ywi
t
ht
hePo
peand
c
hur
c
hfo
l
l
o
wer
s
.
- Co
deNapo
l
eo
n enhanc
ed t
heaut
ho
r
i
t
yo
f mal
esb
yi
mpl
i
c
at
i
ngt
he
emper
o
r
saut
ho
r
i
t
y.Ital
s
oenhanc
edhi
spo
pul
ar
i
t
y.
-Mi
l
i
t
ar
i
l
yr
efo
r
mss
t
r
eng
t
hened hi
spo
s
i
t
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
hc
r
eat
i
o
no
far
my
l
o
yalt
ohi
mal
o
ne.
- Educ
at
i
o
n r
efo
r
ms g
i
v
i
ng equalac
c
es
so
ppo
r
t
uni
t
y enhanc
ed hi
s
po
pul
ar
i
t
y.
-Thec
ar
eer
so
pent
ot
al
entt
hatb
r
o
ug
htequal
i
t
yi
nmaki
ngappo
i
nt
ment
s
enhanc
edhi
spo
pul
ar
i
t
y
- Ec
o
no
mi
cr
efo
r
mst
hats
t
ab
i
l
i
z
i
ng t
he ec
o
no
my wo
n hi
m po
pul
ar
i
t
y
es
pec
i
al
l
yamo
ngb
us
i
nes
sc
l
as
s
Benev
o
l
enc
e
Ther
efo
r
mswer
emeantt
ob
enefi
tt
hepeo
pl
et
hr
o
ug
heffi
c
i
enc
yando
r
deri
n
admi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
n.
Po
l
i
t
i
c
al par
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
n and r
epr
es
ent
at
i
o
n t
hr
o
ug
h el
ec
t
i
o
ns
,l
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
e
as
s
emb
l
y l
o
c
al g
o
v
er
nment
,l
et
t
er
s de c
ac
hes
, pr
es
s c
ens
o
r
s
hi
p and
39
c
ent
r
al
i
z
at
i
o
nb
r
o
ug
htl
awando
r
deri
nFr
anc
e.
Undert
heL
eg
i
o
no
fHo
no
ur
,effi
c
i
ento
ffi
c
i
al
swer
er
ewar
dedhenc
epr
o
mo
t
i
ng
effi
c
i
enc
yThec
ar
eer
so
pent
ot
al
entg
av
et
heFr
enc
hmanequalo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
i
es
i
nt
er
mso
fappo
i
nt
ment
s
.
TheCo
nc
o
r
datTr
eat
yr
ec
o
nc
i
l
edt
heS
t
at
eandt
hec
hur
c
haft
eral
o
ngper
i
o
d
o
fho
s
t
i
l
eands
t
r
ai
nedr
el
at
i
o
ns
.
Educ
at
i
o
nalr
efo
r
msg
av
eFr
enc
hmananequalac
c
es
st
oeduc
at
i
o
n.
Co
di
fi
edl
awt
hatg
r
ant
edr
i
g
ht
sandequal
i
t
ywasac
c
es
s
i
b
l
et
oal
lFr
enc
hman.
Mi
l
i
t
ar
yr
efo
r
msc
r
eat
ed a pr
o
fes
s
i
o
nalar
myfo
rdefens
i
v
eand o
ffens
i
v
e
pur
po
s
es
.
Ec
o
no
mi
cr
efo
r
mss
t
ab
i
l
i
z
edt
heFr
enc
hec
o
no
my
N.
B Napo
l
eo
nwasadi
c
t
at
o
r
-c
ent
r
al
i
z
at
i
o
n
-l
eg
i
s
l
at
i
v
ec
o
unc
i
lar
ub
b
ers
t
ampi
ngb
o
ar
d
-s
uppr
es
s
edl
i
b
er
t
y
-ado
pt
i
o
no
fLeg
i
o
no
fHo
no
urt
ob
ac
kFr
anc
et
ot
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
mer
emi
nded
t
hepeo
pl
eo
fanewt
ypeo
fNo
b
i
l
i
t
y
.
-ado
pt
i
o
no
fLeg
i
o
no
fHo
no
urt
ob
ac
kFr
anc
et
ot
heanc
i
entr
eg
i
mer
emi
nded
peo
pl
eo
fanewt
ypeo
fNo
b
i
l
i
t
y
.
-The educ
at
i
o
n po
l
i
c
y and Co
de Napo
l
eo
n s
ho
wed Napo
l
eo
n’
sg
ender
i
ns
ens
i
t
i
v
i
t
y.
-Thear
mywasl
o
yalt
ohi
m.
-Hewasb
enev
o
l
ent
.
-Heus
edhi
sdi
c
t
at
o
r
i
alpo
wer
sfo
rt
heb
enefi
to
ft
hepeo
pl
e(
s
eepr
ev
i
o
us
no
t
es
)
Fo
r
ei
g
nPo
l
i
c
y
Ai
ms
-Toc
o
nt
r
o
lt
hedens
i
t
yo
fEur
o
pei
.eex
t
endi
ngt
heb
o
undar
i
eso
fFr
anc
e
40
-i
thasal
s
our
g
edt
hatNapo
l
eo
nc
o
ul
dno
tr
eno
unc
et
heex
c
i
t
emento
fwar
s
aft
erhi
sv
i
c
t
o
r
i
esi
nt
heIt
al
i
anc
ampai
g
ni
n1796
Defeato
ft
heS
ec
o
ndCo
al
i
t
i
o
n
-Thememb
er
so
ft
hes
ec
o
ndc
o
al
i
t
i
o
nwer
eEng
l
and,Rus
s
i
aandAus
t
r
i
a.Oft
he
t
hr
eeAus
t
r
i
awaseas
i
ert
oat
t
ac
kandatt
heb
at
t
l
eo
fMar
eng
o
,Aus
t
r
i
awas
defeat
edb
yafo
r
c
eo
f40t
ho
us
andmen.Fr
anc
ewasab
l
et
or
eg
ai
nt
er
r
i
t
o
r
y
t
hathadb
eenl
o
s
ts
i
nc
et
heg
ai
nso
ft
het
r
eat
yo
fCampoFo
r
mi
o
.
- Rus
s
i
a wi
t
hdr
ew b
ec
aus
ei
twasunhappy wi
t
ht
he c
o
al
i
t
i
o
n.Ther
e wer
e
j
eal
o
us
i
esandmut
uals
us
pi
c
i
o
ns
.
-Ag
ai
ns
tBr
i
t
ai
n,Napo
l
eo
nai
medatdes
t
r
o
yi
nghero
v
er
s
east
r
ade.Hefo
r
med
t
heLeag
ueo
fAr
medNeut
r
al
i
t
ywi
t
hS
t
at
est
hatwer
eo
ffendedb
yt
heBr
i
t
i
s
h
po
l
i
c
yi
.eRus
s
i
a,S
wedenandDenmar
k.
-S
wedenandDenmar
kc
l
o
s
edt
heBr
i
t
i
s
hent
r
anc
et
ot
heBal
t
i
cS
ea.Br
i
t
ai
n
r
eac
t
edb
ys
endi
nganav
alfo
r
c
eo
nDenmar
kandatt
heb
at
t
l
eo
fCo
penhag
en
t
heDani
s
hfl
eetwasdes
t
r
o
yedandt
hel
eag
uec
o
l
l
aps
ed
Peac
eo
fAmi
ens1802
- Fo
l
l
o
wi
ngt
he b
r
eaki
ngup o
ft
he s
ec
o
nd c
o
al
i
t
i
o
n,ItwasBr
i
t
ai
nt
hat
r
emai
ned atwarb
utt
hewarwasc
aus
i
ngdi
ffi
c
ul
t
i
esfo
rt
heBr
i
t
i
s
ht
r
ade.
Napo
l
eo
nal
s
oneededpeac
et
oc
o
ns
o
l
i
dat
ehi
spo
weri
nFr
anc
e.
-Thust
hr
o
ug
hanag
r
eementBr
i
t
ai
nr
es
t
o
r
edt
heFr
enc
hc
o
l
o
ni
esb
utr
et
ai
n
Cey
l
o
nandTr
i
ni
dad.Br
i
t
ai
nal
s
opr
o
mi
s
edt
oev
ac
uat
eMal
t
aandEg
ypt
.It
al
s
opr
o
mi
s
edt
or
ec
o
g
ni
z
et
heFr
enc
hb
o
undar
i
esasat1802.
Napo
l
eo
ni
cWar
s
1. Renewalo
fWar
-Fr
anc
eandBr
i
t
ai
ns
o
o
nc
l
as
hedmo
s
t
l
yb
ec
aus
eo
ft
heFr
enc
ho
c
c
upat
i
o
no
f
41
t
heAus
t
r
i
anNet
her
l
andsandt
heFr
enc
ht
ar
i
ffs
ys
t
em t
hathi
nder
edBr
i
t
i
s
h
t
r
ade.Thuswarwasr
enewedi
n1802.
2. Tr
afal
g
ar
-Thi
swasb
et
weenFr
anc
eandBr
i
t
ai
ni
nOc
t
o
b
er211805t
heFr
enc
handt
he
Br
i
t
i
s
hnav
i
esmetatCapeTr
afal
g
ar
.TheBr
i
t
i
s
hv
i
c
t
o
r
yl
eftheranundi
s
put
ed
mas
t
ero
ft
hes
eas
.
3.
TheThi
r
dCo
al
i
t
i
o
n
-Itwasfo
r
medb
yBr
i
t
ai
n,Aus
t
r
i
aandRus
s
i
a.It
sai
m wast
odr
i
v
eFr
anc
e
b
ac
kt
ot
heo
r
i
g
i
nalb
o
undar
i
eso
uto
fBel
g
i
um,t
heGer
mans
t
at
esandIt
al
y.
4.
TheBat
t
l
eo
fUl
mandAus
t
er
l
i
t
z
,1805
-Thes
ewer
eb
at
t
l
esb
et
weenAus
t
r
i
aandFr
anc
e.Aus
t
r
i
awasdefeat
ed.Under
t
heTr
eat
yo
fPr
es
s
b
ur
g
,Aus
t
r
i
al
o
s
t3mi
l
l
i
o
no
fherfo
r
ei
g
npo
pul
at
i
o
nand
Venet
i
awasi
nc
o
r
po
r
at
edi
nt
ot
heKi
ng
do
mo
fIt
al
yt
hathadb
eenc
r
eat
ed.
-Aus
t
r
i
afur
t
herl
o
s
tDal
mat
i
a,Tyr
o
l
,TheAdr
i
at
i
cCo
as
tandt
heRhi
nel
and.
5.
TheBat
t
l
eo
fJena
-Itwasab
at
t
l
eb
et
weenFr
anc
eandPr
us
s
i
a.Pr
us
s
i
ahadb
eenneut
r
alb
et
ween
1795and 1805.Pr
us
s
i
awasdefeat
ed atJenaand Napo
l
eo
nt
o
o
ko
v
ert
he
c
o
nt
r
o
lo
fBer
l
i
n.
6.
Thedefeato
fRus
s
i
a
-Fo
l
l
o
wi
ngt
hedefeato
fRus
s
i
at
heTr
eat
yo
fTi
l
s
i
twass
i
g
nedb
et
weenRus
s
i
a
andFr
anc
e.Undert
het
r
eat
yFr
anc
et
o
o
ko
v
ert
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
fFi
nl
and,S
weden
42
andas
har
eo
ft
heTur
ki
s
hEmpi
r
e.
-Rus
s
i
aag
r
eedt
oent
eri
nt
oanal
l
i
anc
ewi
t
hFr
anc
ei
no
r
dert
oenfo
r
c
et
he
c
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
emag
ai
ns
tBr
i
t
ai
n.
7.
ThePeni
ns
ul
aWar
s
- Fr
anc
ec
apt
ur
ed Po
r
t
ug
ali
n 1808 fo
l
l
o
wi
ngi
t
’
sr
efus
alt
o enfo
r
c
et
he
c
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em.Po
r
t
ug
alwasdefeat
edb
yac
o
mb
i
nedFr
enc
handS
pani
s
h
ar
my.
-Napo
l
eo
nwasab
l
et
og
ai
nc
o
mpl
et
ec
o
nt
r
o
lo
fS
pai
nb
yenfo
r
c
i
ngt
heKi
ngt
o
ab
di
c
at
et
het
hr
o
ne.Inhi
spl
ac
eheappo
i
nt
edhi
sb
r
o
t
herJo
s
eph.
-Aus
t
r
i
ar
e-ent
er
edwari
n1809andwasdefeat
edatt
heb
at
t
l
eo
fWag
r
am.
-Undert
het
r
eat
yo
fVi
enna,i
tl
o
s
therl
ar
g
es
har
eo
fPo
l
andt
oRus
s
i
aand
s
o
mepr
o
v
i
nc
eso
ft
heAdr
i
at
i
ct
oFr
anc
eandwasc
o
mpel
l
edb
yNapo
l
eo
nt
oj
o
i
n
hi
sc
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em.
-Napo
l
eo
nandAus
t
r
i
ac
o
nc
l
udedamar
r
i
ag
eal
l
i
anc
e.Whenhemar
r
i
edt
he
daug
ht
ero
ft
heAus
t
r
i
anEmper
o
r
TheCo
nt
i
nent
alS
ys
t
em
-TheFr
enc
hdefeatatt
heBat
t
l
eo
fTr
afal
g
arhaddemo
ns
t
r
at
edt
hatt
he
Fr
enc
hi
nv
as
i
o
no
f Br
i
t
ai
n wasi
mpo
s
s
i
b
l
e.Br
i
t
i
s
h weal
t
hi
nt
he fo
r
m o
f
i
ndus
t
r
i
esandi
nt
er
nat
i
o
nalt
r
adeenab
l
edhert
os
us
t
ai
nt
hewar
.Ther
eal
dang
erfo
rNapo
l
eo
nwast
heBr
i
t
i
s
hec
o
no
mi
cpo
wer
.
-Napo
l
eo
ndec
i
dedt
oc
r
us
ht
hi
spo
werb
ydes
t
r
o
yi
ngt
heBr
i
t
i
s
ho
v
er
s
east
r
ade.
Heho
pedt
hatt
hi
swo
ul
dc
aus
eunempl
o
ymenti
nBr
i
t
ai
nt
hatwo
ul
dmaket
he
Br
i
t
i
s
hpeo
pl
efo
r
c
et
hei
rg
o
v
er
nmentt
owi
t
hdr
awfr
o
mt
hewar
.
-Napo
l
eo
ni
s
s
uedt
heBer
l
i
ni
nNo
v
emb
er1806t
hatdec
l
ar
edab
l
o
c
kadeo
ft
he
Br
i
t
i
s
hIs
l
esandfo
r
b
adeFr
enc
hal
l
i
est
ot
r
adewi
t
hBr
i
t
ai
n.
-Napo
l
eo
nanno
unc
edani
mmedi
at
ec
o
nfi
s
c
at
i
o
no
fal
lBr
i
t
i
s
hg
o
o
dso
nt
he
Eur
o
peanc
o
nt
i
nent
.
43
-Br
i
t
ai
nr
eac
t
edb
yi
s
s
ui
ngt
heo
r
der
si
nc
o
unc
i
lt
hatdec
l
ar
edanec
o
no
mi
c
b
l
o
c
kadeo
nal
lt
heFr
enc
hal
l
i
est
hathadac
c
ept
edt
hec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em.
-Br
i
t
ai
nanno
unc
edt
hati
two
ul
dus
ei
t
snav
yt
ofi
g
htag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
nandhi
s
al
l
i
esi
nt
er
fer
i
ngwi
t
ht
heBr
i
t
i
s
h
-InDec
emb
er1807,Napo
l
eo
ni
s
s
uedmo
r
edec
r
eesi
nt
hefo
r
mo
ft
heMi
l
an
Dec
r
eesc
al
l
i
ngfo
ranec
o
no
mi
cb
l
o
c
kadeo
nBr
i
t
ai
n.
Effec
t
s
-1807-1810,Napo
l
eo
nat
t
empt
edt
oenfo
r
c
ehi
sdec
r
eesb
ys
eal
i
ngo
fft
he
who
l
eo
ft
heEur
o
peanc
o
as
t
l
i
neo
nBr
i
t
ai
n
-1807,Denmar
kwasfo
r
c
edi
nt
ot
hes
ys
t
em andi
n1809t
heFr
enc
ht
r
o
o
ps
o
c
c
upi
edt
heGer
manS
t
at
eso
fHamb
ur
g
,Br
emen,Danz
i
gandLub
ec
k.
- Hedepo
s
ed Lo
ui
sBo
napar
t
efo
r
mt
heDut
c
ht
hr
o
neaft
erher
efus
ed t
o
enfo
r
c
et
hes
ys
t
em o
fg
r
o
undt
hati
two
ul
dr
ui
nt
heDut
c
hmer
c
hant
s
.Thus
Ho
l
l
andwaspl
ac
edundert
hedi
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fFr
anc
e
-Napo
l
eo
nwass
o
o
ni
nv
o
l
v
edi
nac
o
nfl
i
c
twi
t
ht
hePo
pe.Theywi
s
hedt
or
emai
n
neut
r
ali
mpl
yi
ngt
hatt
heBr
i
t
i
s
ht
r
adec
o
ul
db
ec
ar
r
i
edo
nt
hePapalS
t
at
es
-Napo
l
eo
nr
eac
t
edb
yi
mpr
i
s
o
ni
ngt
hePo
peandaddedt
hePapalS
t
at
est
ohi
s
Ki
ng
do
mo
fIt
al
y
-Thec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
emwasadi
s
as
t
erfo
rFr
anc
e:
1.
Tr
ade dec
l
i
ned and unempl
o
yments
pr
ead wi
del
y amo
ng hi
sal
l
i
es
es
pec
i
al
l
yt
ho
s
eo
ft
heNo
r
t
her
nGer
many.
2.
Inc
r
eas
ei
no
ppo
s
i
t
i
o
nfr
o
mt
heEur
o
peant
r
ader
s
.Itwast
hi
smi
ddl
e
c
l
as
so
ft
r
ader
st
hatpl
ayedamaj
o
rr
o
l
eo
far
o
us
i
ngnat
i
o
nal
i
s
tmo
v
ement
s
t
hatdev
el
o
pedag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
nandhel
pedi
nb
r
i
ni
nghi
sdo
wnfal
l
.
3.
Fr
anc
el
ac
ked t
henav
alpo
wert
oenfo
r
c
et
hes
ys
t
em.TheBr
i
t
i
s
h
44
c
o
unt
erb
l
o
c
ked Napo
l
eo
n’
spl
anst
ous
et
heDani
s
hfl
eetwasfai
l
ed b
yt
he
Br
i
t
i
s
hdes
t
r
uc
t
i
o
no
ft
hefl
eetatt
heHab
o
uro
fCo
penhag
en.
4.
TheEng
l
i
s
ht
r
ader
ss
mug
g
l
edg
o
o
dsi
nt
oc
o
nt
i
nent
alEur
o
pet
hr
o
ug
ht
he
unpr
o
t
ec
t
eds
po
t
sal
o
ngt
hec
o
as
t
l
i
nes
uc
hasHel
i
g
o
l
and,Po
r
t
ug
al
,S
i
c
i
l
y,and
S
al
o
ni
c
a.
Napo
l
eo
n’
sDynas
t
yS
ys
t
em
-Napo
l
eo
nes
t
ab
l
i
s
hedhi
sc
o
nt
r
o
lo
v
erc
o
nquer
edt
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
esb
yappo
i
nt
i
nghi
s
r
el
at
i
v
esandfr
i
endst
or
ul
eo
nhi
sb
ehal
f.
-Thes
er
ul
er
swer
eex
pec
t
edt
oi
nt
r
o
duc
eNapo
l
eo
ni
cadmi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
v
es
ys
t
em.
- Theyal
s
oi
mpl
ement
ed Napo
l
eo
ni
ci
deaso
ffr
eet
r
adeand t
hec
o
deo
f
Napo
l
eo
n
-Ter
r
i
t
o
r
i
est
hatfel
lundert
hedynas
t
ys
ys
t
emwer
e:
-
TheGer
manS
t
at
eswer
eg
r
o
upedt
ofo
r
mt
heCo
nfeder
at
i
o
no
ft
he
Rhi
nel
andunderFr
anc
i
sIIo
fRus
s
i
awhowasfo
r
c
edt
or
eno
unc
ehi
s
t
i
t
l
eo
ft
heho
l
yRo
manEmper
o
r
-
-
Napl
eswaspl
ac
edunderNapo
l
eo
n’
sb
r
o
t
herJo
s
eph
-
Ho
l
l
andunderNapo
l
eo
n’
sb
r
o
t
herLo
ui
sBo
napar
t
e
S
pai
nandBel
g
i
umwer
eal
s
opl
ac
edunderNapo
l
eo
n’
sr
el
at
i
v
es
TheMo
s
c
o
wCampai
g
n
-1811,Ts
aro
fRus
s
i
ab
r
o
keawayfr
o
mt
hec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
emduet
o
:
-
Napo
l
eo
n appear
ed t
ob
e no l
o
ng
eri
nt
er
es
t
ed i
n ful
fi
l
l
i
ng t
he
pr
o
mi
s
et
ob
r
eakt
heTur
ki
s
hEmpi
r
e.
-
Napo
l
eo
ns
ei
z
edaNo
r
t
hGer
manS
t
at
eo
fOl
db
er
gt
hatwasr
ul
edb
y
t
heTs
ar
’
sb
r
o
t
her
-i
n-l
aw.
-
TheRus
s
i
anNo
b
i
l
i
t
yo
ppo
s
edt
hec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em t
hatdes
t
r
o
y
ed
t
hei
rl
uc
r
at
i
v
et
r
adei
nt
i
mb
erandhempwi
t
hBr
i
t
ai
n.
45
-
Rus
s
i
awass
ec
r
et
l
yt
r
adi
ngwi
t
hEng
l
and.
-Napo
l
eo
nr
eac
t
ed t
ot
heRus
s
i
anb
r
eakawayb
yo
r
g
ani
z
i
ngt
hei
nv
as
i
o
no
f
Rus
s
i
ai
n1812.
-Wi
t
h600000menhemar
c
hedi
nt
oRus
s
i
ai
nt
hes
ummero
f1812.
-Hewasdefeat
edb
yRus
s
i
ai
nas
pac
eandt
i
me.TheRus
s
i
ansev
ac
uat
edt
hei
r
c
api
t
alo
fMo
s
c
o
w.Napo
l
eo
nfo
undMo
s
c
o
wdes
er
t
edandheb
ec
amei
s
o
l
at
edi
n
t
heRus
s
i
anc
api
t
al
.
-Rus
s
i
aado
pt
edas
c
o
t
c
hedear
t
hpo
l
i
c
yo
fdes
t
r
o
yi
ngv
i
l
l
ag
esandc
r
o
psas
t
heyr
et
r
eat
ed.Thust
her
ewasnofo
o
dfo
rNapo
l
eo
n’
st
r
o
o
ps
.
-Napo
l
eo
nno
wfac
edt
heRus
s
i
anwi
nt
er
.Hi
st
r
o
o
pshado
nl
yb
r
o
ug
hts
ummer
wearho
pi
ng t
he c
ampai
g
n wo
ul
d end s
o
o
n.Pani
c
,des
pai
rand t
he c
o
l
d
affec
t
edt
hemo
r
al
eo
ft
heFr
enc
ht
r
o
o
ps
-TheRus
s
i
ansdes
t
r
o
yedt
heb
r
i
dg
esb
ui
l
tb
yt
heFr
enc
ho
nt
heBer
es
i
naRi
v
er
-Tho
us
andso
ft
heFr
enc
ht
r
o
o
psdi
edi
nt
her
i
v
er
,o
nl
y30000menr
e-c
r
o
s
s
ed
t
heNi
emenRi
v
eri
nDec
emb
er1812
TheWaro
fLi
b
er
at
i
o
n
- Napo
l
eo
n’
shumi
l
i
at
i
ngdefeati
nt
heMo
s
c
o
w Campai
g
n wasa s
i
g
nalfo
r
Pr
us
s
i
at
ot
akeac
t
i
o
n.
- Pr
us
s
i
a ex
per
i
enc
ed a r
ev
i
v
al
.ThePr
us
s
i
an s
o
c
i
et
ywasr
e-o
r
g
ani
z
ed b
y
Pr
us
s
i
anMi
ni
s
t
erS
t
endandHar
denb
ur
g
.
-S
er
fdo
mwasab
o
l
i
s
hed,el
ec
t
edc
o
unc
i
l
sundert
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
andt
hel
ando
wner
swer
ees
t
ab
l
i
s
hed,anewl
anddi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
o
nt
hatb
enefi
t
ed
t
hepeas
ant
swasi
nt
r
o
duc
edandmi
l
i
t
ar
yr
efo
r
msi
nt
r
o
duc
edi
nwhi
c
ht
her
e
wasuni
v
er
s
almi
l
i
t
ar
ys
er
v
i
c
eand t
r
ai
ni
ng
.A l
ar
g
epr
o
fes
s
i
o
nalar
mywas
c
r
eat
ed.
-Thi
sr
ev
i
v
alr
es
ul
t
edi
nt
her
i
s
eo
faPr
us
s
i
annat
i
o
nal
i
s
m.Theyno
wc
al
l
edfo
r
t
her
emo
v
alo
fNapo
l
eo
ni
nGer
many.
-Theent
r
yo
fPr
us
s
i
ai
nt
ot
hewaro
penedas
ec
o
ndfr
o
ntfo
rNapo
l
eo
nhenc
e
46
Fr
anc
ewass
t
r
et
c
hed.
TheBat
t
l
eo
fDr
es
den(
Aug
us
t1813)
-Napo
l
eo
nwasdefeat
edb
yAus
t
r
i
at
hathadj
o
i
nedwarag
ai
ns
thi
m.
TheBat
t
l
eo
fLei
pz
i
g(
t
heBat
t
l
eo
fNat
i
o
ns
)
,Oc
t
o
b
er1813
-Fr
anc
efo
ug
htag
ai
ns
tal
l
i
es
,Aus
t
r
i
a,Rus
s
i
a,Pr
us
s
i
aandS
weden.
-Napo
l
eo
nwasdefeat
edandfl
edt
ot
heRhi
nel
andb
utt
heCo
nfeder
at
i
o
no
f
t
heRhi
nel
andt
hathec
r
eat
edt
ur
nedag
ai
ns
thi
m.
- Ki
ngJo
s
eph Bo
napar
t
eo
fS
pai
n wasdr
i
v
en o
utb
yt
heBr
i
t
i
s
h Dukeo
f
Wel
l
i
ng
t
o
nwhowasno
went
er
i
ngS
o
ut
her
nFr
anc
e.
-TheRus
s
i
anTs
arandPr
us
s
i
anki
ngent
er
edPar
i
si
nMar
c
h1814,Napo
l
eo
n
wasex
i
l
edt
ot
heIs
l
ando
fEl
b
a.
-Undert
hefi
r
s
tTr
eat
yo
fPar
i
so
f1814,Fr
anc
el
o
s
tal
lherc
o
nques
t
si
n
Ger
many,Bel
g
i
umandIt
al
y.
-Lo
ui
sXVIIIwhowasnex
ti
nt
heBo
ur
b
o
nMo
nar
c
hywasr
es
t
o
r
ed.
The100Days
- Att
hei
s
l
and o
fEl
b
a,Napo
l
eo
n enj
o
yed a g
r
eatdealo
ffr
eedo
m.He
manag
edt
oes
c
apeandl
andi
nS
o
ut
her
nFr
anc
e.
-Het
henmar
c
hed t
oPar
i
si
nt
r
i
umphalpr
o
c
es
s
i
o
n.Theo
ppo
nent
so
fLo
ui
s
XVI
IIwel
c
o
medt
hear
r
i
v
alo
fNapo
l
eo
nI.
-Tr
o
o
pst
hatwer
es
entt
oar
r
es
thi
mac
t
ual
l
yj
o
i
nedhi
m.Lo
ui
sXVIIIfl
edfr
o
m
Fr
anc
e.Wi
t
hi
nt
hr
eeweekso
fr
eg
ai
ni
ngpo
wer
,Napo
l
eo
nr
ai
s
edanewar
myand
mar
c
hedi
nt
oBel
g
i
um.
- Att
heb
at
t
l
eo
fWat
er
l
o
oi
n 1815Napo
l
eo
n wasdefeat
ed b
yt
heFo
ur
t
h
Co
al
i
t
i
o
n undert
hec
o
mmand o
ft
heDukeo
fWel
l
i
ng
t
o
n.Napo
l
eo
n’
sempi
r
e
c
r
umb
l
ed.Hes
ur
r
ender
edandwasex
i
l
edt
ot
heIs
l
ando
fS
tHel
ena
47
Reas
o
nsfo
rt
heDo
wnfal
lo
fNapo
l
eo
nI
-Lac
ko
fnav
alpo
wert
huswasdefeat
edatTr
afal
g
ari
n1805i
nt
hewaro
f
l
i
b
er
at
i
o
ni
n1814andt
heWat
er
l
o
oi
n1815.
-Napo
l
eo
n’
sc
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em wasdo
o
medfr
o
mt
heo
ns
etduet
ol
ac
ko
fa
nav
y.TheDani
s
hfl
eett
hatheho
pedt
ous
ewasdes
t
r
o
yedb
yt
heBr
i
t
i
s
h.
-Thec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em b
ac
kfi
r
ed.Napo
l
eo
n’
sal
l
i
eswer
eac
t
ual
l
ydependent
o
nt
heBr
i
t
i
s
ht
r
ade.Henc
ehi
sal
l
i
esl
i
keRus
s
i
ab
r
o
keawayi
n1810.
-Byt
aki
ngdi
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fS
pai
nandPo
r
t
ug
ali
no
r
dert
oens
ur
et
hes
uc
c
es
s
o
ft
hec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em.Napo
l
eo
nunder
es
t
i
mat
eds
pi
r
i
to
fnat
i
o
nal
i
s
mi
n
t
hes
ec
o
unt
r
i
es
.
-Napo
l
eo
n’
spo
o
rj
udg
ment
;Mi
s
c
al
c
ul
at
edt
hathi
sent
r
anc
ei
nt
ot
heRus
s
i
an
c
api
t
alwo
ul
dr
es
ul
ti
nRus
s
i
andefeat
.Het
ho
ug
htt
hatt
heMo
s
c
o
wc
ampai
g
n
wo
ul
dendi
ns
ummerashedi
dno
tpr
epar
efo
rt
hewi
nt
erandal
o
wo
pi
ni
o
no
f
t
heDukeo
fWel
l
i
ng
t
o
n’
sab
i
l
i
t
yasas
o
l
di
er
.
-Thepeo
pl
eo
fFr
anc
ewer
eb
ec
o
mi
ngwear
yo
fwares
pec
i
al
l
ydur
i
ngt
he100
day
s
.
Mo
t
i
v
eso
ft
heFo
r
ei
g
nPo
l
i
c
y
-Toc
o
nt
r
o
lt
hedes
t
i
nyo
fEur
o
pe
-Ac
qui
r
edEur
o
peant
er
r
i
t
o
r
y
-It
al
i
anc
ampai
g
n-Ci
s
al
phi
neal
l
i
anc
e
-Tr
eat
yo
fTi
l
s
i
t-t
heRus
s
i
anal
l
i
anc
e
-t
hec
r
eat
i
o
no
ft
heGr
andDuc
hyo
fWar
s
aw
-Bat
t
l
eo
fAus
t
er
l
i
t
z– Aus
t
r
i
anNet
her
l
ands
,Adr
i
at
i
cCo
as
t
,Tyr
o
l
,Is
t
r
i
a,
Venet
i
a,Dal
mat
i
aandt
heRhi
nel
and
-Bat
t
l
eo
fJena-Ber
l
i
n
-Peni
ns
ul
aWar
s -S
pai
n,Po
r
t
ug
al
,Ger
manS
t
at
es
-Co
nt
i
nent
alS
ys
t
em-anat
t
emptt
ob
r
eakt
heec
o
no
mi
cpo
wero
fBr
i
t
ai
nhenc
e
ano
ut
r
i
g
htc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fEur
o
pe
48
- By1807-09Napo
l
eo
n att
hehei
g
hto
fhi
spo
werwasno
wi
nc
o
nt
r
o
lo
f
c
o
nt
i
nent
alEur
o
pedi
r
ec
t
l
yandi
ndi
r
ec
t
l
y
-Thedynas
t
ys
ys
t
emc
l
ear
l
ys
ho
wedt
hatNapo
l
eo
nwasi
nc
o
nt
r
o
l
Ter
r
i
t
o
r
yFal
l
i
ngUndert
hi
sS
ys
t
em
1.
It
al
y-Ci
s
al
phi
neRepub
l
i
c
2.
Thec
o
nfeder
at
i
o
nso
ft
heRhi
nel
andi
nGer
many
3.
Bel
g
i
um
4.
S
pai
n
5.
Po
r
t
ug
al
6.
TheGr
andDuc
hyo
fWar
s
aw
-Aft
er1810Napo
l
eo
nno
wai
medatkeepi
nghi
sal
l
i
anc
eandt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
f
Co
nt
i
nent
alEur
o
pe
-Hewasfac
i
ngr
eb
el
l
i
o
nfr
o
m hi
sal
l
i
esandanat
t
ac
kb
yt
hefo
ur
t
hc
o
al
i
t
i
o
n
ag
ai
ns
thi
m.
-Thushefo
ug
ht
:
-
Mo
s
c
o
wc
ampai
g
n1812
-
War
so
fLi
b
er
at
i
o
n1814-1815
-
Wat
er
l
o
o1815
Met
ho
dsus
edb
yNapo
l
eo
nI
- Di
pl
o
mac
y
-Mi
l
i
t
ar
yc
ampai
g
ns
-Dynas
t
ys
ys
t
em
Di
pl
o
mac
y
-Pi
ec
eo
fAmi
enspr
o
v
i
dedNapo
l
eo
nwi
t
hab
r
eat
hi
ngs
pac
ei
no
r
dert
or
e-
49
o
r
g
ani
z
eFr
anc
e
-Tr
eat
yo
fTi
l
s
i
t–Napo
l
eo
ns
ec
ur
edt
heRus
s
i
anal
l
i
anc
et
hatwasv
al
uab
l
ei
n
maki
ngt
hec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
emeffec
t
i
v
e
-Mar
r
i
ag
eal
l
i
anc
ewi
t
hAus
t
r
i
a.Napo
l
eo
nmanag
edt
os
ec
ur
eanal
l
i
anc
ewi
t
h
Aus
t
r
i
at
hatwasi
mpo
r
t
anti
nhi
sfi
g
htag
ai
ns
tt
het
hi
r
dc
o
al
i
t
i
o
n
-Co
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em–Napo
l
eo
nputt
o
g
et
heranal
l
i
anc
eo
fc
o
nt
i
nent
alEur
o
pe
t
oenfo
r
c
eanec
o
no
mi
cb
l
o
c
kag
eag
ai
ns
tBr
i
t
ai
n
Mi
l
i
t
ar
yCampai
g
n
-Napo
l
eo
nemb
ar
kedo
nas
er
i
eso
fwar
st
oc
o
nquerEur
o
pe
-
Bat
t
l
eo
fTr
afal
g
ar–defeat
ed
-
Bat
t
l
eo
fJena–b
r
o
ug
hthi
mBer
l
i
n
- Bat
t
l
eo
fAus
t
er
l
i
t
z–ac
qui
r
ed Aus
t
r
i
an Net
her
l
ands,Rhi
nel
and ,Tyr
o
l
,
Adr
i
at
i
cc
o
as
t
,Venet
i
a,Is
t
r
i
a,Damal
t
i
a
-Peni
ns
ul
awar
senab
l
edNapo
l
eo
nt
og
ai
nt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
fc
o
nt
i
nent
alEur
o
pe
- Aft
er1810,heus
ed mi
l
i
t
ar
yc
ampai
g
nst
odealwi
t
hr
eb
elal
l
i
esand t
o
defendFr
anc
efr
o
mt
hefo
ur
t
hc
o
al
i
t
i
o
n
-
Mo
s
c
o
wCampai
g
n
-
Bat
t
l
eo
fDr
es
denandLei
pz
i
g
-
Bat
t
l
eo
fWat
er
l
o
o
TheDynas
t
yS
ys
t
em
-Napo
l
eo
npl
ac
edr
el
at
i
v
esandfr
i
endst
oc
o
nt
r
o
landadmi
ni
s
t
erc
o
nquer
ed
t
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
eso
nhi
sb
ehal
f
-Theyi
mpl
ement
edNapo
l
eo
n’
sfo
r
mso
fadmi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
nandi
deas
.
Co
nt
r
i
b
ut
i
o
no
ft
heFo
ur
t
hCo
al
i
t
i
o
nt
ot
hedefeato
fNapo
l
eo
n1
Br
i
t
ai
n
50
Pl
ayedadec
i
s
i
v
er
o
l
e.Onl
ymemb
ero
ft
heFo
ur
t
hCo
al
i
t
i
o
nt
hathadno
tb
een
defeat
edb
yNapo
l
eo
n1.Vi
c
t
o
r
yag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
n1atTr
afal
g
arkeptt
heho
pe
o
fdefeat
i
ngNapo
l
eo
n 1al
i
v
e.Us
ed i
t
spo
wer
fulnav
yt
odefeatNapo
l
eo
n.
Des
t
r
o
yedt
heDani
s
hfl
eett
hatNapo
l
eo
nho
pedt
ous
e.
Des
t
r
o
yedt
heCo
nt
i
nent
alS
y
s
t
em o
fNapo
l
eo
n.Is
s
uedt
hec
o
unt
erOr
der
si
n
Co
unc
i
li
nwhi
c
hi
ti
mpo
s
edat
r
adeemb
ar
g
oag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
n’
sal
l
i
es
.Real
i
s
ed
t
hati
twasac
t
ual
l
yt
heal
l
i
eso
fNapo
l
eo
nt
hatneededhert
r
ademo
s
t
.Fo
r
ex
ampl
et
heRus
s
i
ant
r
ader
sfo
undt
het
r
adei
nt
i
mb
erandhempwi
t
hBr
i
t
ai
n
qui
t
el
uc
r
at
i
v
e.
Us
ed i
t
snav
yeffec
t
i
v
el
yt
oens
ur
et
r
adewasc
ar
r
i
ed o
utt
ot
ho
s
eal
l
i
eso
f
Napo
l
eo
nt
hatwer
ewi
l
l
i
ngt
o
.Henc
ei
tens
ur
ed t
hec
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em was
di
s
as
t
r
o
usfo
rNapo
l
eo
n.
Att
heBat
t
l
eo
fWat
er
l
o
oBr
i
t
ai
npl
ayed ac
r
uc
i
alr
o
l
e.TheBr
i
t
i
s
hDukeo
f
Wel
l
i
ng
t
o
ns
t
o
o
dhi
sg
r
o
undag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
n1des
pi
t
et
hefac
tt
hatNapo
l
eo
n
r
eg
ar
dedhi
m has‘
ab
adg
ener
alc
o
mmandi
ngb
adt
r
o
o
ps
.
’TheFr
enc
hat
t
ac
ks
c
o
ul
dno
tpenet
r
at
et
het
hi
nBr
i
t
i
s
hl
i
neswho
s
er
i
fl
eswer
es
odeadl
yt
her
eb
y
fo
r
c
i
ngNapo
l
eo
nt
os
ur
r
enderandab
di
c
at
et
het
hr
o
neb
efo
r
eb
ei
ngex
i
l
edt
o
t
hei
s
l
ando
fS
tHel
ena.
Rus
s
i
a
Co
nt
r
i
b
ut
edt
ot
heb
r
eakupo
fNapo
l
eo
nal
l
i
anc
e.S
ec
r
et
l
yc
o
nt
i
nuedt
r
adewi
t
h
Br
i
t
ai
n b
efo
r
e ev
ent
ual
l
y wal
ki
ng o
ut o
ft
he al
l
i
anc
e henc
e weakened
Napo
l
eo
n’
sal
l
i
anc
e.
Pl
ayedac
r
uc
i
alr
o
l
efo
rt
heev
ent
ualdefeato
fNapo
l
eo
n.Thei
rv
i
c
t
o
r
yi
nt
he
Mo
s
c
o
wc
ampai
g
ns
i
g
nal
edt
hedemi
s
eo
fNapo
l
eo
n.
Ado
pt
ed s
uper
i
o
rt
ac
t
i
c
s
;s
t
r
at
eg
i
cwi
t
hdr
awalfr
o
m Mo
s
c
o
wl
eftNapo
l
eo
n
i
s
o
l
at
edanddemo
r
al
i
z
ed;har
as
s
edNapo
l
eo
nt
r
o
o
pswhi
l
ec
ampedi
nMo
s
c
o
w;
hel
pedt
odel
ayt
heFr
enc
hi
nMo
s
c
o
wunt
i
lwi
nt
ero
fwhi
c
hNapo
l
eo
nwasi
l
l
pr
epar
ed;depr
i
v
edNapo
l
eo
nandhi
st
r
o
o
pso
ffo
o
dt
hr
o
ug
ht
hes
c
o
r
c
hedear
t
h
po
l
i
c
y;des
t
r
o
yedb
r
i
dg
esb
ui
l
to
nt
heNi
emenRi
v
erandat
t
ac
kedt
heFr
enc
h
henc
eo
ft
he600000s
o
l
di
er
st
hatNapo
l
eo
ns
t
ar
t
edwi
t
ho
nl
y30000madei
t
51
b
ac
kt
oFr
anc
e.
Al
s
ot
o
o
kpar
ti
nt
heb
at
t
l
eo
fNat
i
o
nsal
o
ngwi
t
hAus
t
r
i
a,Pr
us
s
i
aandS
wedeni
n
whi
c
ht
heydefeat
edNapo
l
eo
nandfo
r
c
edhi
mt
ofl
eet
ot
heCo
nfeder
at
i
o
no
f
t
heRhi
nel
andwhi
c
hi
nt
ur
nt
ur
nedag
ai
ns
thi
m.Al
o
ngwi
t
ht
hePr
us
s
i
aKi
ng
,
t
hePr
us
s
i
anTs
arent
er
edPar
i
si
n1814t
her
eb
yfo
r
c
i
ngNapo
l
eo
nt
oab
di
c
at
e
andfl
eet
ot
hei
s
l
ando
fEl
b
a.
Pr
us
s
i
a
Hadb
eeni
nv
o
l
v
edag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
nasamemb
ero
ft
hefi
r
s
t
,s
ec
o
ndandt
hi
r
d
c
o
al
i
t
i
o
nt
ho
ug
hs
uffer
i
ngdefeat
s
.Butasamemb
ero
ft
heFo
ur
t
hCo
al
i
t
i
o
n
Pr
us
s
i
as
c
o
r
ed s
i
g
ni
fi
c
ant v
i
c
t
o
r
i
es ag
ai
ns
t Napo
l
eo
n.Thi
s was aft
er i
t
under
wentar
ev
i
v
alo
fi
t
sar
myandr
e-o
r
g
ani
z
at
i
o
no
fi
t
ss
o
c
i
et
y.
S
er
fdo
m wasab
o
l
i
s
hed,el
ec
t
edc
o
unc
i
l
sundert
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
andt
hel
ando
wner
swer
ees
t
ab
l
i
s
hed,anewl
anddi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
o
nt
hatb
enefi
t
ed
t
hepeas
ant
swasi
nt
r
o
duc
edandmi
l
i
t
ar
yr
efo
r
msi
nt
r
o
duc
edi
nwhi
c
ht
her
e
wasuni
v
er
s
almi
l
i
t
ar
ys
er
v
i
c
eand t
r
ai
ni
ng
.A l
ar
g
epr
o
fes
s
i
o
nalar
mywas
c
r
eat
ed.
Thi
sr
ev
i
v
alr
es
ul
t
edi
nt
her
i
s
eo
faPr
us
s
i
annat
i
o
nal
i
s
m.Theyno
wc
al
l
edfo
r
t
her
emo
v
alo
fNapo
l
eo
ni
nGer
many.Al
s
oenc
o
ur
ag
edo
t
hernat
i
o
nal
sunder
t
hedy
nas
t
ys
ys
t
em t
ofi
g
htag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
npr
o
mi
s
i
ngt
hem i
ndependenc
e.
Theent
r
yo
fPr
us
s
i
ai
nt
ot
hewaro
penedas
ec
o
ndfr
o
ntfo
rNapo
l
eo
nhenc
e
Fr
anc
ewass
t
r
et
c
hed.
Al
s
ot
o
o
kpar
ti
nt
heb
at
t
l
eo
fNat
i
o
nsal
o
ngwi
t
hAus
t
r
i
a,Rus
s
i
aandS
wedeni
n
whi
c
ht
heydefeat
edNapo
l
eo
nandfo
r
c
edhi
mt
ofl
eet
ot
heCo
nfeder
at
i
o
no
f
t
heRhi
nel
and t
hatt
ur
ned ag
ai
ns
thi
m.Al
o
ngwi
t
ht
heRus
s
i
an Ts
ar
,t
he
Pr
us
s
i
anKi
ngent
er
edPar
i
si
n1814t
her
eb
yfo
r
c
i
ngNapo
l
eo
nt
oab
di
c
at
eand
fl
eet
ot
hei
s
l
ando
fEl
b
a.
Aus
t
r
i
a
Al
s
ob
eeni
nv
o
l
v
edi
nt
hes
t
r
ug
g
l
eag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
n1asamemb
ero
ft
hefi
r
s
t
,
52
s
ec
o
ndandt
hi
r
dc
o
al
i
t
i
o
ns
.Asamemb
ero
ft
heFo
ur
t
hCo
al
i
t
i
o
ni
ts
c
o
r
eda
s
i
g
ni
fi
c
antv
i
c
t
o
r
yt
hatc
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
edt
ot
hedefeato
fNapo
l
eo
n1.
Att
heb
at
t
l
eo
fDr
es
deno
fAug
us
t1813Aus
t
r
i
adefeat
edNapo
l
eo
n1.
Al
s
ot
o
o
kpar
ti
nt
heb
at
t
l
eo
fNat
i
o
nsal
o
ngwi
t
hPr
us
s
i
a,Rus
s
i
aandS
wedeni
n
whi
c
ht
heydefeat
edNapo
l
eo
nandfo
r
c
edhi
mt
ofl
eet
ot
heCo
nfeder
at
i
o
no
f
t
heRhi
nel
andt
hatt
ur
nedag
ai
ns
thi
m.
NB:
Al
s
oc
o
ns
i
dert
he fac
tt
hatNapo
l
eo
n 1c
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
ed t
o hi
so
wn do
wnfal
l
.
Di
s
as
t
r
o
usc
o
nt
i
nent
als
ys
t
em,po
o
rj
udg
mentet
c
.
Vi
ennaS
et
t
l
ement1815
-Tomai
nt
ai
npeac
et
hr
o
ug
hab
al
anc
eo
fpo
werandapr
ev
ent
i
o
no
fafur
t
her
Fr
enc
hag
g
r
es
s
i
o
n
-Tomai
nt
ai
naneffec
t
i
v
eal
l
i
anc
eo
ft
heg
r
eatpo
wer
s
-Todi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
edi
s
put
edt
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
esi
nanac
c
ept
ab
l
eway.
Feat
ur
es
-Thepr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fab
al
anc
eo
fpo
wer
-Ex
pedi
enc
y
-ThePr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fl
eg
i
t
i
mac
y
Pr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
faBal
anc
eo
fPo
wer
- Att
heVi
enna S
et
t
l
ementa b
al
anc
eo
fpo
werwasac
hi
ev
ed t
hr
o
ug
ht
he
fo
l
l
o
wi
ng
:
-
Thepr
ev
ent
i
o
no
fafur
t
herFr
enc
hag
g
r
es
s
i
o
n
-
The pr
ev
ent
i
o
no
f a do
mi
nat
i
o
no
f Pr
us
s
i
a and Rus
s
i
ao
ft
he
no
r
t
her
npar
to
fEur
o
pe
53
-
Thedi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
o
no
ft
hedi
s
put
edt
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
esi
nanac
c
ept
ab
l
eway.
-Thec
o
nc
epto
fab
al
anc
eo
fpo
weri
swher
eb
yo
t
herpo
wer
sfo
r
m anal
l
i
anc
e
ag
ai
ns
tapo
wert
hatat
t
empt
st
odo
mi
nat
eo
t
her
s
.
- Itwasan al
l
i
anc
eo
fg
r
eatpo
wer
si
n fo
r
mo
ft
hefo
ur
t
hc
o
al
i
t
i
o
nt
hat
defeat
edNapo
l
eo
ni
n1815.
-Itwashi
g
hl
ypo
s
s
i
b
l
et
hatFr
anc
ec
o
ul
db
eag
g
r
es
s
i
v
ei
nEur
o
pe.
-Thi
si
si
nv
i
ewo
ft
hefac
tt
hatato
net
i
meNapo
l
eo
nes
c
apedfr
o
m ex
i
l
ei
n
1815andat
t
empt
edt
or
eas
s
er
thi
saut
ho
r
i
t
yi
nEur
o
peb
yi
nv
adi
ngBel
g
i
um i
n
hi
s100daysr
ul
e.
-Iti
sag
ai
ns
ts
uc
has
c
enar
i
ot
hatt
heS
t
at
es
manatt
heVi
ennaS
et
t
l
ement
c
ameupwi
t
hdefens
i
v
ear
r
ang
ementi
no
r
dert
opr
ev
entt
her
e-o
c
c
ur
r
enc
eo
f
afur
t
herag
g
r
es
s
i
o
ni
nEur
o
pe.
-Undert
hear
r
ang
ementAus
t
r
i
a waspl
ac
edi
nIt
al
yb
yb
ei
ngg
r
ant
edc
o
nt
r
o
l
o
ft
her
i
c
h pr
o
v
i
nc
eso
fIt
al
ynamel
yLo
mb
ar
dyand Venet
i
a and i
ndi
r
ec
t
i
nfl
uenc
ei
nt
heIt
al
i
anS
t
at
esnamel
yt
heKi
ng
do
mo
fNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
y,t
he
PapalS
t
at
est
heduc
hi
eso
fPar
ma Mo
dena and Tus
c
anywho
s
er
ul
eswer
e
c
o
nnec
t
edt
ot
ho
s
east
heAus
t
r
i
anHab
s
b
ur
gMo
nar
c
hy
-Itwasho
pedt
hatt
hepr
es
enc
eo
fapo
wer
fulAus
t
r
i
anwo
ul
dhel
ps
t
r
eng
t
hen
t
heS
o
ut
her
nIt
al
i
anFr
o
nt
i
erwi
t
hFr
anc
e
-Aft
eral
lBo
napar
t
i
s
m wasb
o
r
ni
nt
heIt
al
i
anc
ampai
g
n.Itwo
ul
dt
her
efo
r
e
no
tb
es
ur
pr
i
s
i
ngt
os
eeafur
t
herFr
anc
eag
g
r
es
s
i
o
nb
eg
i
nni
ngi
nIt
al
y
-Aus
t
r
i
awasal
s
og
r
ant
edt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
fGer
manyc
o
nfeder
at
i
o
nundert
he
Pr
es
i
dento
fAus
t
r
i
a
-Itwasj
udg
edt
hatauni
fi
edandi
ndependentGer
manywo
ul
db
eab
l
et
o
wi
t
hs
t
andaFr
enc
hag
g
r
es
s
i
o
nt
hust
hepr
es
enc
eo
fAus
t
r
i
ai
nGer
manywo
ul
d
s
t
r
eng
t
hent
heFr
enc
hfr
o
nt
i
eri
naddi
t
i
o
nt
oPr
us
s
i
at
hatwasg
i
v
enc
o
nt
r
o
lo
f
Rhi
nel
and
-Ino
r
dert
os
t
r
eng
t
hent
heFr
o
nt
i
ero
fBel
g
i
um i
nFr
anc
e,Bel
g
i
um wasuni
t
ed
wi
t
hHo
l
l
and.Theev
ent
so
f1815i
nwhi
c
hNapo
l
eo
nes
c
apedfr
o
m ex
i
l
eand
l
andedi
nEur
o
pefo
r100dayswasas
i
g
nalt
ot
hes
t
at
es
menatVi
ennat
hatan
i
ndependentBel
g
i
umwo
ul
dno
tab
l
et
or
es
i
s
tafur
t
herFr
enc
hag
g
r
es
s
i
o
n.
54
-Fr
o
mt
hes
t
at
es
menpo
i
nto
fv
i
ewi
twi
l
lb
eab
et
r
ayalo
fEur
o
pet
ol
eav
ean
i
ndependentBel
g
i
umatt
hemer
c
yo
fFr
anc
e.
ThePr
ev
ent
i
o
no
faDo
mi
nat
i
o
no
fPr
us
s
i
aandRus
s
i
a
-Rus
s
i
aand Pr
us
s
i
as
ec
r
et
l
yar
r
ang
ed t
hatPr
us
s
i
awo
ul
dg
ett
hewho
l
eo
f
S
ax
o
nywhi
l
eRus
s
i
awi
l
lg
ett
hewho
l
eo
fNapo
l
eo
n’
sc
r
eat
i
o
no
ft
heGr
andDuc
hy
o
fWar
s
aw.
-Thi
sar
r
ang
ementwo
ul
dr
es
ul
ti
nt
hes
et
wopo
wer
sdo
mi
nat
i
ngt
heno
r
t
her
n
par
to
fEur
o
pe.Thusanal
l
i
anc
eo
ft
her
es
to
ft
heg
r
eatpo
wer
snamel
yBr
i
t
ai
n
andAus
t
r
i
awasfo
r
medag
ai
ns
tRus
s
i
aandPr
us
s
i
a.
-Int
heend ab
al
anc
eo
fpo
werwasmai
nt
ai
ned whenRus
s
i
aand Pr
us
s
i
a
ag
r
eedt
hatRus
s
i
awo
ul
dg
ett
wot
hi
r
dso
ft
heGr
andDuc
hyo
fWar
s
awwhi
l
e
Pr
us
s
i
awo
ul
dg
ett
wofi
ft
ho
fS
ax
o
ny.
TheDi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
o
no
fDi
s
put
edTer
r
i
t
o
r
y
-TheNapo
l
eo
ni
cWar
shad c
r
eat
ed di
s
put
esi
nt
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
aldi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
o
n.Thi
s
r
es
ul
t
edi
nFr
anc
ehav
i
ngmo
r
et
er
r
i
t
o
r
yt
hant
her
es
tt
her
eb
yc
aus
i
nganups
et
i
nt
heb
al
anc
eo
fpo
weri
nt
er
mso
ft
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
aldi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
o
n.
-Thust
hes
t
at
es
menatVi
ennas
o
ug
htt
or
es
t
o
r
eandmai
nt
ai
nab
al
anc
e
i
nt
er
mso
ft
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
alpo
s
s
es
s
i
o
n.
-AtVi
ennat
er
r
i
t
o
r
ywasdi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
edamo
ngt
hev
i
c
t
o
r
sass
po
i
l
sfo
rt
hei
r
wareffo
r
t
.Ho
wev
erc
ar
ewast
akent
oens
ur
et
hatab
al
anc
ewasac
hi
ev
ed.
-Ther
efo
r
ewher
eo
t
her
sl
i
keAus
t
r
i
ag
ai
nedi
nt
hes
o
ut
hi
nIt
al
yt
hr
o
ug
h
di
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fVenet
i
aandLo
mb
ar
dyandani
ndi
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fIt
al
i
an
s
t
at
esl
i
keNapl
es
,t
hePapalS
t
at
es
,Mo
dena,t
heDuc
hi
eso
fPar
maand
Tus
c
anywhower
eal
lc
o
nnec
t
edt
ot
heAus
t
r
i
anHab
s
b
ur
gmo
nar
c
hy.
-Ot
her
sl
i
keRus
s
i
ag
ai
nedi
nt
heno
r
t
ht
hr
o
ug
ht
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
hewho
l
eo
f
Bes
s
ar
ab
i
a,Aus
t
r
i
ag
ai
nedi
nGer
manyb
yb
ei
ngg
i
v
ent
hePr
es
i
denc
yo
ft
he
55
Ger
manCo
nfeder
at
i
o
no
f39s
t
at
eswhi
l
ePr
us
s
i
ag
ai
nedt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
he
Rhi
nepr
o
v
i
nc
es
.
-Whi
l
eAus
t
r
i
a,Pr
us
s
i
aandAus
t
r
i
amadet
er
r
i
t
o
r
i
alg
ai
nsi
nc
o
nt
i
nent
al
Eur
o
pe,Br
i
t
ai
ns
ec
ur
edt
henav
alb
as
esi
nt
heMedi
t
er
r
anean,Mal
t
aand
Hel
i
g
o
l
and.S
heal
s
os
ec
ur
edc
o
l
o
ni
esl
i
ket
heCape,Ceyl
o
n,Indi
aandt
he
Wes
tIndi
es
.Al
lt
hes
eg
ai
nsenab
l
edBr
i
t
ai
nt
ohav
eadec
i
s
i
v
ei
nfl
uenc
ei
n
i
nt
er
nat
i
o
nalaffai
r
s
.
.
ThePr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fLeg
i
t
i
mac
y
-Thes
t
at
es
men atVi
ennawer
ewel
lawar
eo
ft
hefac
tt
hatal
lt
her
ul
er
s
depo
s
edb
yNapo
l
eo
nneededt
ob
er
es
t
o
r
edt
ot
hei
rt
hr
o
ness
i
nc
et
heywer
et
he
l
eg
i
t
i
mat
er
ul
er
s
.
-WhenNapo
l
eo
nc
o
nquer
edt
heEur
o
peant
er
r
i
t
o
r
yher
emo
v
edt
her
ul
er
sand
appo
i
nt
edhi
sfr
i
endsandr
el
at
i
v
eso
nt
hei
rt
hr
o
net
oadmi
ni
s
t
ert
hear
easo
n
hi
sb
ehal
f.
-AtVi
ennat
her
ul
er
swer
er
es
t
o
r
ed.Thes
t
at
es
menr
eal
i
z
edt
hei
mpo
r
t
anc
eo
f
r
es
t
o
r
at
i
o
nast
heys
awi
ni
tt
hemeanso
fmai
nt
ai
ni
ngEur
o
peanpeac
e.
-Theyr
eas
o
nedt
hatt
hes
el
eg
i
t
i
mat
er
ul
er
swo
ul
db
er
el
i
edupo
nt
os
t
ampo
ut
ar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nEur
o
pes
i
nc
ei
twasar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
hathadb
r
o
ug
htwari
nEur
o
pe.
- The r
es
t
o
r
ed r
ul
er
swer
e Lo
ui
sXVIII o
f Fr
anc
e,Fer
di
nand o
fS
pai
n,
Fer
di
nando
fPo
r
t
ug
al
,Fer
di
nando
ft
heKi
ng
do
mo
fNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
yandt
he
Ki
ngo
fPi
edmo
nt
.
- Ev
en t
ho
ug
ht
he maj
o
r
i
t
yo
ft
hes
er
ul
er
swer
er
eac
t
i
o
nar
yt
he Vi
enna
S
et
t
l
ementdi
dno
ts
pec
i
fyho
wt
heys
ho
ul
dr
ul
et
ho
ug
ht
heys
ug
g
es
t
edar
ul
e
t
hr
o
ug
hac
o
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n.
Ex
pedi
enc
y
- Itwasan i
mpo
r
t
antfeat
ur
eo
ft
heVi
enna S
et
t
l
ement
.Itwaswher
eb
y
56
s
o
met
hi
ng i
ss
ac
r
i
fi
c
ed i
no
r
dert
o ac
hi
ev
e ano
t
her
.Thusatt
he Vi
enna
S
et
t
l
ementt
hes
t
at
es
mendec
i
ded t
os
ac
r
i
fi
c
et
hefo
r
c
eso
fc
hang
enamel
y
nat
i
o
nal
i
s
mandl
i
b
er
al
i
s
mi
no
r
dert
oac
hi
ev
eEur
o
peanpeac
e.
-Thepr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fab
al
anc
eo
fpo
werwass
ac
r
i
fi
c
eddur
i
ngt
hemai
nt
enanc
eo
f
ab
al
anc
eo
fpo
wer
.Fo
ri
ns
t
anc
ei
nmai
nt
ai
ni
ngab
al
anc
eo
fpo
wert
hr
o
ug
ht
he
pr
ev
ent
i
o
no
faFr
enc
hag
g
r
es
s
i
o
nb
ymaki
ngadefens
i
v
ear
r
ang
ement
.
-It
al
ywasdeni
edt
heo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yt
og
etuni
fi
ed.Aus
t
r
i
awasg
i
v
enadi
r
ec
t
andi
ndi
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fIt
al
y.
-Ger
manywasal
s
odeni
eduni
fi
c
at
i
o
n.Ins
t
eadmo
r
et
han200Ger
mans
t
at
es
wer
er
eg
r
o
upedt
o39andc
r
eat
edaGer
manC
o
nfeder
at
i
o
nwho
s
ePr
es
i
denc
y
wasg
i
v
ent
oAus
t
r
i
a.
-Bel
g
i
um l
o
s
ti
t
si
ndependenc
eb
yb
ei
nguni
t
edt
oHo
l
l
andt
hatwaspo
wer
ful
eno
ug
ht
odo
mi
nat
eher
.
- Po
l
and and Fi
nl
and wer
eg
i
v
en t
oRus
s
i
a aspar
to
fa c
o
mpr
o
mi
s
et
hat
pr
ev
ent
edt
hedo
mi
nanc
eo
fRus
s
i
aal
o
ng
s
i
dePr
us
s
i
ai
nt
heno
r
t
her
npar
to
f
Eur
o
pe.
- No
r
way l
o
s
ti
t
si
ndependenc
e as i
t was g
i
v
en t
oS
weden as par
to
f
c
o
mpens
at
i
o
nfo
rl
o
s
i
ngFi
nl
andt
oRus
s
i
a.
-Thepr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fl
eg
i
t
i
mac
yr
es
ul
t
edi
nt
hes
ac
r
i
fi
c
eo
fl
i
b
er
al
i
s
mi
no
r
dert
o
ac
hi
ev
epeac
e.
-Dur
i
ngt
heNapo
l
eo
ni
cer
aal
lt
heEur
o
peant
er
r
i
t
o
r
yfal
l
i
ngunderNapo
l
eo
ni
c
r
ul
ehadex
per
i
enc
eds
o
mel
i
b
er
alpo
l
i
c
i
eso
ft
heNapo
l
eo
ni
cadmi
ni
s
t
r
at
i
o
n.
-Butt
hent
heVi
ennaS
et
t
l
ementr
es
t
o
r
ed t
her
eac
t
i
o
nar
yr
ul
er
sand t
hat
i
mpl
i
edt
heendo
ft
hel
i
b
er
alphas
ei
nt
hes
ear
eass
uc
hasS
pai
n,Po
r
t
ug
al
,
Pi
edmo
nt
,Fr
anc
eunderChar
l
esXandt
heKi
ng
do
mo
fNapl
es
.
Real
i
s
t
i
c
- TheVi
enna S
et
t
l
ementc
an b
ec
o
ns
i
der
ed asr
eal
i
s
t
i
cmeani
ngt
hatt
he
s
t
at
es
menmadepr
ac
t
i
c
aldec
i
s
i
o
ns
.Theyc
o
ns
i
der
edt
hes
i
t
uat
i
o
nasi
ts
t
o
o
di
n
1815andmadedec
i
s
i
o
nsac
c
o
r
di
ng
l
y.
57
-Fo
ri
ns
t
anc
ei
n1815t
hepr
ev
ai
l
i
ngs
i
t
uat
i
o
nwast
hatFr
anc
ec
o
ul
dno
tb
e
t
r
us
t
ed.Afur
t
herFr
enc
hag
g
r
es
s
i
o
nwasar
eal
i
t
yc
o
ns
i
der
i
ngt
hees
c
apeo
f
Napo
l
eo
nfr
o
m El
b
aand hi
sl
andi
ngi
nFr
anc
eand at
t
emptt
or
eas
s
er
thi
s
aut
ho
r
i
t
yi
nEur
o
pedur
i
ngt
he100dayso
fhi
sr
ul
e.
-Thememb
er
so
ft
heFo
ur
t
hCo
al
i
t
i
o
ns
uc
hasBr
i
t
ai
n,Pr
us
s
i
a,Rus
s
i
aand
Aus
t
r
i
ahadfo
ug
htag
ai
ns
tNapo
l
eo
nandneededs
po
i
l
sast
hev
i
c
t
o
r
s
.
-Napo
l
eo
n’
sc
o
nques
t
sandt
hes
ub
s
equenti
mpo
s
i
t
i
o
no
fhi
sdynas
t
ys
ys
t
em
r
es
ul
t
edi
nanumb
ero
fdi
s
put
edt
er
r
i
t
o
r
y
.Thes
t
at
es
menwer
efac
edwi
t
ha
r
eal
i
t
yo
ft
heneedt
odi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
et
hedi
s
put
edt
er
r
i
t
o
r
yi
nanac
c
ept
ab
l
eway.
-Napo
l
eo
n’
sdynas
t
ys
ys
t
em r
es
ul
t
edi
nt
hel
eg
i
t
i
mat
er
ul
er
sb
ei
ngdepo
s
ed.
Thust
hes
t
at
es
menwer
efac
edwi
t
hr
ul
er
sneedi
ngt
ob
er
es
t
o
r
edo
nt
ot
hei
r
t
hr
o
nes
.
- Thust
her
es
t
o
r
ed r
ul
er
swer
eex
pec
t
ed t
os
t
amp o
utanyr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
y
mo
v
ement
s
.
-Thust
hes
t
at
es
menatVi
ennat
o
o
kmeas
ur
est
opr
ev
entafur
t
herFr
enc
h
ag
g
r
es
s
i
o
nev
eni
fi
tmeanti
g
no
r
i
ngt
hepr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fnat
i
o
nal
i
t
y.
-Thev
i
c
t
o
r
swer
er
ewar
dedwi
t
hs
po
i
l
sev
ent
ho
ug
hi
tmeantt
hei
g
no
r
anc
eo
f
t
hepr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fnat
i
o
nal
i
t
y
.
-Ab
al
anc
eo
fpo
werwasmai
nt
ai
nedt
hr
o
ug
ht
heequaldi
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
o
no
ft
er
r
i
t
o
r
y
t
ho
ug
ht
hepr
i
nc
i
pl
eo
fnat
i
o
nal
i
t
ywasi
g
no
r
edi
nt
hepr
o
c
es
s
.
-Thel
eg
i
t
i
mat
er
ul
er
swer
er
es
t
o
r
edt
ot
hei
rt
hr
o
nesev
ent
ho
ug
hi
tmeantt
he
r
es
t
o
r
at
i
o
no
fEur
o
pe’
swo
r
s
tr
eac
t
i
o
nar
yr
ul
er
st
her
eb
yg
o
i
ngag
ai
ns
tt
hefo
r
c
es
o
fc
hang
es
uc
hasl
i
b
er
al
i
s
m.
Reac
t
i
o
nar
y
-TheVi
ennaS
et
t
l
ementwasr
eac
t
i
o
nar
y.Itwasag
ai
ns
tpo
l
i
t
i
c
alpr
o
g
r
es
s
.Thi
s
wasi
nv
i
ew o
ft
hefac
tt
hati
twasag
ai
ns
tt
hefo
r
c
eso
fc
hang
enamel
y
nat
i
o
nal
i
s
mandl
i
b
er
al
i
s
m.
-Nat
i
o
nal
i
s
m wasi
g
no
r
edo
nt
hemai
nt
enanc
eo
fab
al
anc
eo
fpo
werwhent
he
r
ul
er
si
nt
r
o
duc
ed s
o
me meas
ur
est
opr
ev
enta fur
t
herFr
enc
h ag
g
r
es
s
i
o
n,
58
pr
ev
ent
edanat
t
emptb
yRus
s
i
aandPr
us
s
i
at
odo
mi
nat
eno
r
t
her
nEur
o
peand
di
s
t
r
i
b
ut
edal
lt
hedi
s
put
edt
er
r
i
t
o
r
yi
nanac
c
ept
ab
l
eway.
-Nat
i
o
nal
i
s
mwasi
g
no
r
edwhens
po
i
l
swer
ehandedo
v
ert
ot
hev
i
c
t
o
r
s
.
- Li
b
er
al
i
s
m wasi
g
no
r
ed when r
es
t
o
r
i
ngt
hel
eg
i
t
i
mat
er
ul
er
s
,t
husEur
o
pe
wi
t
nes
s
edt
her
es
t
o
r
at
i
o
no
ft
hewo
r
s
tr
eac
t
i
o
nar
yr
ul
er
s
.
-Byi
g
no
r
i
ngt
hefo
r
c
eso
fc
hang
et
her
ul
er
sfac
edr
ev
o
l
t
sl
at
er
.Fo
ri
ns
t
anc
e
t
he1819– 20r
ev
o
l
t
si
nS
pai
n,Ger
many,Po
r
t
ug
aland It
al
y;1830Bel
g
i
an
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
hatputt
heuni
o
nb
et
weenHo
l
l
and and Bel
g
i
um t
oanend;t
he
Fr
enc
hr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
hatr
emo
v
edt
her
es
t
o
r
edMo
nar
c
hyo
fChar
l
esXfr
o
mpo
wer
;
t
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nsi
nGer
many,Po
l
andandIt
al
yt
hatai
medatuni
fi
c
at
i
o
nand
i
ndependenc
e.
THECONGRES
SS
YS
TEM
-I
twasas
ys
t
em i
nwhi
c
ht
heGr
eatpo
wer
swo
ul
dmeett
os
o
l
v
ei
nt
er
nat
i
o
nal
pr
o
b
l
ems
.Itwasno
tani
nt
er
nat
i
o
nalo
r
g
ani
z
at
i
o
ns
uc
hast
heUni
t
edNat
i
o
ns
Or
g
ani
z
at
i
o
nt
hatwasfo
r
medb
yg
ener
alc
o
ns
ens
us
.
-Thi
swasb
ec
aus
et
heGr
eatPo
wer
shaddi
ffer
ento
rdi
v
er
g
enti
nt
er
es
t
sand
ai
mss
uc
h asBr
i
t
ai
nt
hatwasc
o
nc
er
ned wi
t
h her
s
el
fi
nt
er
es
t
swhi
l
eo
t
her
po
wer
sl
i
kePr
us
s
i
a,Aus
t
r
i
aandRus
s
i
aai
medatpr
es
er
v
i
ngt
hei
rs
t
at
esfr
o
m
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
.
Or
i
g
i
ns
-TheCo
ng
r
es
sS
ys
t
em o
r
i
g
i
nat
edfr
o
mt
het
r
ans
fo
r
mat
i
o
no
ft
heHo
l
yAl
l
i
anc
e
b
yMet
t
er
ni
c
ho
fAus
t
r
i
ai
nt
oaEur
o
peanal
l
i
anc
e.
-Al
ex
anderIo
fRus
s
i
ahad s
ug
g
es
t
ed aHo
l
yAl
l
i
anc
et
hatwo
ul
dc
r
eat
ea
b
r
o
t
her
ho
o
do
fEur
o
peanr
ul
er
sandpr
o
t
es
tr
el
i
g
i
o
n,peac
e,j
us
t
i
c
eandt
r
eat
t
hei
rs
ub
j
ec
t
si
nt
hel
i
g
hto
fr
el
i
g
i
o
uspr
i
nc
i
pl
es
.
TheQuadr
upl
eAl
l
i
anc
e
59
-Mo
s
tEur
o
peanr
ul
er
sdi
dno
tt
aket
hes
ug
g
es
t
i
o
no
fAl
ex
anderIo
fRus
s
i
ab
ut
t
henMet
t
er
ni
c
ht
o
o
kupt
hei
deat
ot
r
ans
fo
r
mt
heHo
l
yal
l
i
anc
ei
nt
oanal
l
i
anc
e
o
ft
heGr
eatpo
wer
skno
wnast
heQuadr
upl
eAl
l
i
anc
e.
- Gener
al
l
yt
he al
l
i
anc
e wasai
med atpr
es
er
v
i
ng peac
e and pr
o
mo
t
i
ng
c
o
o
per
at
i
o
no
ft
heGr
eatPo
wer
sb
utt
hent
hes
el
fi
nt
er
es
t
so
ft
heGr
eatPo
wer
s
t
o
o
kpr
i
o
r
i
t
y.
- Theal
l
i
anc
eag
r
eed t
omeetr
eg
ul
ar
l
ys
ho
ul
dt
her
eb
eanyi
nt
er
nat
i
o
nal
pr
o
b
l
ems
.
TheCo
ng
r
es
s
es
Ai
xl
aChapel
l
e
-Fr
o
mt
heo
ns
ett
heCo
ng
r
es
sS
ys
t
em wasdo
o
medb
ec
aus
eo
fs
us
pi
c
i
o
n,j
eal
o
us
andmi
s
t
r
us
to
nt
hes
ur
fac
eo
fal
lag
r
eement
smade.
-Thec
o
ng
r
es
sr
e-admi
t
t
edFr
anc
ei
nt
oanal
l
i
anc
eo
ft
heGr
eatPo
wer
swhi
c
h
wasr
enamedt
heQui
nt
upl
eAl
l
i
anc
e.
-Thi
swasaft
ert
heGr
eatpo
wer
sb
ec
amec
o
nv
i
nc
edt
hatFr
anc
ewasnol
o
ng
er
at
hr
eatt
oEur
o
peanpeac
e.Inanyc
as
eFr
anc
ehadpai
dal
li
t
si
ndemni
t
y.
-Butt
hent
heo
r
i
g
i
nalmemb
er
so
ft
heal
l
i
anc
es
ec
r
et
l
yag
r
eedt
ofo
r
m an
al
l
i
anc
eag
ai
ns
tFr
anc
es
ho
ul
di
tpr
o
v
et
ob
eanag
g
r
es
s
o
ri
nfut
ur
e.
-Ont
hei
s
s
ueo
fr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nsFr
edr
i
c
kWi
l
l
i
am o
fPr
us
s
i
apr
o
po
s
edt
hatanar
my
undert
heBr
i
t
i
s
hDukeo
fWel
l
i
ng
t
o
nb
es
t
at
i
o
nedi
nBel
g
i
umt
oc
r
us
hr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
i
nEur
o
pe.
-Cas
t
l
er
ei
g
h,t
heBr
i
t
i
s
hS
ec
r
et
ar
yo
fS
t
at
eo
b
j
ec
t
edt
ot
hi
spr
o
po
s
alb
ypo
i
nt
i
ng
o
utt
hatBr
i
t
ai
ns
ho
ul
dno
tb
edr
ag
g
edaut
o
mat
i
c
al
l
yi
nt
oEur
o
peanc
o
nfl
i
c
t
.
60
- On pi
r
ac
y and t
he s
l
av
et
r
ade t
her
e wer
e fur
t
herdi
s
ag
r
eement
s
.The
memb
er
so
ft
heQui
nt
upl
eAl
l
i
anc
eo
b
j
ec
t
edt
ot
hepr
o
po
s
al
sb
yBr
i
t
ai
nand
Rus
s
i
at
ous
et
hei
rfl
eet
st
os
t
ampo
utt
hes
l
av
et
r
adeandpi
r
ac
yr
es
pec
t
i
v
el
y.
-Thi
swasb
ec
aus
et
heywer
eag
ai
ns
tt
heRus
s
i
anpr
es
enc
ei
nt
heMedi
t
er
r
anean
and t
heywer
ej
eal
o
uso
fBr
i
t
ai
nb
ec
aus
es
hewo
ul
dg
ai
nt
o
omuc
h po
wer
c
o
ns
i
der
i
ngt
hefac
tt
hati
thadt
hel
ar
g
es
tnav
y.
Tr
o
ppau
- Thi
smeet
i
ngwasc
al
l
ed fo
l
l
o
wi
ngt
he o
ut
b
r
eak o
fr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nsi
nS
pai
n,
Ger
many,Napl
esandt
heS
o
ut
hAmer
i
c
anc
o
l
o
ni
eso
fS
pai
nandPo
r
t
ug
al
.
-Att
hi
smeet
i
ngs
er
i
o
usdi
s
ag
r
eement
sar
o
s
eb
et
weenBr
i
t
ai
nandt
her
es
to
f
t
heal
l
i
eso
v
ert
hec
o
ur
s
eo
fac
t
i
o
nt
ot
akepl
ac
er
eg
ar
di
ngr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
.
-Itwaspr
o
po
s
edt
hatt
hec
o
unt
err
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
ypo
l
i
c
es
ys
t
emb
ees
t
ab
l
i
s
hedi
n
Eur
o
peandt
hatanex
pedi
t
i
o
nb
es
entac
r
o
s
st
heAt
l
ant
i
ct
ofo
r
c
et
hec
o
l
o
ni
es
t
her
et
or
ev
er
tt
ob
ei
ngt
hes
ub
j
ec
t
so
ft
hei
rmo
t
herc
o
unt
r
i
es
.
-Br
i
t
ai
no
ppo
s
edt
hi
spr
o
po
s
alandadv
i
s
edAus
t
r
i
at
hati
fs
hefel
tt
hatt
he
ev
ent
si
nIt
al
ywer
eo
fdi
r
ec
tdo
mes
t
i
cc
o
nc
er
nt
ohert
hens
hes
ho
ul
di
nt
er
v
ene
o
nhero
wnr
es
po
ns
i
b
i
l
i
t
y.Int
heendt
hemeet
i
ngwasadj
o
ur
ned.
Tr
o
ppauPr
o
t
o
c
o
l
- Itwast
hec
o
nt
i
nuat
i
o
no
ft
heCo
ng
r
es
so
fTr
o
ppau.Thepur
po
s
eo
ft
he
meet
i
ngwast
ol
aydo
wnt
hepr
o
c
edur
est
ofo
l
l
o
wi
nt
heev
ento
far
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Att
hi
smeet
i
ngi
tb
ec
amec
l
eart
hatt
hedi
ffer
enc
eb
et
weenBr
i
t
ai
nandher
fel
l
o
wal
l
i
eswer
es
har
p.
-Br
i
t
ai
ndi
dno
tat
t
endb
uts
entano
b
s
er
v
er
.Att
hemeet
i
ngt
heal
l
i
esag
r
eed
t
oo
nl
yac
c
eptar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nfr
o
mab
o
v
e.Theo
nefr
o
mb
el
o
wwasc
o
ns
i
der
edg
ui
l
t
ands
ho
ul
dt
her
efo
r
eb
es
uppr
es
s
ed.
Lai
b
ac
h,1821
61
-Att
hi
sc
o
ng
r
es
st
hepr
o
v
i
s
i
o
no
ft
hepr
o
t
o
c
o
lwer
ec
ar
r
i
edo
ut
.Aus
t
r
i
ac
r
us
hed
t
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nNapl
esandr
es
t
o
r
edFer
di
nandt
ot
het
hr
o
newi
t
hful
ldes
po
t
i
c
po
wer
s
.
-Aus
t
r
i
a,wi
t
hRus
s
i
anar
myi
nr
es
er
v
e,s
uppr
es
s
edt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nPi
edmo
nt
andr
es
t
o
r
edt
heki
ngt
ohi
st
hr
o
newi
t
hful
lpo
wer
s
.
Ver
o
na,1822
-Att
hi
sc
o
ng
r
es
si
tb
ec
amec
l
eart
hatt
hec
o
l
l
aps
eo
ft
hec
o
ng
r
es
ss
ys
t
em was
c
er
t
ai
n.Ano
fferb
yRus
s
i
at
os
uppr
es
st
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nS
pai
nwasr
ej
ec
t
edb
y
o
t
herpo
wer
swhodi
dno
twi
s
ht
os
eeaRus
s
i
anfo
r
c
emar
c
hi
ngi
nt
ot
hehear
to
f
Eur
o
pe.
-Int
heendi
twasFr
anc
et
hats
uppr
es
s
edt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nS
pai
nr
es
t
o
r
ed
Fer
di
nandwi
t
hful
lpo
wer
s
.
-No
wt
hatt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nS
pai
nhadb
eens
uppr
es
s
edat
t
ent
i
o
nno
wfo
c
us
ed
o
nt
heS
pani
s
hc
o
l
o
ni
esi
nAmer
i
c
an.
-Itwasatt
hi
spo
i
ntt
hatt
heBr
i
t
i
s
hi
nt
er
v
enedb
ec
aus
et
hei
ri
nt
er
es
t
swer
e
i
nv
o
l
v
ed.S
hewasno
wab
l
et
ot
r
adefr
eel
ywi
t
ht
hes
efo
r
merc
o
l
o
ni
es
.
-TheUS
Ag
o
v
er
nmenti
s
s
ued awar
ni
ngt
ot
heal
l
i
esi
nt
hefo
r
m aMo
nr
o
e
Do
c
t
r
i
net
hatwar
ned t
hem ag
ai
ns
tt
hei
rmi
l
i
t
ar
ypr
es
enc
eo
nt
heAmer
i
c
an
c
o
nt
i
nent
.
-Asar
es
ul
tt
heex
pedi
t
i
o
nt
oAmer
i
c
awasc
al
l
edo
ffandar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nfr
o
m
b
el
o
wwasal
l
o
wedt
ot
r
i
umpht
her
eb
yv
i
o
l
at
i
ngt
heTr
o
ppauPr
o
t
o
c
o
l
.
TheGr
eekWaro
fIndependenc
e
-TheGr
eekWaro
fIndependenc
ewast
hefi
nalb
l
o
wt
ot
hec
o
ng
r
es
ss
ys
t
em.
Al
ex
anderIo
fRus
s
i
ahadb
eens
uc
c
eededb
yNi
c
ho
l
asIupo
nhi
sdeat
h.
-Ni
c
ho
l
asIwasdet
er
mi
nedt
oas
s
i
s
tt
heGr
eeksi
ng
ai
ni
ngi
ndependenc
efr
o
m
Tur
key.Butt
henBr
i
t
ai
nandFr
anc
edi
dno
twi
s
ht
os
eeRus
s
i
aac
t
i
ngal
o
net
hus
t
heyas
s
i
s
t
edRus
s
i
a.
62
-Tur
keywasdefeat
edb
yac
o
mb
i
nedfo
r
c
eatNav
ar
i
noBayi
n1827.Thi
swas
o
nc
eag
ai
nadi
r
ec
tv
i
o
l
at
i
o
no
ft
heTr
o
ppauPr
o
t
o
c
o
lt
hatdi
dno
tac
c
epta
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nfr
o
mb
el
o
w.
-Thust
hec
o
ng
r
es
ss
ys
t
emc
o
l
l
aps
ed.
THEBOURBONMONARCHY
Res
t
o
r
at
i
o
ni
nFr
anc
e:1815–1830
Lo
ui
sXVI:1825–1824
-L
o
ui
sXVIIIdi
dno
tfo
r
g
ett
hatar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nhadt
akenpl
ac
ei
nFr
anc
e.Thus
dur
i
nghi
sr
ei
g
nhedi
dno
tr
ewi
ndt
hec
l
o
c
kb
ac
kt
ot
hepr
e-1789per
i
o
d.
-Ev
eno
nhi
sdeat
hb
ed,headv
i
s
ed hi
sb
r
o
t
herCo
mt
ed’
Ar
t
o
i
swhowast
o
s
uc
c
eedno
tt
or
ewi
ndt
hec
l
o
c
kb
ac
kt
ot
hepr
e-1789per
i
o
d.
-Bec
aus
eo
fhi
spo
l
i
c
i
esLo
ui
sXVIwass
uc
c
es
s
fuli
nmai
nt
ai
ni
nghi
ms
el
fo
nt
he
Fr
enc
ht
hr
o
ne.
Char
t
er
-Lo
ui
sXVIIIr
ul
edb
yt
hec
har
t
ert
hathadb
eens
ug
g
es
t
edb
yt
heEur
o
pean
s
t
at
es
menatt
heVi
ennaS
et
t
l
ement
.
-Itpr
o
v
i
dedfo
requal
i
t
yb
efo
r
et
hel
aw,l
i
b
er
t
y,andl
andg
uar
ant
eefo
rt
he
peas
ant
s
,afr
anc
hi
s
e,anas
s
emb
l
yandc
ab
i
netmi
ni
s
t
er
sappo
i
nt
edb
yt
heki
ng
,
appo
i
nt
mentb
ymer
i
tandafr
eepr
es
s
.
-Bec
aus
eo
ft
hes
epr
o
v
i
s
i
o
nsFr
anc
ehadper
hapst
hemo
s
tl
i
b
er
alg
o
v
er
nment
i
nEur
o
pewi
t
ht
heex
c
ept
i
o
no
fEng
l
and.
Cho
i
c
eo
fChi
efMi
ni
s
t
er
s
63
-Lo
ui
sXVIIIhadag
o
o
dc
ho
i
c
eo
fmi
ni
s
t
er
s
.Inhi
sr
ei
g
nhehadt
woMi
ni
s
t
er
s
,
Ri
c
hel
i
euandVi
l
l
el
ewhos
har
edt
hes
o
meai
msashi
m.
-Theyb
o
t
hai
medatmai
nt
ai
ni
ngt
hel
i
b
er
t
i
esg
uar
ant
eedb
yt
hec
har
t
er
.L
i
ke
t
hei
rki
ngt
heyb
o
t
hr
ec
o
g
ni
z
edt
hatar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nhadt
akenpl
ac
e.
Co
nt
ai
nedt
heFo
r
c
eso
fReac
t
i
o
n
-Res
t
o
r
at
i
o
ni
nFr
anc
emeantt
her
et
ur
no
ft
heémi
g
r
ésunderCo
mt
ed’
Ar
t
o
i
s
.
Lo
ui
sXVIII c
ame underpr
es
s
ur
e fr
o
m t
hes
e fo
r
merémi
g
r
ésdemandi
ng
r
ev
eng
eag
ai
ns
tt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
esandt
heBo
napar
t
i
s
t
s
.
-Theyas
s
as
s
i
nat
eds
o
meBo
napar
t
i
s
t
sl
i
keNey,Car
no
t
,andMar
s
halBr
une.
Theyal
s
odemandedt
her
et
ur
no
fas
ys
t
em o
fpr
i
v
i
l
eg
es
,pr
es
sc
ens
o
r
s
hi
pand
Cat
ho
l
i
cChur
c
hi
nfl
uenc
ei
ns
t
at
e.
-Lo
ui
sXVIIIr
eal
i
z
edt
hedang
er
so
fg
i
v
i
ngi
nt
ot
hes
edemands
.Mo
s
to
ft
hes
e
demandswer
eb
ei
ngdo
nei
nt
heas
s
emb
l
ydo
mi
nat
edb
yt
heul
t
r
a-r
o
yal
i
s
t
sdue
t
ot
hefr
anc
hi
s
es
ys
t
em.
-Lo
ui
sXVII
Ir
eac
t
edb
ydi
s
s
o
l
v
i
ngt
heas
s
emb
l
yandc
al
l
edfo
rfr
es
hel
ec
t
i
o
ns
i
n1816t
hatr
et
ur
nedamaj
o
r
i
t
yi
nt
heas
s
emb
l
yt
hatfav
o
ur
edt
heki
ng
’
spo
l
i
c
y.
Re-i
nt
eg
r
at
i
o
no
fFr
anc
ei
nt
oaGr
eatPo
werAl
l
i
anc
e
-Lo
ui
sXVIIIpo
l
i
c
i
esenab
l
edFr
anc
et
ob
er
e-i
nt
eg
r
at
edi
nt
ot
heal
l
i
anc
eo
f
t
heg
r
eatpo
wer
satt
hec
o
ng
r
es
so
ft
heAi
xl
aChapel
l
e.
- Thi
swasaft
erLo
ui
sXVIIIfo
l
l
o
wed a mo
der
at
efo
r
ei
g
n po
l
i
c
yt
hatwas
ac
c
ept
ab
l
et
ot
heg
r
eatpo
wer
s
.
-Fr
anc
ehadpai
do
fft
hewari
ndemni
t
yandt
heo
c
c
upat
i
o
nfo
r
c
eo
ft
heg
r
eat
po
wer
shadt
ob
ewi
t
hdr
awn.
-Thust
heg
r
eatpo
wer
swer
ec
o
nv
i
nc
ed t
hatat
hr
eato
fafur
t
herFr
enc
h
ag
g
r
es
s
i
o
nnol
o
ng
erex
i
s
t
ed.
64
Co
nt
ai
nedt
heFo
r
c
eso
fChang
e
-The1819el
ec
t
i
o
nsb
r
o
ug
htmo
der
at
el
i
b
er
al
sandex
t
r
emer
epub
l
i
c
ansi
nt
ot
he
as
s
emb
l
yi
nl
ar
g
enumb
er
s
.
- Taki
ng adv
ant
ag
eo
ft
hei
rg
r
eat
er numb
er
st
hey demanded ex
t
r
eme
meas
ur
es
.Tomaket
hei
rdemandsmo
r
es
er
i
o
ust
heymur
der
edDucdeBer
it
he
s
o
no
fCo
mt
ed‘
Ar
t
o
i
s
.
-S
uc
hamo
v
ewasv
i
ewedasanat
t
emptt
oex
t
i
ng
ui
s
ht
heBo
ur
b
o
nl
i
ne.Ino
r
der
t
odealwi
t
ht
hi
sc
hal
l
eng
eLo
ui
sal
t
er
edt
hefr
anc
hi
s
et
og
i
v
et
hel
ando
wner
s
t
wov
o
t
esi
ns
t
eado
fo
ne.
-Int
hi
swayamaj
o
r
i
t
yo
ft
her
o
yal
i
s
t
swasb
r
o
ug
hti
nt
ot
heas
s
emb
l
y.
CHARLESX:1824–1830
-Char
l
esXs
uc
c
eededhi
sb
r
o
t
herLo
ui
sXVIIIast
henex
tFr
enc
hKi
ng
.Hewas
t
hel
eadero
ft
hefo
r
merémi
g
r
ésfo
r
mer
l
yc
al
l
edCo
mt
ed’
Ar
t
o
i
s
.
-Onhi
sent
hr
o
nementhet
o
o
kt
het
i
t
l
eChar
l
esX.Ast
heki
ngChar
l
esXl
ear
nt
no
t
hi
ngab
o
utt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Thi
swashar
dl
ys
ur
pr
i
s
i
ngc
o
ns
i
der
i
ngt
hefac
t
t
hathewasanémi
g
r
ésl
eaderwhohadfo
ug
htag
ai
ns
tt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
-Inanyc
as
edur
i
ngt
her
ei
g
no
fhi
sb
r
o
t
herLo
ui
sXVIIIheb
ec
amet
hel
eader
o
f t
he Ul
t
r
a- r
o
yal
i
s
t
s who amo
ng o
t
her t
hi
ng
s demanded r
ev
eng
e,
c
o
mpens
at
i
o
nandt
her
es
t
o
r
at
i
o
no
ft
hes
ys
t
emo
fpr
i
v
i
l
eg
es
.
-Fur
t
her
mo
r
ehewasamo
ngt
ho
s
et
hato
r
g
ani
z
ed t
heas
s
as
s
i
nat
i
o
no
ft
he
Bo
napar
t
i
s
t
sieMar
s
hal
sBr
uneandCar
no
t
.
TheReas
o
nsfo
rt
hefai
l
ur
eo
fRes
t
o
r
at
i
o
nunderChar
l
esX
1.
Refus
alt
or
ul
et
hr
o
ug
haChar
t
er
-Char
l
esXdi
dno
tfo
l
l
o
wt
headv
i
c
eo
fhi
sb
r
o
t
herLo
ui
sXVIIIo
fno
tr
ewi
ndi
ng
t
hec
l
o
c
kb
ac
kt
ot
hepr
e-1789per
i
o
d.
65
-Her
efus
edt
or
ul
eb
yac
har
t
erpo
i
nt
i
ngo
ut“
Iwo
ul
dr
at
herc
ho
pwo
o
dt
han
r
ul
ei
nt
hes
t
yl
eo
ft
heki
ngo
fEng
l
and.
”
-Int
heendChar
l
esXr
ul
edb
ydec
r
ee.
2.
Reac
t
i
o
nar
yPo
l
i
c
i
es
-Upo
nhi
sent
hr
o
nementChar
l
esXado
pt
edar
eac
t
i
o
nar
yr
ul
e.Hes
t
ar
t
edo
ff
b
yc
o
mpens
at
i
ngt
hefo
r
merémi
g
r
ésfo
rt
hei
rl
o
s
s
esdur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nus
i
ng
mo
neyr
ai
s
edamo
ngt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
.
- He r
ev
i
v
ed t
he Cat
ho
l
i
c Chur
c
hi
nfl
uenc
ei
ns
t
at
e affai
r
s
.Co
r
o
nat
i
o
n
c
er
emo
ni
eswer
er
ev
i
v
edandpr
es
i
dedo
v
erb
yt
hec
hur
c
h.
- Mo
nas
t
i
co
r
der
swer
er
ei
nt
r
o
duc
ed and t
heJes
ui
ts
o
c
i
et
ywasal
l
o
wed t
o
r
et
ur
nt
hec
hur
c
hwasg
r
ant
edt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
fel
ement
ar
yeduc
at
i
o
n.
-TheNat
i
o
nalGuar
dwasdi
s
b
anded.Ithadb
eenc
r
eat
eddur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n
asag
uar
ant
o
ro
fr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yg
ai
ns
.It
sdi
s
b
andb
yt
heki
ngwass
eenb
yt
he
peo
pl
eass
i
g
nalt
hatt
hedayso
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nwer
ec
o
mi
ngt
oanend.
-Vi
l
l
el
e,whowast
hec
hi
efMi
ni
s
t
err
es
i
g
nedb
ec
aus
ehec
o
ul
dno
ts
t
andt
he
r
at
eatwhi
c
ht
her
eac
t
i
o
nar
ypo
l
i
c
i
eswer
eb
ei
ngi
mpl
ement
edb
yt
heki
ng
.
-Mar
t
g
nacwhos
uc
c
eededVi
l
l
el
east
heC
hi
efMi
ni
s
t
erwass
o
o
ndi
s
mi
s
s
ed
b
ec
aus
ehewasc
o
ns
i
der
edno
tr
eac
t
i
o
nar
yeno
ug
h.
-Heappo
i
nt
edar
eac
t
i
o
nar
yMi
ni
s
t
er
,Po
l
i
g
nacwhohadt
hes
amepo
l
i
c
i
es
ashi
ms
el
f.
-Po
l
i
g
nacai
medatc
r
eat
i
ngapo
wer
fular
i
s
t
o
c
r
ac
yandt
hens
ur
r
o
undsi
t
wi
t
hpr
i
v
i
l
eg
eshenc
ewant
edt
or
ewi
ndt
hec
l
o
c
kb
ac
kt
o1789.
-Char
l
esXado
pt
edar
ul
eb
ydec
r
ee.Theel
ec
t
i
o
nso
f1829b
r
o
ug
hta
maj
o
r
i
t
yo
ft
hel
i
b
er
al
si
nt
ot
heas
s
emb
l
y
.
- Char
l
esX r
eac
t
ed t
ot
hi
sb
yi
s
s
ui
nga dec
r
eei
nt
hefo
r
mo
ft
he
Or
di
nanc
eo
fS
tCl
o
udt
hats
etas
i
det
heel
ec
t
i
o
nr
es
ul
t
s
.Thi
swasafi
nal
s
t
r
awt
hats
pannedt
hepeo
pl
ei
nt
oac
t
i
o
n.
-Ar
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nb
r
o
keo
uti
nJul
y1830andr
emo
v
edChar
l
esXfr
o
m po
wer
t
her
eb
ymar
ki
ngt
heend o
fr
es
t
o
r
at
i
o
nand t
heBo
ur
b
o
nMo
nar
c
hyi
n
66
Fr
anc
e.
THEORLEANSMONARCHY(
THEJULYMONARCHY)
:1830-1848
Int
r
o
duc
t
i
o
n
-Lo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppe,t
heOr
l
eansMo
nar
c
h,hadami
ddl
ec
l
as
sb
ac
kg
r
o
und.Hewas
uns
pec
t
ac
ul
arandl
edas
i
mpl
el
i
fe.Hemi
x
edfr
eel
ywi
t
ht
hepeo
pl
ewal
ki
ng
do
wnt
hes
t
r
eet
swi
t
hanumb
r
el
l
ai
nhand.Hei
ndeedwasaCi
t
i
z
enKi
ng
.
-HewasFr
anc
e’
sfi
r
s
tel
ec
t
edki
ngb
yanas
s
emb
l
yt
hatwasdo
mi
nat
edb
yt
he
mi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
.Hewasac
o
mpr
o
mi
s
ec
andi
dat
eashewasl
i
kel
yt
ob
eac
c
ept
edb
y
t
hel
i
b
er
al
so
nt
heo
nehandandt
her
o
yal
i
s
t
so
nt
heo
t
her
.
-Bei
nganel
ec
t
edpl
ac
edLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppei
nadi
ffi
c
ul
tpo
s
i
t
i
o
n.Hav
i
ngb
een
el
ec
t
edb
yt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
shewasex
pec
t
edt
odanc
et
ot
hei
rt
une.
-Thi
spr
o
v
eddi
ffi
c
ul
tc
o
ns
i
der
i
ngt
hefac
tt
hatFr
anc
ewaspo
l
i
t
i
c
al
l
ydi
v
i
ded.
Thel
i
b
er
al
sdemandedfr
eedo
mt
hr
o
ug
hamo
r
er
adi
c
alr
efo
r
mpr
o
g
r
amme,t
he
s
o
c
i
al
i
s
t
swant
edas
o
c
i
al
i
s
tg
o
v
er
nment
,t
her
epub
l
i
c
answant
edar
epub
l
i
c
an
fo
r
mo
fg
o
v
er
nment
,t
hel
eg
i
t
i
mi
s
t
swant
ed t
her
es
t
o
r
at
i
o
no
ft
heBo
ur
b
o
n
Mo
nar
c
hy,t
heBo
napar
t
i
s
t
swi
s
hed fo
rt
her
et
ur
no
fBo
napar
t
i
s
m and t
he
Cat
ho
l
i
c
sai
medt
heful
lr
et
ur
no
ft
heCat
ho
l
i
cChur
c
hi
nt
os
t
at
eaffai
r
sandi
n
educ
at
i
o
n.
Do
mes
t
i
cPo
l
i
c
y
-Inhi
sdo
mes
t
i
cpo
l
i
c
yLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppepr
o
mo
t
edt
hei
nt
er
es
t
so
ft
hemi
ddl
e
c
l
as
so
fFr
anc
e.Thi
sr
es
ul
t
ed i
n hi
mb
ei
ngal
i
enat
ed fr
o
mt
her
es
to
ft
he
Fr
enc
hment
husl
eadi
ngt
ohi
sdo
wnfal
l
.
TheChar
t
er
-Lo
ui
sPhi
l
i
pper
ul
edt
hr
o
ug
hac
har
t
er
.Itpr
o
v
i
dedfo
ranel
ec
t
edas
s
emb
l
y,a
67
fr
anc
hi
s
e,g
uar
ant
eeo
nl
andg
ai
neddur
i
ngt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n,t
henat
i
o
nalg
uar
d
andt
heequal
i
t
yo
fal
lFr
enc
hpeo
pl
e.
TheMi
ddl
eCl
as
sDo
mi
nat
i
o
n
- Ther
ul
eo
fLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppewasmo
s
t
l
yc
har
ac
t
er
i
z
ed b
yt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
do
mi
nat
i
o
no
fhi
sdo
mes
t
i
candfo
r
ei
g
npo
l
i
c
i
es
.
-Bei
nganel
ec
t
edki
ngi
tmeanthehadt
ofo
l
l
o
wapo
l
i
c
ypr
es
c
r
i
b
edb
yt
he
mi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
.Thi
shadaneffec
to
fant
ag
o
ni
z
i
ngt
her
es
to
ft
heg
r
o
upst
hat
ex
i
s
t
edi
nFr
anc
e.
-Thefr
anc
hi
s
es
ys
t
em fav
o
ur
edt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
shenc
et
heywer
eel
ec
t
eda
l
ar
g
enumb
er
si
nt
ot
heas
s
emb
l
yandc
o
mmandedamaj
o
r
i
t
y.
-Us
i
ngt
hei
rmaj
o
r
i
t
yi
nt
heas
s
emb
l
yt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
sg
ai
nedt
hec
o
nt
r
o
lo
ft
he
Nat
i
o
nalGuar
dt
hatb
ec
ameami
ddl
ec
l
as
si
nc
o
mpo
s
i
t
i
o
n.Thusi
twaso
ft
en
us
edt
os
er
v
et
hei
nt
er
es
t
so
ft
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
.
-Fo
rex
ampl
et
heNat
i
o
nalGuar
dwasus
edo
ns
ev
er
alo
c
c
as
i
o
nst
os
uppr
es
s
r
ev
o
l
t
sag
ai
ns
tt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
sdo
mi
nat
i
o
nie1834s
t
r
i
keb
yt
heLyo
nwo
r
ker
s
.
TheLawo
fAs
s
o
c
i
at
i
o
n
-Lo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppepas
s
edt
heLawo
fAs
s
o
c
i
at
i
o
nt
hatb
annedpo
l
i
t
i
c
alas
s
o
c
i
at
i
o
n
o
ranydi
s
c
us
s
i
o
no
fanal
t
er
nat
i
v
efo
r
mo
fg
o
v
er
nment
.
-S
uc
hal
awwasev
i
dent
l
ydi
r
ec
t
edag
ai
ns
tt
hel
eg
i
t
i
mi
s
t
s
,s
o
c
i
al
i
s
t
sandt
he
r
epub
l
i
c
ans
.
Refus
alt
oEx
t
endt
heFr
anc
hi
s
e
-Theex
i
s
t
i
ngfr
anc
hi
s
emo
s
t
l
ys
ui
t
edt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
sanddi
s
adv
ant
ag
edt
he
wo
r
ki
ngc
l
as
sandt
hepeas
ant
s
.
-Ont
hr
eeo
c
c
as
i
o
nst
hedi
s
adv
ant
ag
edg
r
o
uppet
i
t
i
o
nedt
heas
s
emb
l
yfo
rt
he
68
ex
t
ens
i
o
no
ft
hefr
anc
hi
s
e.Onal
lo
c
c
as
i
o
nst
hepet
i
t
i
o
nswer
er
ej
ec
t
ed.
- TheChi
efMi
ni
s
t
erGui
z
o
to
ppo
s
ed t
heex
t
ens
i
o
n po
i
nt
i
ngo
utt
hatt
ho
s
e
demandi
nganex
t
ens
i
o
nmus
two
r
khar
dandear
nands
av
emo
neyi
no
r
dert
o
qual
i
fyasv
o
t
er
s
.
TheFo
r
ei
g
nPo
l
i
c
y
-Itwast
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
st
hatdi
c
t
at
edt
hefo
r
ei
g
npo
l
i
c
yo
fLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppe.The
po
l
i
c
ywaspeac
efulandc
aut
i
o
uses
pec
i
al
l
yt
oBr
i
t
ai
n.
-S
uc
hapo
l
i
c
yr
es
ul
t
edi
nFr
anc
epo
l
i
c
ypl
ayi
ngs
ec
o
ndfi
ddl
et
ot
heBr
i
t
i
s
h.
Thi
sant
ag
o
ni
z
edt
heBo
napar
t
i
s
t
swhowi
s
hedfo
rag
l
o
r
i
o
usfo
r
ei
g
npo
l
i
c
yand
t
hel
i
b
er
al
swhoex
pec
t
edt
heki
ngt
oc
hampi
o
nt
hel
i
b
er
alc
aus
ei
nEur
o
pe.
TheRev
o
l
ut
i
o
nsi
nBel
g
i
um,It
al
yandPo
l
and
-Ac
aut
i
o
usandpeac
efulpo
l
i
c
yb
yLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppeo
nt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nsi
nBel
g
i
um,
It
al
yandPo
l
andant
ag
o
ni
z
eds
o
mes
ec
t
i
o
nso
fFr
anc
e.
-Ant
ag
o
ni
z
edwer
et
hel
i
b
er
al
st
hatex
pec
t
edt
heki
ngt
oas
s
i
s
tal
i
b
er
alc
aus
e
i
nt
hes
ec
o
unt
r
i
est
hatdr
ewi
ns
pi
r
at
i
o
nfr
o
m as
uc
c
es
s
fulr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nFr
anc
e
i
n1830t
hatr
emo
v
edChar
l
esXar
eac
t
i
o
nar
yr
ul
erfr
o
mpo
wer
.
-TheBo
napar
t
i
s
t
sho
pedt
hatLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppewo
ul
dr
ev
i
v
et
heFr
enc
hg
l
o
r
yand
b
r
i
ngb
ac
kt
heg
l
o
r
i
o
usdayso
fBo
napar
t
i
s
m.
-Butt
henLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppewaswel
lawar
et
hatfo
l
l
o
wi
ngt
hewi
s
heso
ft
hel
i
b
er
al
s
andt
heBo
napar
t
i
s
t
smeantadi
r
ec
tc
hal
l
eng
eo
nt
heVi
ennas
et
t
l
ementand
i
t
sar
c
hi
t
ec
t
sandi
twasal
s
oc
o
nt
r
ar
yt
ot
hewi
s
heso
ft
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
st
hat
want
ed t
omai
nt
ai
n peac
efulr
el
at
i
o
nswi
t
ht
heEur
o
pean po
wer
ses
pec
i
al
l
y
Br
i
t
ai
n.
-Thusi
nt
heLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppeo
pt
edfo
rpeac
efulandc
aut
i
o
usfo
r
ei
g
npo
l
i
c
yt
hat
r
es
ul
t
edi
nFr
anc
epl
ayi
ngas
ec
o
ndfi
ddl
et
ot
heBr
i
t
i
s
h.
-TheBel
g
i
ans
,ho
pi
ngfo
rt
heFr
enc
hs
uppo
r
to
ffer
edt
het
hr
o
net
ot
hes
o
no
f
69
Lo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppe.Br
i
t
ai
nwasag
ai
ns
tt
hi
so
ffers
i
nc
ei
two
ul
dr
ev
i
v
et
heo
l
duni
o
n
b
et
weenBel
g
i
umandFr
anc
e.
-Tomai
nt
ai
npeac
efulr
el
at
i
o
nswi
t
hBr
i
t
ai
nLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppet
ur
neddo
wnt
he
o
ffer
.Int
heendi
twasBr
i
t
ai
nt
hathadadec
i
s
i
v
ei
nfl
uenc
eo
nt
het
er
mso
f
t
heBel
g
i
ani
ndependenc
eatt
heLo
ndo
nCo
nfer
enc
ei
n1839.
-Fur
t
her
mo
r
e,o
nt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nIt
al
yandPo
l
andt
hel
i
b
er
al
si
nFr
anc
e,
It
al
yandPo
l
andwer
el
o
o
ki
ngfo
r
war
dt
oFr
anc
eg
i
v
i
ngas
s
i
s
t
anc
e.
-Butg
r
ant
i
ngt
hel
i
b
er
al
st
hei
rwi
s
hwo
ul
dhav
er
es
ul
t
edi
nFr
anc
ec
l
as
hi
ng
wi
t
ht
heGr
eatPo
wer
ses
pec
i
al
l
yBr
i
t
ai
n.
TheAffai
ro
fMehemetAl
i
,1839
-Thel
i
b
er
al
sandBo
napar
t
i
s
t
sex
pec
t
edLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppet
oas
s
i
s
tMehemetAl
ii
n
hi
ss
t
r
ug
g
l
e ag
ai
ns
tTur
key.Thi
er
s
,t
he Chi
ef Mi
ni
s
t
erwant
ed Fr
anc
et
o
i
nt
er
v
eneandhel
pAl
i
.
-ButBr
i
t
ai
ndi
dno
twi
s
ht
os
eet
hei
nt
er
v
ent
i
o
no
fFr
anc
et
hatwo
ul
dr
es
ul
ti
n
t
hei
nc
r
eas
eo
ft
heFr
enc
hi
nfl
uenc
ei
nt
heMedi
t
er
r
anean.ASar
es
ul
tLo
ui
s
Phi
l
i
ppe r
es
t
r
ai
ned hi
sChi
ef Mi
ni
s
t
erfr
o
m i
nt
er
v
eni
ng ashe want
ed t
o
mai
nt
ai
napeac
efulpo
l
i
c
ywi
t
ht
heGr
eatPo
wer
ses
pec
i
al
l
yBr
i
t
ai
n.
- Thus o
nc
e ag
ai
n Fr
anc
e pl
ayed s
ec
o
nd fi
ddl
et
ot
he Br
i
t
i
s
ht
her
eb
y
ant
ag
o
ni
z
i
ngt
hel
i
b
er
al
sandBo
napar
t
i
s
m.
ThePo
l
i
c
yo
nS
pani
s
hMar
r
i
ag
es
-Unt
i
l1846t
hepo
s
i
t
i
o
no
fLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppeaski
ngwass
ec
ur
e.Whatt
henl
edt
o
hi
sdo
wnfal
lwashi
spo
l
i
c
yo
nt
heS
pani
s
hmar
r
i
ag
est
hatr
es
ul
t
edi
nhi
ml
o
s
i
ng
t
hes
uppo
r
tfr
o
mt
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
.
- TheQueen o
fS
pai
n and hers
i
s
t
erwer
eb
o
t
h unmar
r
i
ed.An ag
r
eement
b
et
ween Fr
anc
eand Br
i
t
ai
ns
t
i
pul
at
ed t
hatQueen wo
ul
d mar
r
ya Ger
man
Pr
i
nc
ewhi
l
et
heyo
ung
ers
i
s
t
ermar
r
i
est
hes
o
no
fLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppe.
70
-Itwasfur
t
herag
r
eedt
hatt
hes
ec
o
ndmar
r
i
ag
eo
ft
hes
o
no
fLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppe
wo
ul
do
nl
yt
akepl
ac
eaft
ert
hato
ft
heQueenandt
heGer
manPr
i
nc
eand
aft
ert
heypr
o
duc
edanhei
r
.
-Int
hi
swayBr
i
t
ai
nho
pedt
opr
ev
entano
l
duni
o
nb
et
weenFr
anc
eandS
pai
n.
Fr
anc
e,ho
wev
er
,v
i
o
l
at
edt
hemar
r
i
ag
eb
yc
el
eb
r
at
i
ngt
hemar
r
i
ag
eo
nt
hes
ame
day
.
-Itl
at
eremer
g
edt
hatt
heGer
manPr
i
nc
ewasunab
l
et
opr
o
duc
ec
hi
l
dr
en.
ThusLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppeac
hi
ev
edt
hev
er
yt
hi
ngt
hatBr
i
t
ai
nwant
edt
opr
ev
ent
,a
uni
o
nb
et
weenFr
anc
eandS
pai
n.
-TheBr
i
t
i
s
hg
o
v
er
nmentr
eac
t
edb
yendi
ngi
t
sfr
i
ends
hi
pwi
t
hFr
anc
e.Wi
t
h
t
hatLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppel
o
s
tt
hes
uppo
r
to
ft
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
s
.
TheCi
v
i
lWari
nS
wi
t
z
er
l
and
- An at
t
emptb
yLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppe t
os
wi
t
c
ho
v
ert
ot
he Cat
ho
l
i
c
st
hr
o
ug
ha
s
uc
c
es
s
fuli
nt
er
v
ent
i
o
ni
nt
he c
i
v
i
lwari
nS
wi
t
z
er
l
and o
nt
he s
i
de o
ft
he
Cat
ho
l
i
c
sag
ai
ns
tt
hel
i
b
er
al
sfai
l
ed.
-Br
i
t
ai
ns
c
o
r
edyetano
t
herdi
pl
o
mat
i
cv
i
c
t
o
r
yo
v
erFr
anc
et
her
eb
yens
ur
i
ng
t
hev
i
c
t
o
r
yo
ft
hel
i
b
er
al
s
.
-Hi
si
nt
er
v
ent
i
o
nant
ag
o
ni
z
edt
hel
i
b
er
al
sb
ec
aus
ehi
sac
t
i
o
nwasanat
t
emptt
o
b
l
o
c
kt
hel
i
b
er
alc
aus
e.
Heal
s
oant
ag
o
ni
z
edt
heCat
ho
l
i
c
sashefai
l
edt
oens
ur
eaCat
ho
l
i
cv
i
c
t
o
r
yi
n
S
wi
t
z
er
l
and.
Co
nc
l
us
i
o
n
-ThusLo
ui
sPhi
l
i
ppe’
sdo
mes
t
i
cpo
l
i
c
yandfo
r
ei
g
npo
l
i
c
yb
y1846meantt
hathe
di
dno
thav
es
uppo
r
ti
nFr
anc
e.ThusFr
anc
ewasb
o
r
ed.
-Unt
i
lno
wo
ppo
s
i
t
i
o
nt
ohi
spo
l
i
c
i
eshadb
eendr
i
v
enunder
g
r
o
und.Thi
st
i
mei
t
emer
g
edi
nt
hefo
r
mo
fr
efo
r
mb
anquet
so
r
g
ani
z
edb
yt
hes
o
c
i
al
i
s
t
sunderLo
ui
s
Bl
anc
.
71
-Thust
heFr
enc
ht
o
o
kac
o
l
l
ec
t
i
v
eeffo
r
tag
ai
ns
tt
heOr
l
eansMo
nar
c
hyb
et
ween
Feb
r
uar
y20and22i
n1848.
-TheNat
i
o
nalGuar
dt
hatwass
entt
os
uppr
es
st
her
ev
o
l
tfr
at
er
ni
z
edwi
t
ht
he
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
i
es
.
-Theki
ngab
di
c
at
edt
het
hr
o
neandfl
edt
oEng
l
and.Thust
her
ei
g
no
f18
year
so
ft
heOr
l
eansMo
nar
c
hyc
amet
oendt
hr
o
ug
har
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
THEUNIFICATIONOFITALY
Int
r
o
duc
t
i
o
n
-Theuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
ywasc
o
nt
r
i
b
ut
i
o
no
fMaz
z
i
ni
,Cav
o
ur
,Fo
r
ei
g
npo
wer
s
,
Gar
i
b
al
di
,Pi
edmo
ntandt
heIt
al
i
anpeo
pl
e.
-Maz
z
i
nii
ns
pi
r
edt
hemo
v
ementfo
rt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y.Cav
o
urwast
he
b
r
ai
nb
ehi
ndt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
npr
o
c
es
s
,Gar
i
b
al
diwast
heb
o
dyiet
hes
o
l
di
ert
hat
fo
ug
htfo
runi
fi
c
at
i
o
n,t
hes
t
at
eo
fPi
edmo
ntpr
o
v
i
dedt
hel
eader
s
hi
p,mi
l
i
t
ar
y
andec
o
no
mi
cr
es
o
ur
c
esfo
runi
fi
c
at
i
o
nandt
hepeo
pl
eo
fIt
al
ys
uppo
r
t
edal
l
effo
r
t
st
og
etuni
t
ed.
Bac
kg
r
o
und
-TheVi
ennas
et
t
l
emento
f1815deni
edIt
al
yt
heo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yt
og
etuni
fi
ed.It
l
eftt
heIt
al
i
ansdi
v
i
dedi
nt
os
epar
at
es
t
at
es
,i
nt
heno
r
t
hwast
hes
t
at
eo
f
Pi
edmo
ntandLo
mb
ar
dyandVenet
i
a.
-Att
hec
ent
r
ewer
et
hePapalS
t
at
esandt
heDuc
hi
eso
fPar
ma,Mo
denaand
Tus
c
ar
nyandi
nt
hes
o
ut
hwast
heki
ng
do
mo
fNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
y.
- Of al
lt
hes
es
t
at
esPi
edmo
ntwasfr
ee fr
o
m Aus
t
r
i
an do
mi
nat
i
o
n whi
l
e
Lo
mb
ar
dyandVenet
i
awer
eunderdi
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fAus
t
r
i
aandt
her
es
to
f
c
ent
r
alands
o
ut
her
nIt
al
yi
ndi
r
ec
t
l
yc
o
nt
r
o
l
l
ed.
Ear
l
yAt
t
empt
st
oUni
fyIt
al
y
72
-At
t
empt
st
ouni
fyIt
al
yt
hr
o
ug
hr
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nsandr
ev
o
l
t
si
n1819,1820,1830
and1848fai
l
ed.
- Thi
swasb
ec
aus
euni
fi
c
at
i
o
nl
ac
ked po
pul
ars
uppo
r
tasmo
s
tpeo
pl
ewer
e
unawar
eo
ft
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yi
deal
s
.Ther
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nar
yl
eader
shadl
i
t
t
l
ei
dea
o
f ho
wt
oc
o
nduc
t an effec
t
i
v
er
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
n.Al
s
ol
o
c
alr
i
v
al
r
y pr
ev
ent
ed
uni
fi
c
at
i
o
n.Mo
denaandBo
l
o
g
nac
o
ul
dno
two
r
kt
o
g
et
her
.
-Thepo
l
i
c
yo
f“
It
al
i
afar
adas
e!
”meani
ngIt
al
ywi
l
ldoi
tal
o
nefai
l
edasIt
al
y
wasno
ts
t
r
o
ngeno
ug
ht
ouni
fyi
t
s
el
fwi
t
ho
utfo
r
ei
g
nhel
p.
-Aus
t
r
i
awast
o
os
t
r
o
ngfo
rIt
al
yhenc
ec
r
us
hedal
lt
her
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
.
-Thepeo
pl
eo
fS
i
c
i
l
ywer
emo
r
ec
o
nc
er
nedwi
t
ht
hei
rl
o
c
alneedst
hanat
o
t
al
uni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y.
-Maz
z
i
nihadanunc
o
mpr
o
mi
s
i
ngat
t
i
t
udet
hatmadei
tdi
ffi
c
ul
t
yfo
ro
t
her
st
o
wo
r
kwi
t
hhi
m.
-ThePo
pe,ani
nfl
uent
i
alfi
g
ur
e,c
o
ndemnedt
he1848waro
nAus
t
r
i
at
hat
c
o
ul
dhav
er
es
ul
t
edi
nt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y.
Maz
z
i
ni
-Hewast
hes
o
ulo
ft
hemo
v
ementhenc
ei
ns
pi
r
edt
hemo
v
ement
.Heac
hi
ev
ed
t
hi
sb
ypr
eac
hi
ngt
hei
deao
funi
fi
c
at
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
hwr
i
t
t
enands
po
kenwo
r
d.
-Hefo
undednumer
o
uss
o
c
i
et
i
esandnews
paper
sandus
edt
hem t
oi
nv
o
ket
he
s
pi
r
i
to
funi
fi
c
at
i
o
namo
ngt
heIt
al
i
anpeo
pl
e.
-Heb
el
i
ev
edi
nt
heus
eo
ft
heo
r
di
nar
ypeo
pl
ei
nt
hepr
o
c
es
so
funi
fi
c
at
i
o
n.
Thushe fo
unded t
he Yo
ung It
al
yS
o
c
i
et
yt
ol
ead t
he mo
v
ementfo
rt
he
uni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y.
-It
spr
o
g
r
ammei
nv
o
l
v
edac
o
ns
t
antr
i
s
i
ngt
hatwo
ul
duns
et
t
l
eAus
t
r
i
aands
t
i
r
t
hepeo
pl
et
ob
ec
o
menat
i
o
nal
i
s
tanddr
i
v
et
heAus
t
r
i
anso
uto
fIt
al
y.
-Hear
g
uedt
hatt
heIt
al
i
anpeo
pl
ehav
es
pi
r
i
t
ualfai
t
hi
nuni
fi
c
at
i
o
nandt
hat
i
twasGo
d’
swi
l
lfo
rIt
al
yt
ob
euni
t
ed.
-Hi
ss
l
o
g
anwas“
It
al
i
afar
adas
e!
”Thefo
r
ei
g
npo
wer
shadnor
o
o
mt
opl
ayi
n
73
t
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y.
-Heb
el
i
ev
edt
hatt
hei
nv
o
l
v
emento
ft
hefo
r
ei
g
ner
swo
ul
db
r
i
ngwi
t
hi
tpo
l
i
t
i
c
al
b
ar
g
ai
nss
i
nc
et
heywo
ul
dnev
eras
s
i
s
tIt
al
yfo
rno
t
hi
ng
.
Ac
t
i
v
i
t
i
es
-1830sand1840sMaz
z
i
niandhi
sfo
l
l
o
wer
seng
ag
edi
nc
o
ns
t
antr
i
s
i
ng
st
hat
wer
eeas
i
l
yc
r
us
hedb
yAus
t
r
i
a.
-S
o
meo
fhi
sfo
l
l
o
wer
sg
o
tc
o
nc
er
nedt
hatb
l
o
o
dwasb
ei
ngs
pl
i
tunnec
es
s
ar
i
l
y.
Maz
z
i
nii
ns
i
s
t
edt
hatt
hemo
r
et
hepeo
pl
edi
et
hemo
r
et
hemo
v
ementwo
ul
db
e
t
akens
er
i
o
us
l
y.S
uc
hanunc
o
mpr
o
mi
s
i
ngat
t
i
t
uder
es
ul
t
edi
nhi
ml
o
s
i
ngahug
e
fo
l
l
o
wi
ngi
nt
he1840s
.
-Maz
z
i
niwasac
t
i
v
ei
nt
he1848r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
nsal
o
ngwi
t
hGar
i
b
al
diwhent
heyl
eda
r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
nCent
r
alIt
al
y.Theydepo
s
edt
hePo
peandt
o
o
ko
v
ert
hePapal
S
t
at
esandpr
o
c
l
ai
medt
heRo
manr
epub
l
i
c
.
-TheRepub
l
i
cwass
ho
r
tl
i
v
ed.Maz
z
i
niandGar
i
b
al
didi
dno
tappr
ec
i
at
et
he
fac
tt
hatt
hePo
pewasani
nt
er
nat
i
o
nall
eader
.
-Thusac
o
mb
i
ned fo
r
c
eo
fRus
s
i
aand t
heCat
ho
l
i
cpo
wer
snamel
yFr
anc
e,
Aus
t
r
i
aandS
pai
nwi
t
hRus
s
i
ac
r
us
hedt
heRepub
l
i
candr
es
t
o
r
edt
hePo
pet
ohi
s
t
hr
o
newi
t
hful
lpo
wer
s
.
-ThusMaz
z
i
nifai
l
edi
nhi
so
b
j
ec
t
i
v
et
ouni
fyIt
al
y.Hi
spo
l
i
c
yo
f“
It
al
i
afar
a
das
e!
”wasac
o
mpl
et
efai
l
ur
es
i
nc
eIt
al
ywasec
o
no
mi
c
al
l
yandmi
l
i
t
ar
i
l
yweak
anddi
v
i
ded.Ex
t
er
nalhel
pwasev
i
dent
l
yr
equi
r
ed.
Leg
ac
y
- Tho
ug
h a fai
l
ur
ei
nt
hes
ho
r
tt
er
m,Maz
z
i
nil
efta l
eg
ac
yt
hatpr
o
v
ed
s
i
g
ni
fi
c
antdur
i
ng t
he per
i
o
d.Thr
o
ug
h hi
si
ns
pi
r
at
i
o
n,t
he It
al
i
an peo
pl
e
par
t
i
c
i
pat
edwi
t
hg
r
eatent
hus
i
as
mi
nt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y.
-Theeffo
r
t
so
fMaz
z
i
niar
es
eenb
yt
heg
r
eat
erpar
t
i
c
i
pat
i
o
no
ft
heIt
al
i
an
peo
pl
ei
nt
her
i
s
i
ng
si
nc
ent
r
alIt
al
y,i
nt
heAus
t
r
o
-Pi
edmo
nt
es
eWaro
f1859
74
andt
heAus
t
r
o
-Pr
us
s
i
anWaro
f1866.
-Thepeo
pl
eal
s
ov
o
t
edpo
s
i
t
i
v
el
yi
nt
hepl
eb
i
s
c
i
t
eo
f1860t
hatb
r
o
ug
htIt
al
y
i
nt
oauni
o
nwi
t
hPi
edmo
nt
.
-Maz
z
i
ni
’
si
ns
pi
r
at
i
o
nmadeat
ho
us
andpeo
pl
ev
o
l
unt
eert
oj
o
i
nGar
i
b
al
dii
na
r
i
s
i
ngt
hatb
r
o
ug
htt
heKi
ng
do
mo
fNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
yi
nt
ouni
fi
c
at
i
o
n.
Cav
o
ur
-Pl
ay
edac
ent
r
alr
o
l
ei
nt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
npr
o
c
es
s
.Hes
t
r
eng
t
henedPi
edmo
nt
ec
o
no
mi
c
al
l
yandmi
l
i
t
ar
i
l
ys
oast
ot
hel
eadi
nuni
fi
c
at
i
o
n.Heal
s
ob
r
o
ug
hti
n
t
hefo
r
ei
g
npo
wer
st
og
i
v
es
uppo
r
tandas
s
i
s
t
anc
e.
Refo
r
msi
nPi
edmo
nt
-Pi
edmo
ntwast
heo
nl
ys
t
at
et
hatwasfr
eeo
fAus
t
r
i
ando
mi
nat
i
o
nb
ei
tdi
r
ec
t
o
ri
ndi
r
ec
t
.Thi
smade t
he s
t
at
eo
f Pi
edmo
nta nat
ur
all
eader o
ft
he
uni
fi
c
at
i
o
npr
o
c
es
s
.
-Cav
o
urwasawar
et
hatt
heeffo
r
t
st
ouni
fyIt
al
yi
n1848fai
l
edb
ec
aus
eIt
al
y
wast
o
oweakt
ouni
fyi
t
s
el
f.Thusheemb
ar
ked o
nar
efo
r
m pr
o
g
r
ammet
o
s
t
r
eng
t
henPi
edmo
nt
.
Co
mmer
c
eandIndus
t
r
y
-Hepr
o
mo
t
edt
hei
nt
er
es
t
so
ft
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
smanufac
t
ur
er
sandt
r
ader
s
.He
es
t
ab
l
i
s
hed s
t
at
eb
ankst
hati
nv
es
t
ed i
nr
ai
l
ways
,s
hi
ppi
ng l
i
nesand i
n
ag
r
i
c
ul
t
ur
e.
- Fr
eet
r
adet
r
eat
i
eswer
es
i
g
ned wi
t
h Eur
o
pean s
t
at
ess
uc
h asEng
l
and.
Infr
as
t
r
uc
t
ur
aldev
el
o
pmentwasi
ni
t
i
at
edt
hr
o
ug
ht
hec
o
ns
t
r
uc
t
i
o
no
fr
o
ads
75
andr
ai
l
ways
.
Mi
l
i
t
ar
yRefo
r
ms
-As
t
r
o
ngand pr
o
fes
s
i
o
nalar
my wasb
ui
l
t
.Itwasr
eequi
pped and t
he
pr
o
mo
t
i
o
no
ft
hemi
ddl
ec
l
as
so
ffi
c
er
swasmadeeas
i
er
.
Ai
msandAc
t
i
v
i
t
i
eso
fCav
o
ur
-Or
i
g
i
nal
l
yCav
o
urai
medatuni
fyi
ngIt
al
yi
nt
heNo
r
t
hunderPi
edmo
nt
.Hi
s
pl
anwast
odr
i
v
eAus
t
r
i
ao
uto
fLo
mb
ar
dyandVenet
i
aandt
henuni
t
et
hes
e
t
wos
t
at
eswi
t
hPi
edmo
nt
.
- To ac
hi
ev
et
hi
sCav
o
urr
el
i
ed o
n pl
anni
ng
.Hi
smet
ho
dswer
e warand
di
pl
o
mac
y.
WarandDi
pl
o
mac
y
-Par
t
i
c
i
pat
edi
nt
heCr
i
meanWaro
f1853-5.Thi
swarpr
o
v
i
dedhi
m wi
t
han
o
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yt
omaket
heIt
al
i
anc
aus
ekno
wnt
ot
heGr
eatpo
wer
s
.Hefo
ug
hto
n
t
hes
i
deo
ft
heGr
eatpo
wer
sag
ai
ns
tRus
s
i
a.ThePi
edmo
nt
es
ear
mywasv
er
y
i
mpr
es
s
i
v
e.Att
hePar
i
sPeac
eCo
nfer
enc
e,Cav
o
urmadet
heIt
al
i
an c
aus
e
kno
wnt
ot
heGr
eatpo
wer
sandear
nedt
hes
ympat
hyo
fBr
i
t
ai
n.
-Us
eddi
pl
o
mac
ywhenhemetNapo
l
eo
nIIIatPl
o
mb
i
er
esi
n1815.Thet
wo
l
eader
s ag
r
eed t
o dr
i
v
e Aus
t
r
i
ao
ut o
f It
al
yt
oc
r
eat
ea l
o
o
s
e It
al
i
an
Co
nfeder
at
i
o
n madeup o
f Pi
edmo
nt(
t
hatwo
ul
db
eg
i
v
en Lo
mb
ar
dyand
Venet
i
a)
,Tus
c
any
,t
hePapalS
t
at
es
,t
heKi
ng
do
mso
fNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
yandt
he
Duc
hi
eso
fPar
maandMo
dena
-TheCo
nfeder
at
i
o
nwast
ob
eheadedb
yt
hePo
pe.Fr
anc
ewo
ul
dg
etNi
c
eand
S
av
o
yfo
ri
t
seffo
r
t
s
.
-Cav
o
urand Napo
l
eo
nIIIus
ed wart
odr
i
v
eAus
t
r
i
ao
uto
fIt
al
yi
n1859.
76
Aus
t
r
i
awaspr
o
v
o
kedi
nt
odec
l
ar
i
ngwaro
nPi
edmo
nti
n1859t
her
eb
ymaki
ngi
t
t
heag
g
r
es
s
o
ri
nt
heeyeso
ft
heEur
o
peanpo
wer
s
.Fr
anc
ej
o
i
nedt
hewaro
nt
he
s
i
deo
fPi
edmo
nt
.Aus
t
r
i
awasdr
i
v
eno
uto
fLo
mb
ar
dyfo
l
l
o
wi
ngi
t
sdefeatat
t
heb
at
t
l
eo
fMag
ent
aandS
o
l
fer
i
no
.Butt
hent
heFr
enc
hs
uddenl
ywi
t
hdr
ew
fo
r
mt
hewarb
efo
r
et
heful
li
mpl
ement
at
i
o
no
ft
heag
r
eementwi
t
hCav
o
ur
.
Cav
o
urfel
tb
et
r
ayedandr
es
i
g
nedast
hePr
i
meMi
ni
s
t
ero
fPi
edmo
nt
.
Nev
er
t
hel
es
sPi
edmo
ntg
ai
ned Lo
mb
ar
dy fo
runi
fi
c
at
i
o
n wi
t
ht
he hel
po
f
Fr
anc
e.
.
-Thenex
tt
ob
euni
t
edunderPi
edmo
ntwasCent
r
alIt
al
yc
o
mpr
i
s
i
ngo
ft
he
Duc
hi
eso
fPar
ma,Mo
denaandTus
c
anyandpar
to
ft
hePapalS
t
at
eso
fUmb
r
i
a
andMar
c
hes
.Cent
r
alIt
al
ywasno
tpar
to
fCav
o
ur
’
so
r
i
g
i
nalpl
anasheo
nl
y
want
edt
ouni
t
eNo
r
t
her
nIt
al
yunderPi
edmo
nt
.Cent
r
alIt
al
ywasi
nc
l
udedi
nt
o
uni
o
n wi
t
h Pi
edmo
ntb
y Cav
o
ur b
yc
hanc
e.The defeatand t
he fo
r
c
ed
wi
t
hdr
awalo
ft
hemi
g
ht
yAus
t
r
i
ao
uto
fLo
mb
ar
dyi
ns
pi
r
ed t
hepeo
pl
eo
f
Cent
r
alIt
al
yt
or
i
s
eag
ai
ns
tt
hei
rr
ul
er
swhower
eal
lc
o
nnec
t
edt
oAus
t
r
i
a.
-Cav
o
ur
,whohadb
eenr
ec
al
l
edt
oo
ffi
c
e,t
o
o
kadv
ant
ag
eo
ft
her
i
s
i
ng
st
o
i
nc
l
udeCent
r
alIt
al
yi
nt
heuni
o
nunderPi
edmo
nt
.Onc
eag
ai
nheg
o
tt
hehel
p
o
ft
hefo
r
ei
g
npo
wer
s
.Br
i
t
ai
ns
t
o
ppedAus
t
r
i
afr
o
mi
nt
er
v
eni
ngt
hr
o
ug
hher
“
handso
ffIt
al
ypo
l
i
c
y”Thi
swasb
ec
aus
es
hewass
ympat
het
i
ct
ot
heIt
al
i
an
c
aus
e.Napo
l
eo
nIIal
s
og
o
ti
nv
o
l
v
edandc
ameupwi
t
ht
hei
deao
fapl
eb
i
s
c
i
t
ei
n
whi
c
ht
heCent
r
alIt
al
i
anpeo
pl
ewer
eg
i
v
enano
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yt
odec
i
deo
nt
hei
r
fut
ur
e.Cav
o
urwo
r
dedt
hepl
eb
i
s
c
i
t
ei
ns
uc
hawayt
hatav
o
t
efo
rauni
o
nwi
t
h
Pi
edmo
ntwasc
er
t
ai
n.Thepeo
pl
ewer
eg
i
v
ent
woc
ho
i
c
es
-t
or
ev
er
tt
oAus
t
r
i
an
r
ul
eo
rt
ouni
t
ewi
t
hPi
edmo
nt
.Ther
es
ul
twast
hatt
heyv
o
t
edo
v
er
whel
mi
ng
l
y
fo
rauni
o
nwi
t
hPi
edmo
nt
.Thust
heDuc
hi
eso
fPar
ma,Mo
denaandTus
c
any,
t
hePapalS
t
at
eso
fUmb
r
i
aandt
heMar
c
hesal
lj
o
i
nedt
heuni
o
nwi
t
hPi
edmo
nt
i
n1860.
-Cav
o
ural
s
ob
r
o
ug
htt
heKi
ng
do
mo
fNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
yi
nt
ouni
o
nb
yc
hanc
ei
n
1861.Thi
swasaft
ert
aki
ngadv
ant
ag
eo
fGar
i
b
al
di
’
sc
o
nques
to
fNapl
esand
S
i
c
i
l
yand hi
ss
ai
li
nt
ot
hemai
nl
and.Upo
n hi
sar
r
i
v
alo
nt
ot
hemai
nl
and
77
Gar
i
b
al
dihandedo
v
erNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
yo
uto
fl
o
yal
t
yt
oKi
ngVi
c
t
o
rEmmanuel
fo
rt
hemt
ob
ei
nc
l
udedi
nt
heuni
o
n.Whatr
emai
nedo
uto
ft
heuni
o
nwasRo
me.
Unt
i
lCav
o
ur
’
sdeat
hi
n1861t
hei
s
s
ueo
fRo
meandt
hato
ft
hePo
pewass
t
i
l
la
del
i
c
at
eo
ne.Unl
i
ket
henat
i
o
nal
i
s
t
so
f1848Cav
o
urav
o
i
dedc
o
nfr
o
nt
at
i
o
n.He
t
o
o
kpr
ec
aut
i
o
nar
ymeas
ur
est
opr
ev
entGar
i
b
al
difr
o
m at
t
ac
ki
ngRo
medur
i
ng
hi
ss
ai
li
nt
ot
hemai
nl
and.Gar
i
b
al
dii
nt
ended t
oat
t
ac
kRo
meand po
s
s
i
b
l
y
pr
o
c
l
ai
maRepub
l
i
c
.Int
hi
swayCav
o
urwasab
l
et
ouni
fyIt
al
yi
nawayt
hatdi
d
no
tat
t
r
ac
tt
hei
nt
er
v
ent
i
o
no
ft
heg
r
eatpo
wer
s
.
Ro
l
eo
ft
heFo
r
ei
g
nPo
wer
s
Fr
anc
e
-Pl
ayedat
wi
nr
o
l
eo
fai
di
ngando
b
s
t
r
uc
t
i
ngt
hepr
o
c
es
so
funi
fi
c
at
i
o
n.In
ai
di
ngFr
anc
eunderNapo
l
eo
nIIIs
i
g
nedanag
r
eementwi
t
hPi
edmo
nti
nwhi
c
h
t
heyag
r
eet
odr
i
v
eAus
t
r
i
ao
uto
fIt
al
yandt
henfo
r
m aCo
nfeder
at
i
o
no
ft
he
It
al
i
an s
t
at
es under t
he pr
es
i
denc
yo
ft
he Po
pe. The ag
r
eement was
i
mpl
ement
ed i
n 1859 when Fr
anc
e and Pi
edmo
ntfo
ug
htag
ai
ns
tAus
t
r
i
a.
Aus
t
r
i
a wasdr
i
v
en o
uto
fLo
mb
ar
dyfo
l
l
o
wi
ngi
t
sdefeatatt
heb
at
t
l
eo
f
Mag
ent
aandS
o
l
fer
i
no
.Ho
wev
erduet
os
o
mer
eas
o
ns
uc
hast
hefearo
ft
he
g
r
eatpo
wer
sNapo
l
eo
nIIIs
uddenl
ywi
t
hdr
ewfr
o
mt
hewar
.Thi
smo
v
ec
anb
e
v
i
ewedasb
ei
ngano
b
s
t
ac
l
ei
nt
hatNapo
l
eo
nIIIfai
l
edt
oho
no
urhi
spar
to
ft
he
b
ar
g
ai
nIet
hec
o
mpl
et
ewi
t
hdr
awo
fAus
t
r
i
afr
o
mIt
al
i
anaffai
r
s
.
-Fr
anc
eas
s
i
s
t
edi
nt
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
fCent
r
alIt
al
yt
ob
epar
to
ft
heuni
o
n.
Fo
l
l
o
wi
ngt
her
i
s
i
ng
si
nCent
r
alIt
al
yi
n1860,napo
l
eo
nIIIc
ameupwi
t
hani
dea
o
ft
hepl
eb
i
s
c
i
t
efo
rt
hepeo
pl
eo
fCent
r
alI
t
alt
odec
i
deo
nt
hei
rfut
ur
e.
Napo
l
eo
nIIIpr
es
i
dedo
v
ert
hepl
eb
i
s
c
i
t
esandt
hepeo
pl
ev
o
t
edfo
rauni
o
nwi
t
h
Pi
edmo
nt
.
-Ho
wev
erFr
anc
epl
ayedt
her
o
l
eo
fb
ei
ngano
b
s
t
ac
l
et
ot
hepr
o
c
es
so
ft
he
uni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y
.In 1848,Fr
anc
eal
o
ngwi
t
hRus
s
i
a and o
t
herc
at
ho
l
i
c
78
po
wer
ss
uc
hasS
pai
nandAus
t
r
i
ac
r
us
hedt
heRo
manRepub
l
i
cpr
o
c
l
ai
medb
y
Maz
z
i
niandGar
i
b
al
didur
i
ngt
he1848r
ev
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
.Theyr
es
t
o
r
edt
hePo
peb
ac
k
t
o hi
st
hr
o
ne wi
t
h ful
lpo
wer
s
.A Fr
enc
hg
ar
r
i
s
o
n wast
hen per
manent
l
y
s
t
at
i
o
ned i
n Ro
me t
opr
o
t
ec
thi
m.The c
o
nt
i
nued pr
es
enc
eo
ft
he Fr
enc
h
g
ar
r
i
s
o
ni
nRo
met
opr
o
t
ec
tt
hePo
per
emai
nedano
b
s
t
ac
l
et
ot
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
f
It
al
yunt
i
l1848wheni
twasev
ent
ual
l
ywi
t
hdr
awn.
Br
i
t
ai
n
-S
uppo
r
t
edt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
npr
o
c
es
st
hr
o
ug
hg
i
v
i
ngmo
r
als
uppo
r
taswel
lasher
“
handso
ffIt
al
y
”po
l
i
c
y.TheBr
i
t
i
s
hpo
l
i
c
yo
nIt
al
yb
eg
anatt
he1856Par
i
s
Peac
eCo
nfer
enc
eo
nt
heCr
i
mean War
.Itwasaft
erCav
o
urpr
es
ent
ed t
he
It
al
i
anc
aus
et
ot
hec
o
nfer
enc
e.
-Br
i
t
ai
ns
t
o
ppedAus
t
r
i
afr
o
ms
uppr
es
s
i
ngt
her
i
s
i
ng
si
nCent
r
alIt
al
y
t
hr
o
ug
hher“
handso
ffIt
al
y”po
l
i
c
y
.S
hewasal
s
oac
t
i
v
ei
n1860pl
eb
i
s
c
i
t
es
fo
rCent
r
alIt
al
yi
nwhi
c
ht
hepeo
pl
eo
v
er
whel
mi
ng
l
yv
o
t
edfo
rauni
o
nwi
t
h
pi
edmo
nt
.
-As
s
i
s
t
edi
nt
heGar
i
b
al
di
‘
ss
ai
li
nt
ot
hemai
nl
andb
ypr
o
v
i
di
nghi
mwi
t
ha
c
o
v
eri
nt
hefo
r
mo
ft
heBr
i
t
i
s
hfl
eet
.Thes
ai
lo
fGar
i
b
al
dic
ul
mi
nat
edi
n
hi
mhandi
ngo
v
erNapl
esandS
i
c
i
l
yt
ob
edr
aft
edi
nt
ot
heuni
o
n.
Pr
us
s
i
a
-Pr
us
s
i
aas
s
i
s
t
edi
nt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
yt
hr
o
ug
ht
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
fVenet
i
a
i
n1866.Ithadear
l
i
ero
nent
er
edi
nt
oanag
r
eementwi
t
hPi
edmo
nti
n1865i
n
whi
c
hi
tpr
o
mi
s
edt
og
i
v
epi
edmo
ntVenet
i
ai
fi
t
sar
myfi
g
ht
so
nt
hes
i
deo
f
Pr
us
s
i
ai
nt
hei
mpendi
ngwarb
et
weenPr
us
s
i
aandAus
t
r
i
a.Thusi
nt
heAus
t
r
o
Pr
us
s
i
anWaro
f1866,t
hePi
edmo
nt
es
ear
myunderGar
i
b
al
difo
ug
hto
nt
he
s
i
deo
fPr
us
s
i
a.Aus
t
r
i
awasdefeat
edandundert
het
r
eat
yo
fPr
ag
ueVenet
i
a
washandedo
v
ert
oPi
edmo
nt
.
79
-Pr
us
s
i
aal
s
ohadahandi
nt
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
fRo
mei
n1870.TheFr
anc
o
Pr
us
s
i
anwaro
f1870nec
es
s
i
t
at
edt
hewi
t
hdr
awalo
ft
heFr
enc
hg
ar
r
i
s
o
nfr
o
m
Ro
me.TheIt
al
i
anst
o
o
kadv
ant
ag
eo
ft
hewi
t
hdr
awalandi
nc
l
udedRo
mei
nt
he
uni
o
n.Wi
t
ht
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
f Venet
i
ai
n 1866 and o
f Ro
mei
n 1870 t
he
uni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
ywasc
o
mpl
et
ed.
Aus
t
r
i
a
-I
twasano
b
s
t
ac
l
et
ot
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y
.In1815t
heVi
ennas
et
t
l
ement
g
av
eAus
t
r
i
at
hedi
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fLo
mb
ar
dyandVenet
i
aandi
ndi
r
ec
tc
o
nt
r
o
l
o
fNapl
es
,S
i
c
i
l
yandCent
r
alIt
al
y.
-Its
uppr
es
s
edal
lt
hemo
v
ement
sfo
rt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
yi
n1819,1820,
1830,1840sand1848.
Pi
edmo
nt
-Itpr
o
v
i
dedt
hel
eader
s
hi
pr
o
l
e.Itpr
o
v
i
dedl
eader
ss
uc
hasCav
o
urandKi
ng
Vi
c
t
o
rEmmanuel
.Thes
el
eader
sus
eddi
pl
o
mac
yt
ob
r
i
ngfo
r
ei
g
nai
daswel
las
maki
ngus
eo
fo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
i
est
hatc
amet
hei
rwayiet
heCr
i
meanwar
,r
i
s
i
ng
si
n
Cent
r
alIt
al
y,Aus
t
r
o
-Pi
edmo
nt
es
eWaro
f1866andt
heFr
anc
o
-Pr
us
s
i
anwar
o
f1870.Theyal
s
oado
pt
edac
aut
i
o
usappr
o
ac
hwhendeal
i
ngwi
t
ht
hedel
i
c
at
e
c
as
eo
ft
hePapac
y.
- Pi
edmo
ntpr
o
v
i
ded an ar
myt
oenab
l
et
heIt
al
i
anst
opar
t
i
c
i
pat
ei
nt
he
Cr
i
mean Waro
f1853-5atwho
s
epeac
ec
o
nfer
enc
eCav
o
urhi
g
hl
i
g
ht
ed t
he
It
al
i
anc
aus
eb
efo
r
et
heg
r
eatpo
wer
s
.Thear
myal
s
oenab
l
edPi
edmo
ntt
ofi
g
ht
i
nt
heAus
t
r
o
-Pi
edmo
nt
es
eWaro
f1859t
hatl
edt
ot
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
fLo
mb
ar
dy
andt
heAus
t
r
o
-Pr
us
s
i
anWaro
f1866t
hatr
es
ul
t
edi
nt
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
fVenet
i
a.
-Pi
edmo
ntpr
o
v
i
dedt
hefi
nanc
i
alr
es
o
ur
c
esfo
runi
fi
c
at
i
o
n.Att
hes
amet
i
me
i
t
si
nfr
as
t
r
uc
t
ur
ei
nt
hefo
r
mo
ft
r
ans
po
r
tand c
o
mmuni
c
at
i
o
nenab
l
ed t
he
80
mo
v
emento
fg
o
o
ds
,weapo
ns
,t
r
o
o
psandi
nfo
r
mat
i
o
ndur
i
nguni
fi
c
at
i
o
n.
Gar
i
b
al
di
-Gar
i
b
al
diwast
heb
o
dyo
ft
hemo
v
ementfo
rt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
no
fIt
al
y.Hewas
t
hes
o
l
di
erneededi
nt
heuni
fi
c
at
i
o
npr
o
c
es
s
.Hefo
ug
hti
nt
hewar
st
hatl
edt
o
t
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
fIt
al
i
an t
er
r
i
t
o
r
yt
ob
ei
nc
l
uded i
nt
heuni
o
n.Hel
ed t
he
Pi
edmo
nt
es
ear
myi
nt
he1859warwi
t
hAus
t
r
i
at
hatl
edt
ot
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
f
Lo
mb
ar
dyand t
heAus
t
r
o
-Pi
edmo
nt
es
eWart
hatl
ed t
ot
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
f
Venet
i
a.
-Gar
i
b
al
diwasi
ns
t
r
ument
ali
nt
heac
qui
s
i
t
i
o
no
ft
heKi
ng
do
mo
fNapl
esand
S
i
c
i
l
yt
hathet
henhandedo
v
ert
oKi
ngVi
c
t
o
rEmmanuelt
ob
ei
nc
l
udedi
nt
he
uni
o
ni
n 1861.He c
o
nquer
ed Napl
esand S
i
c
i
l
y and t
hen s
ai
l
ed i
nt
ot
he
mai
nl
and.Upo
nhi
sar
r
i
v
alo
nt
ot
hemai
nl
andGar
i
b
al
dihandedo
v
erNapl
es
andS
i
c
i
l
yo
uto
fl
o
yal
t
yt
oKi
ngVi
c
t
o
rEmmanuelfo
rt
hemt
ob
ei
nc
l
udedi
nt
he
uni
o
n.
81